CHAPTER TWO

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS

2.1. Selecting the Research Topic

The range of potential topics for social research is a broad as social behavior. The general topic or research
problem of a given study may be suggested by either some practical concern or by some intellectual interest
or by both as is often the cause. Among the important factors influencing the researcher’s choice of a
research problem, the following may be pointed out here: His/her personal inclination and value judgments,
and certain social conditions may exert pressure to select one topic over another (e.g. prestige, recognition,
material reward, availability of funds, etc.).
Besides limiting the researcher’s freedom in selecting the research topic, the above factors are likely to
introduce bias into the study. In developing countries such as Ethiopia we are more concerned with applied
rather than with basic research, we will here attempt to identify some of the most important criteria that
researchers need to consider carefully in selecting their research topics. The following seven criteria could be
considered:
1. Topic Relevance:- the topic should be, as much as possible, relevant to the particular community or
society. In other words, it should address a priority problem. In ascertaining the relevance of a topic, the
following questions could be asked:
✓ How big is the problem?
✓ Who is affected by it?
✓ How severe is the problem?
2. Avoidance of Duplication:- Developing countries cannot afford to expend valuable resources or similar
studies on the same topic. It is important for us to find out, before deciding to carry out a study, whether
the proposed topic has been researched already. If it has, there may still be some room for studies aimed
at filling gaps in existing knowledge about the problem.
3. Feasibility:- Having chosen the topic, one also needs to consider the availability of resources (Local,
regional, national, and external) such as time, manpower, equipment, money, etc) that will be needed to
carry out the study.
4. Acceptability:- the proposed study has the greatest chance of succeeding if it is acceptable to and support
the first is political acceptability, while the second refers to cultural acceptability.

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 5. Applicability:- in applied research, the concern is obviously with whether or not the findings of the study
would be applied to resolution /amelioration of practical problems. Thought should be given to the
chances of implementing findings.
6. Cost-effectiveness:- are the resources that are to be expended on the study worthwhile given the results
that we expect?
7. Timeliness:- will the findings be available in time for us (or policy-makers) to make the necessary
decisions for action?

2.2. The Meaning of a Research Problem

The focal point of every research activity is a research problem. Research starts with a felt difficulty. It takes
place when there is a problematic situation and a need to solve the problem. Thus, a researcher must find the
problem and formulate it so that is becomes susceptible to research. But what is a research problem?
According to kotari (1990:30), a research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences
in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution it. Often we say
that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with.

Conditions for a Research Problem

1. There should be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or a problem.
2. There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem.
3. There must be an alternative means (or the course of action) for obtaining the objectives(s) one wishes
to attain, this means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no
choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives;
this means that research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible
alternatives.
5. There must be some environment (s) to which the directly pertains.

2.3. Selecting the Problem

In the research process, the first and for most step is the choice of a notable problem for investigation. The
identification of a research problem is an important phase of the entire research process. Therefore, a
considerable care must be taken while selecting a research problem. It requires a great deal of time, energy
and logical thinking on the part of the researcher. Practically speaking, several factors deter the selection of

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suitable problems by the researchers, especially for the beginners. These include limited knowledge of the
research process, unfamiliarity with the areas in which the research is needed, or lack of readiness for
problem selection, etc..

