Rotary Friction Welding Review.

A REVIEW OF FRICTION WELDING RESEARCH ADDRESSING THE
INFLUENCE, DEVELOPMENT, SIMILAR & DISSIMILAR WELDING

S. Senthil Murugan1*, P. Sathiya2
1
Rajalakshmi Engineering College (Autonomous), Chennai - 602105, Tamilnadu, India
2
National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli - 620015, Tamilnadu, India
*Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This review paper discusses the recent research work carried out in the frictional
joining of dissimilar and similar alloys through the friction welding (FW) process
with various parameters and modifications. It includes further the latest developments
and advances in the research on FW and the influences of FW’s process parameters
on the quality of joints and their properties. The specimens’ faying surfaces can also
influence the joint properties as the surface modifications stimulate or change the
metal joints’ bonding according to the welding parameters selected during FW.
Though the rise of friction pressure (FP) during FW improves the strength of the
joints, the improper selection of parameters leads to metal damage. It feels better if
the axial shortening is less than 30 mm for FW of soft metals. The axial shortening
values are less than 25 mm for the hemispherical bowl-type faying surfaces under 18
bar FP and it is noted that the bevel-type tapered faying surfaces increase the
shortening. FW provided very narrow weld interfaces with around 5-10 µm width.
With a low FP, it was possible to obtain a maximum of 100 % efficiency by modifying
their faying surfaces. The small-diameter soft material needs less FP and friction
time. The microstructure modification is possible and the weld joint is shown as U
and V shapes for the bowl and tapered faying surfaces. It further increases the contact
area and thus increases strength.
KEYWORDS: faying surfaces, friction welding, dissimilar alloys, mechanical, heat

affected zone
1. INTRODUCTION knowledge is necessary to recognize the optimum

parameters for improving the design of joining
The frictional joining of metals is successfully possible dissimilar materials. The works related to faying
due to the frictional effect generated by the rotary surface modifications on dissimilar weld specimens
action and it is more admired owing to its benefits, for were not widely found in the literature. It is tricky to
instance, ease of controlling the parameters, less metal join ferrous austenitic stainless steel 304 and 316 alloys
wastage, less fabrication time required and high with non-ferrous aluminium 6000 serious dissimilar
production rate, the possibility of dissimilar metal metals using conventional fusion welding techniques
joining, and admirable weld performance [1]. The since they have different properties and compositions.
significant issues to be considered during FW comprise It forms brittle intermetallic compounds at the weld
the development of brittle intermetallic in the weld interface (WI) at high temperatures. As a result, joining
interface (WI), the width of the heat-affected zone such dissimilar alloys is a challenging task with
(HAZ) and the interface temperature [2]. However, FW maximum joining efficiency.
has the worth of producing sound joints No research was found on FW with surface
(dissimilar/similar) with narrow HAZ, thermo- modifications like buttering or dip coating, tapering
mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) and minor and deep recess combinations, tapering, interlayer with
intermetallic at low interface temperature. In rotary Cr, threaded surfaces, and hemispherical for AA6063
friction welding (RFW) (Fig. 1), the coalescence is & AISI304L. These research gaps are fulfilled by this
attained by the synergic effects of a relative motion investigation.
between the parts to be welded and the pressure. Various combinations of dissimilar materials,
In FW, both temperatures generated and the joined by FW, was witnessed through the literature
stresses developed govern the welding parameters, so survey, and presented in Table 1.
© Galati University Press, 2023 65

Date of submission/acceptance: 11.02.2023/22.12.2023 https://doi.org/10.35219/awet.2023.07
ANNALS OF “DUNAREA DE JOS” UNIVERSITY OF GALATI FASCICLE XII
Fig. 1. Graphic image of rotary friction welding set-up (a - rod diameter, b - length of samples to be welded)
Table 1. Combinations of Dissimilar metals joining research through FW
Combinations of dissimilar metals for the research Authors and year