Sources of Selection of Research Problem

There are some important sources, which are helpful to a researcher for selecting a problem. These include the
following.
1. Professional Experience: one of the most fruitful sources of problems for beginning are his/her own
experiences as a professional in a given field. The day-to- day observation of the incidences in the
working place and out of the working environment, which include the experiences of his/her colleagues,
their attitudes, home environment, socio-economic status, and motivational level provide rich sources of
the problem.
2. Contact and Discussion with People: Contact and discussions with research –oriented people in
conferences, seminars or public lectures serve as important sources of problem. Moreover, active
membership in organizations which are concerned with the improvement of a given field usually brings
into close contact with crucial problems and issues concerning the field.
3. Inference from theory:A research problem can derived from a critical look into various
sociologicaltheories. In other words, application of some general principles involved in various theories to
specific situation makes an important starting point for research. For example learning theories,
personality theories, of intelligence, theories of motivation sociological theories and many others make an
excellent starting point for research in classroom situations, in light of this, an empirical research will help
to determine whether a particular theory can be translated in to actual practice in the classroom situation.
4. Professional Literature: Consultation of research reports, bibliographies of books and articles,
periodicals, research abstracts, yearbooks, dictionaries and research guides constitutes invaluable sources
of a research problem in a given field. The study of professional literature will not only expose a research
to pressing research problems but will suggest the way in which research is conducted.
5. Technological on Social Changes: Technological and social changes, directly or indirectly, exert an
influence in the function of an organization. All such changes bring about new problems for research. For
instance, changes my affect policy issues in which case they may arouse interest in investigating new
policies among the policy analysts or other concerned personalities. In general, the researcher has to make
every effort to come up with suitable research problem.
6. Familiarity with the Subject and Researchers Training: The subject selected for research should be
familiar and feasible so that the related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

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 The importance of subject, and the training of researcher, the costs involved, the time factor are few other
criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of
problem is done a researcher must ask himself or herself the following questions. Whether he/she is well
equipped in terms of his/ her background to carry out the research? Whether the study falls within the
budget he/she can afford? Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must
participate in research as subjects? If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may
become sure so far as the practicability of the study is concerned.
7. Preliminary Study: The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. Particularly
study. Particularly when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have available a set of well-
developed techniques, a brief feasibility study not have available be undertaken.
To sum up, the research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The problem selected
must involve the researcher and must have an uppermost place in his/her mind so that he/she may
undertake all pains needed for the study.

2.4. Definition of Statement of the Problem.

Following selection of the problem, there is a need for defining the research problem clearly. In this regard,
there is a proverbial statement that captures everybody’s attention that a problem clearly stated is a problem to
be investigated in unambiguous fashion. But when do we say that the problem is unambiguously stated? To
define a problem means to write it in a clear and precise manner so as to separate it from other relate topics.
You put a fence round it, to separate it by careful distinctions from like questions found in related situations of
need. In other words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a
researcher shall study the problem with a predetermined objective in view. A proper definition of the
research problem will enable the researcher to be on the right track whereas an ill-defined problem may create
hurdles.

Prerequisites for Defining a Problem

The following rules serve as the prerequisites for the definition of a problem.

1. Be sure that the topic chosen is neither too narrow nor too broad in scope.
2. To make the problem clearer and more understandable, state it as question, this requires a definite
answer.

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 3. Carefully state the limits of the problem, eliminating all aspects which will not be considered in the
study.
4. Define any special terms or concepts that must be used in the statement of the problem.
5. Definition of the problem involves the theatrical basis and underlying assumptions, and the research
question s.
6. A good statement of a problem must clarify what is to be determined or solved it must restrict the
scope of the study to specific and workable research questions. The most important step in this
direction is to specify the variables involved in the questions and define them in operational tams.

A good example of a research problem typically could be: “An analysis of the performance of high school
Geography students in Addis Ababa”.

2.5. Evaluation of the problem

Before the final decision is passed on the investigation of the problem, the feasibility of the problem has to be
tested in terms of personal suitability of the researcher and social value of the problem. The research problem
should be evaluated in terms of the following criteria.
1. Is the Problem Researchable? Some problem cannot be effectively solved through the process of
research. Particularly, research cannot provide answer to philosophical and ethical questions that do not
show the relationship existing between two or more variable vividly. Therefore, the problem must be
stated in workable research questions that can be answered empirically.
2. Is the Problem New? As far as possible, the research problem needs to be new. One should not target
his/her investigation on the problem that had already been thoroughly investigated by other researchers.
To be safe from such duplication, the researcher has to go through the records of previous studies in a
given field to select a topic. However, there are sometimes where a problem which has been investigated
in the past could be revisited. A researcher may repeat a study when he/she wants to verify its conclusions
or to extend the validity of its findings in a situation entirely different from the previous one.
3. Is the Problem Significant? The questions of significance of the problem usually relates to what a
researcher hopes to accomplish in a particular study. Is it so important? What new knowledge does he
hope to add to the sum total of what is known? And what value is this knowledge likely to have? When all
these questions are answered clearly by the researcher, the problem should be considered for investigation.
The researcher should show that the study is likely to fill in the gaps in the existing knowledge, to help
resolve some of the inconsistencies in previous research, or to help in the reinterpretation of the known
facts.

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4. Is the Problem Feasible for The Particular Researcher? In addition to the above-stipulate points, the
feasibility of the research problem should also be examined from the point of view of the researcher’s
personal aspects as stated hereunder.
a) Researcher Competence: The problem should be in an area in which the researcher is qualified and
competent. Before indulging into investigation of the problem, the researcher has to make sure that
he/she is well acquainted with the existing theories. Concepts and laws relate to the problem. He/she
must also possess the necessary skills and competencies that may be needed to develop, administer,
and interpret. The necessary data-gathering tools. What is more, he/she needs to consider whether he
has the necessary knowledge of research design and statistical procedure that may be required to carry
out the research through its completion.
b) Interest and Enthusiasm: The researcher has to make sure that the problem really interests him/her.
He/she must also be truly enthusiastic about the problem. If the problem is chosen properly by
observing these point, the research will not be a boring drudgery, rather it will be love’s lab our.
c) Financial Considerations: Research is an expensive endeavor which requires a great deal of money
to invest. In this regard, the researcher should ascertain whether he/she has the necessary financial
resources to curry on the investigation of the selected problem. An estimate of the expenditure
involved in data-gathering equipment, printing test materials, travel, and clerical assistance needs to be
specified. Furthermore, the possible sources of fund must be consulted ahead if time.
d) Time Requirements: Research should be undertaken within a given scope of time, which was
allocated with careful analysis of the prevailing situations. Each and every activity of a research
process requires time, particularly; it is worthwhile to plan for the time that will be needed for the
development and administration of tolls, processing and analysis of data, and writing of the research
report. While allocating time for a research project, care should be taken for the researcher’s other
engagements or commitments, the respondents’ accessibility, the expiry data of the required dare, etc.
e) Administrative Considerations: The researcher has to pay to all administrative matters that are
necessary to bring his/her study to its full completion. In this regard, the researcher should consider the
kinds of data, equipment, specialized personnel, and administrative facilities that are needed to
complete the study successfully. The researcher must assure whether the pertinent data are available
and accessible to him/her.

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2.6. The Hypotheses
Once the selection and definition of the problem have been accomplished, the derivation of working
hypotheses is the most important step in the research process.

2.6.1. What is Hypothesis?

According to Bailey/1982:41), the term hypothesis is defined as “a proposition that is stated in testable form
and predicts a particular relationship between two (or more) variables”. Similarly, Webster’s (1968) defines
hypothesis as a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
The above definitions ascertain the fact that a hypothesis is tentative explanation for which the evidence
necessary for testing it is at least potentially available. By test we mean either to confirm it to our satisfaction
or to prove it wrong. Hypotheses are conjectural statements that are amenable to empirical investigation e.g.
The Statement that 60 Present or, more of the residents of Addis Ababa attend worship services at least once a
week is a statement of purported fact and can therefore be tested. This statement could be taken as a
hypothesis. A statement, which is a value judgment, will not be considered as good hypothesis. E.g.
Accounting is a more important subject than Leadership.

The foregoing examples entail that research hypotheses need to be value-neutral and be capable of being
proven right or wrong on the basis of empirical evidence. Suppose a researcher plans to conduct research on
the following topic. “ Factors that contribute to lower achievement in ESLCE by female students than
male students in Tigray Regional state”. To search for the prevailing factors that affect the performance of
females more adversely than the performance of males, the researcher may suggest the following hypotheses.