Ferritic Stainless Steel and Austenitic Stainless Steel Manideep D. and Balachandar K. 2012 [1]
Aluminium and brass Wang G L et al. [2]
316L Austenitic Stainless Steel and 1045 Medium Gawhar Ibraheem Khidhir, and Sherko.A. Baban
Carbon Steel 2019 [3]
AA2024 alloy and SS304 steel Chennakesava R. Alavala 2016 [4]
AA5052 alloy and AISI 304 Honggang Dong et al. 2020 [5]
AA6061 and AISI304 Madhusudhan G. Reddy et al. 2008 [6]
AISI4340 and AA6061 -T6 Suresh D. Meshram and Madhusudhan Reddy G.
2015 [7]
AA6061-T6 matrix composite and AISI304 Kannan P et al. 2015 [8]
AA6063 and AISI304L Senthil et al. 2020 [9]
AA6082 and Ti-6Al-4V Meisnar M et al. 2017 [10]
AISI1018 steel and AA6061-T6 alloy Emel Taban et al. 2010 [11]
AISI1020 and ASTM A536 Radosław Winiczenko 2016 [12]
AISI304 and AA6063 Kimura M et al. 2006 [13]
AISI304L and AISI1040 Jeswin Alphy James, and Sudhish R 2016 [14]
AISI304L and P91 alloy steel Javed Akram et al. 2017 [15]
Alumina-Mullite Composite and AA6061 Marjan Safarzadeh et al. 2016 [16]
SAE1020 Steel and Aluminum 6351- T6 Marlon A. Pinheiro and Alexandre Q. Bracarense
2019 [17]
Brass and High Carbon Steel Jian Luo et al. 2012 [18]
C44300 copper alloy and AA7075-T651 alloy Radhakrishnan. E et al. 2019 [19]
Carbon Steel to Stainless Hong Ma et al. 2015 [20]
Stainless steel and aluminium Mumin Sahin 2009 [21]
copper and aluminium Mumin Sahin 2010 [22]
Copper and Aluminum Longwei Pan et al. 2018 [23]
Mild Steel and Al6061 and Alumina Hazman Seli et al. 2013 [24]
Mild Steel and Aluminium Hazman Seli et al. 2010 [25]
mild steel and titanium Prasanthi T. N. et al. 2015 [26]
P91 and Nickel Akram J et al. 2018 [27]
Pure aluminium and SS304 Kimura M et al. 2017 [28]
Pure magnesium and pure aluminium Kimura M et al. 2015 [29]
Ni-based superalloy and heat-resistant steel Kimura M et al. 2019 [30]
Ti-6Al-4V and SS304L Kumar R and Balasubramanian M 2015 [31]
Tini Alloy to Stainless Steel Fukumoto S et al. 2010 [32]
Titanium and AISI304 Muralimohan CH et al. 2016 [33]
TZM Mo-base powder alloy and H11 mould steel Fu Li and Du Suigeng 2001 [34]
66 VOLUME 34 (YEAR XXXIV) 2023

ISSN print: 1221-4639, ISSN online: 2668-6163 WELDING EQUIPMENT AND TECHNOLOGY
2. DEVELOPMENTS IN FW RESEARCH According to Daniel Soares de Alcantara et al.

[42], the FW process is an experimentally proved
The researchers claimed that the finite element method concept. The friction between the faying surfaces can
(FEM) and Python can also be used to model a joint alter the deformation depending on the weld material
with high quality and predict the microstructure and viscosity during the welding. The vibration signals
temperature distribution [35, 36]. The grain refinement caused by the dynamic behaviour of the FW machine
is also possible by the frictional joining; it was proved such as speed, forging axial pressures etc. can be
that the grain construction and the recrystallization are converted into other required information. Long
the main microstructure modifications due to the FW duration in welding (friction time) and high rotational
[37]. A victorious weld between the dissimilar speed in rpm produce lower vibration amplitude. It was
materials is as strong as the soft materials of the two recorded that the high vibration energy is generated
being joined. The research informed us that the quality during the frictional joining stage in the FW and
of the weld obtained can be checked and the crack can produces the changes in the thermo-mechanical
be found with the help of the image segmentation couples. The amplitude of vibration is higher at the
technique as the coefficient of friction (COF) between centre rather than in the outer region during the joining
the metals during FW is major [38]. The complexity of process. According to Wei Zou and Werner Karl
joining dissimilar metals depends on the excellence of Schomburg [43], there was a development in the FW
the transition zone in the joint and the intermetallic machine with a sensor of piezoelectric and pyroelectric
phases that take place in this transition zone. For this polymer polyvinylidene fluoride. The significance of
case, a discontinuous layer structured during the FW this sensor arrangement is to measure the temperature
between pure Al/ Fe at the joint interface created the developed during the friction between the faying
failure almost at the joints [39]. Dissimilar welding is surfaces of the weld specimens and to measure the
successful only if there is mutual solubility of the two shear stress formed during the process. Apart from this,
metals [40]. But if there is no solubility or little other advantages are monitoring the duration of
between the two different metals that are to be joined, starting and stopping the process, dynamic activity,
the weld joint will not be successful. Otherwise, it is heating and cooling rate monitoring etc. The time-
necessary to use a third metal as an interlayer that is measuring accuracy was about 100 kHz. With the help
soluble with each metal to fabricate a successful joint. of this advancement, the optimum pressure can be
The transition zone (TZ) has to be studied to find out obtained for the process. A new method was developed
its crack sensitivity, strength and susceptibility to in friction welding (inertia) to address the efficiency
corrosion [41]. If the coefficient of thermal expansion with a torque load cell attached to the non-rotating
(CTE) of both materials is extensively unlike, then workpiece, while the rotating part is determined by the
there would be internal stresses set up in the deceleration rate of the flywheel. Another new
intermetallic zone during any temperature change of technique called friction crush welding (FCW) offers
the weldment. Thermal expansion plays a vital role in versatile applications in welding sheet metals [44].
the failures of the dissimilar weld by developing high Koen Faes and his team of Denys NV developed a new
stress at the weld interface [27]. If the intermetallic FW technique called FRIEX (Figure 2.a-c [45]), a new
zone is brittle it may lead to weld failure soon. The friction welding method for joining similar/dissimilar
dissimilarity in the melting point of dissimilar metals pipes in various sizes. As the pipes are too long, it is
to be joined must be considered since one metal will be difficult to weld using conventional FW, so the FRIEX
in the molten stage long before the other when was implemented.
subjected to the same heat amount.
Fig. 2. FRIEX process: a) principle; b) pipe welding; c) macrostructure [45]
3. FW OF SIMILAR METALS improves the welding efficiency by above 70%.