1. Female students receive significantly less support to their education than that of their male counterparts.
2. Female students sustain significantly higher fashion role stereotypes in schools than do their male
counterparts. It should be noted that these hypotheses are taken as tentative solutions to the problem with
the understanding that the investigation in due course may lead either to their retention or rejection.

2.6.2. Derivation of Hypotheses.

The inspiration for hypotheses comes from a number of sources which include the following.
1. Experience: The daily life experiences or the day-to-day observation of the correlation (relationship)
between various phenomena leads the researcher to hypothesize a relationship and to conduct a study
to see if his/her suspicions are confirmed.
2. Past Research or Common Beliefs: hypotheses can also be inspired by tracing past research or by
commonly held lay beliefs. For example, a number of studies in America have shown that college

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 freshmen are more politically conservative than college seniors, suggesting a correlation between year
in school and political belief. Such hypothesis could be used either to replicate the past studies or to
extend the test of a familiar hypothesis to a sample of person with different characteristics (E.g
College students in other country)

3. Through Direct analysis of Data or Deduction from Existing theory.

Hypotheses may also be generated through direct analysis of data in the field or may be deduced from a
formal theory, through attentive reading the researcher may be able to get acquainted with relevant
theories, principles and facts that may alert him/her to identify valid hypotheses for his/her study.

2.6.3. Importance of Hypothesis

A well- grounded hypothesis provides the following advantages.
1. Represents specific objectives, which determine the nature of the data needed to test the
propositions.
2. Offers basis for selecting the sample the research procedures, and the statistical analysis needed.
3. Keeps the study restricted in scope thereby preventing it from becoming too broad?
4. Sets a frame work for reporting the conclusion of the study.

Criteria of Usable Hypotheses

Hypotheses can be useful if and only if they are carefully formulated. Traverse (1978) has forwarded seven
criteria for good hypotheses. These include.
1. Hypotheses should be clearly and precisely stated.
2. Hypotheses should be formulated in such a way that they can be tested or verified. They should be
testable.
3. Hypotheses should state explicitly the expected relationship between variables.
4. Hypotheses should be limited in scope. Hypotheses of global significance are not usable as they are not
specific and simple for testing and drawing conclusions.
5. Hypotheses should be consistent with most known facts. Hypotheses should be grounded in the well-
established facts. Theories or laws.
6. Hypotheses should be stated in simple terms. The simplicity of the statements makes it easily
understandable to others (readers), easily testable, and a clear and comprehended report at the
completion of the study.
7. Hypotheses selected should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time.

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 Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Research Hypothesis (Alternative Hypothesis): is generally what the analyst tries to prove or support by
gathering evidence. In statistics, this is called the alternative hypothesis, also known as the research
hypothesis (symbol H1).
Null hypothesis (symbol H0), are the hypothesis that complements the alternative or hypothesis of equality..
The statistical hypothesis statements are written as follows:
Ho: this is the null hypothesis (non-directional hypothesis)
H1: this is the alternative hypothesis( positive or negative hypothesis)
The null hypothesis (Ho) is a non-directional hypothesis that contains the equal sign, thus it is sometimes
referred to as the hypothesis of no difference or no effect

The alternative hypothesis (H1) is directional hypothesis that can be referred as the hypothesis of making
difference or has effect. It stands against the null hypothesis either in positively or negatively. This hypothesis
has to be tested through factual evidences so that whether reject or fail to reject the null.
If we reject the null hypothesis, we do so in favor of the alternative because the evidence we have gathered
supports the alternative. If we fail to reject the null hypothesis, we have insufficient evidence to support the
alternative. Thus the null hypothesis "presumes innocence until proven guilty."

In all statements of hypothesis tests, the alternative hypothesis:

1) Does not contain the equal sign.
2) Is the conclusion supported (must be true) when the null hypothesis is rejected (proven to be false).
Example: The statement of a research hypothesis can take any of the following forms.
Positive Form(alternative hypothesis)
H1 – the academic achievement of extroverts is significantly higher than that of introverts.
Null Form( null hypothesis)
Ho- There is no significant difference between the academic achievement of extroverts and introverts.

In general, when a researcher makes a positive statement about the outcome of the study, the hypothesis takes
the declarative form. When the researcher makes a statement that no significant difference exists, the
hypothesis takes the null form. It is important for the researcher to formulate hypotheses before data are
gathered. This is necessary for an objective and unbiased study.

Procedures of hypothesis testing:

1. Set up hypothesis: Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis

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This means that hypotheses should be clearly stated, considering the nature of the research problem. Example: The
average productivity of wheat at the national level is 40 quintal/ha. To evaluate Ambo district wheat productivity, from
120 smallholder farmer selected on random basis the average productivity was 33 quintal/ha. The district wants to know
if there is a significant difference between the local production and the national production. In such a situation the
hypotheses may be stated as under:
Null hypothesis H0: µ = 40
Alternative Hypothesis Ha: µ = 33
Note: The formulation of hypotheses indicates whether we should use a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test. If Ha is of
the type greater than (or of the type lesser than), we use a one-tailed test, but when Ha is of the type “whether greater or
smaller” then we use a two-tailed test.
2. Set up suitable significance level
The hypotheses are tested on a pre-determined level of significance and as such the same should be specified. Generally,
in practice, either 5% level or 1% level of significance is adopted widely.
3. Determine suitable test statistics
The choice generally remains between normal distribution and the t-distribution.
4. Determine the critical region
To determine the critical region, two-tailed and one tailed test are quite important. A two-tailed test rejects the null
hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypothesized value of the mean of the
population. Such a test is appropriate when the null hypothesis is some specified value and the alternative hypothesis is
a value not equal to the specified value of the null hypothesis. Symbolically, the two tailed test is appropriate when we
have H0:  =  H0 and Ha:   H0 which may mean   H0 or   H0. Thus, in a two-tailed test, there are two rejection
regions*, one on each tail of the curve which can be illustrated as under:

Mathematically we can state:

Acceptance Region A: Z ≤ 1.96

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 Rejection Region R: Z ≥ 1.96
If the significance level is 5 per cent and the two-tailed test is to be applied, the probability of the rejection area will be
0.05 (equally splitted on both tails of the curve as 0.025) and that of the acceptance region will be 0.95 as shown in the
above curve. If we take µ = 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from 100 in either direction, then we shall
reject the null hypothesis; but if the sample mean does not deviate significantly from , in that case we shall accept the
null hypothesis.

But there are situations when only one-tailed test is considered appropriate. A one-tailed test would be used when the
population mean is either lower than or higher than some hypothesized value. For instance, if our H 0: µ= µ H0 and Ha:
µ<µH 0, then we are interested in what is known as left-tailed test (where in there is one rejection region only on the left
tail) which can be illustrated as below: and H0: = H0 and Ha:    H 0 , we are then interested in what is known as one
tailed test (right tail)

Mathematically we can state:

Acceptance Region A: Z > -1.645
Rejection Region R :Z ≤-1.645
5. Making decision
Given a hypothesis H0 and an alternative hypothesis Hα, we make a rule which is known as decision rule
according to which we accept H0 (i.e., reject Hα) or reject H0 (i.e., accept Ha).If the calculated probability is
equal to or smaller than  value in case of one-tailed test (and  /2 in case of two-tailed test), then reject the

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null hypothesis (i.e., accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the calculated probability is greater, then accept
the null hypothesis.
Difficulties in formulating Hypothesis test:
Difficulties in the Formation of Useful Hypothesis: The following are the difficulties in the formation of
hypothesis:
1. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework.
2. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically.
3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to be able to phrase the
hypothesis properly.
2.2.1. Parametric and non parametric Tests
For numerical data, it is important to decide if they follow the parameters of the normal distribution curve
(Gaussian curve), in which case parametric tests are applied. If distribution of the data is not normal or if one
is not sure about the distribution, it is safer to use non-parametric tests.
Important parametric tests: The important parametric tests are: z-test, t-test, F-test, etc. All these tests are
based on the assumption of normality i.e., the source of data is considered to be normally distributed. In some
cases the population may not be normally distributed, yet the tests will be applicable on account of the fact
that we mostly deal with samples and the sampling distributions closely approach normal distributions.
a. z-test: is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the significance of several
statistical measures, particularly the mean. z-test is generally used for comparing the mean of a sample to
some hypothesized mean for the population in case of large sample, or when population variance is
known. z-test is also used for judging the significance of difference between means of two independent
samples in case of large samples, or when population variance is known. z-test is also used for comparing
the sample proportion to a theoretical value of population proportion or for judging the difference in
proportions of two independent samples when n happens to be large. Besides, this test may be used for
judging the significance of median, mode, coefficient of correlation and several other measures.
b. t-test: The t-test enables us to see whether two samples are different when you have data that are
continuous and normally distributed. The test allows you to compare the means and standard deviations
of the two groups to see whether there is a statistically significant difference between them. It is based on
t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging the significance of a sample mean or for
judging the significance of difference between the means of two samples in case of small sample(s) when
population variance is not known (in which case we use variance of the sample as an estimate of the
population variance). In case two samples are related, we use paired t-test (or what is known as difference

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 test) for judging the significance of the mean of difference between the two related samples. It can also be
used for judging the significance of the coefficients of simple and partial correlations. The relevant test
statistic, t, is calculated from the sample data and then compared with its probable value based on t-
distribution (to be read from the table that gives probable values of t for different levels of significance for
different degrees of freedom) at a specified level of significance for concerning degrees of freedom for
accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis. It may be noted that t-test applies only in case of small
sample(s) when population variance is unknown.
c. F-test: is based on F-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the two-independent samples.
This test is also used in the context of analysis of variance (ANOVA) for judging the significance of more
than two sample means at one and the same time. It is also used for judging the significance of multiple
correlation coefficients. Test statistic, F, is calculated and compared with its probable value (to be seen in
the F-ratio tables for different degrees of freedom for greater and smaller variances at specified level of
significance) for accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis.
Non parametric Tests: Nonparametric tests have some distinct advantages. Outcomes that are ordinal,
ranked, subject to outliers or measured imprecisely are difficult to analyze with parametric methods. With
outcomes such as those described above, nonparametric tests may be the only way to analyze these data. Non
parametric do not assume that the data is normally distributed.
Reasons to Use Nonparametric Tests
If have ordinal data, frequency counts, ranked data, or
When there are outliers that you can’t remove
When the assumptions are not met, specifically: Normality and Homogeneity of variance
Important non parametric tests
a. 2 –test: the chi-squared test is used with categorical data to see whether any difference in frequencies
between your sets of results is due to chance. It is based on chi-square distribution and as a parametric test is
used for comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance. 2 - test is also used as a test of
goodness of fit and also as a test of independence in which case it is a non-parametric test.
b. Spearman Rank correlation: Used when you want to find a correlation between two sets of data
c. Mann–Whitney U-test: The Mann–Whitney U-test is similar to the t-test. It is used when comparing
ordinal data (i.e data that can be ranked or has some sort of rating scale) that are not normally distributed. This
test is used to determine whether two independent samples have been drawn from the same population.
Research Questions

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Before you begin writing a grant proposal, take some time to map out your research strategy. A good first step
is to formulate a research question.

A Research Question is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied. For example, “What
resources are helpful to new and minority drug abuse researchers?”
To develop a strong research question from your ideas, you should ask yourself these things:
Do I know the field and its literature well?
What are the important research questions in my field?
What areas need further exploration?
Could my study fill a gap? Lead to greater understanding?
Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic area?
Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for improvement?
Is the timing right for this question to be answered? Is it a hot topic, or is it becoming obsolete?
Would funding sources be interested?
If you are proposing a service program, is the target community interested?
Most importantly, will my study have a significant impact on the field?
✓ Use “Wh” question is setting your research question
✓ Avoid usage of Yes or No questions
✓ To make the research manageable the average number of basic research question should be 3-5.

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