Iracheta. O et al. [47] used inertia FW (IFW) to weld
Koshiro Aoki and Takuyu Koezawa [46] studied the CrMoV-based steel and developed a finite element
effect of the FW technique in joining equal channel model to predict the residual stress during the IFW. The
angular extrusion (ECAE) deformed 6063-T5 authors did some research on welding TC-17 titanium
aluminium alloy, and reported that the ECAE process alloy by linear FW (LFW) and measured the internal
VOLUME 34 (YEAR XXXIV) 2023 67

residual stress distribution using the contour method. Radoslaw Winiczenko and Mieczyslaw Kaczorowski
Gianluca Buffa et al. [48] used the LFW process for [57] studied the FW of ductile cast iron with pure
joining the aluminium 2011-T3 alloy to identify the Armco iron, stainless steel, and low-carbon steel
temperature-dependent friction coefficient and shear interlayers. Though the diffusion took place in a short
stress acting on the weld zone. This research is used to duration, the amount of diffusion was huge enough
understand the bonding mechanism of the LFW with good plastic deformation. Chromium carbide due
process. Supriya Nandy et al. [49] researched AA6063 to the carbon atom was formed in the grain boundaries.
alloy to predict yield strength through the classical The interface of stainless-steel interlayer and ductile
model and Orowan model. Their research concluded cast iron had the transmission of chromium and nickel
that the Orowan model is better to predict the yield elements across its boundary.
strength and the results are useful to develop maps for Mumin Sahin [58] proved the FW of plastically
thermal processing to attain a needed level of yield deformed austenitic stainless steel alloys and studied
strength for AA6063 alloy for the joining. Gianluca the microstructure, hardness and tensile strength of the
Buffa et al. [50] developed a numerical integrated tool joint. The author tried welding the alloy at different
for forecasting the weld quality in joining AA6082 diameter ratios. The tensile strength of the joint
aluminium alloy through the FW process. The decreased since the diameter ratio increased. The
effectiveness of the tool was explained in their results showed that the weld specimens having equal
research. Prashanth. K.G et al. [51] did FW of Al-12Si diameters had maximum strength equal to 795 MPa at
metal generated by selective laser melting process. The 60 MPa friction pressure and 9 sec. Friction time. The
results showed an improvement in ductility whereas improvement in grains due to the frictional effect could
the drop in hardness in the weld interface compared to be seen in the microstructures of weld regions, but the
the base metal. plastic deformation of stainless steel alloy used in this
Feng Jin et al. [52] experimented on the DDFW study showed no effect on the hardness values and the
of SUS304 in the diameter of ϕ25 mm at 80 MPa. A 2D FW parameters. Ma. T.J. et al. [59] did linear FW of
FEA model was constructed to simulate the thermo- the nickel-based superalloy at the friction force of 16
mechanical coupling during welding. The results show tons. Microstructures showed the fine grain structures
that the corona-bond develops and fills out the in weld zones. Thermo-mechanically affected zones
interface, in which the temperature is rising. According (TMAZ) showed no deformation. It was reported that
to the research of Peng Li et al. [53], the sound weld Fe2AL5 intermetallic was confirmed along the grain
joint of AlCoCrFeNi2.1 eutectic high entropy alloy boundaries, which reduced the joint property. The
(EHEA) is possible by rotary FW (RFW). Mohammed Tensile and Vickers hardness of the joint were low
Asif. M. et al. [54] did research on the effect of heat in compared to the base metal. The research disclosed that
the preparation of UNS S31803 duplex stainless steel the long duration of friction time was showing
using the FW process. They found that the grain unsatisfactory results. Tiejun Ma et al. [60] studied the
refinement was possible by the increase in heat and performance of the joint of single-crystal nickel-based
thus it increases the microhardness near the weld alloy fabricated through the linear FW process. A
interface. The corrosion resistance was much better in polycrystalline microstructure was formed in the weld
the weld zone than that of base metal with the increase zone due to the thermal and mechanical effects during
of heat during FW. The research also suggested the the welding. The results showed that the hardness and
frictional joining of the plastically deformed materials tensile values were low as compared to base nickel
using metal forming processes like equal channel alloy. The weld contained carbides and oxides.
angular process, equal channel angular extrusion, etc, Xiawei Yang, et al. [61] used ABAQUS software
such kind of research was done by Mumin Sahin et al. to study the finite element modelling of the FW (linear)
[55]. They joined the aluminium 5083 alloy that was of GH4169 alloy. The temperature distribution of the
severely deformed for one pass by the equal channel process was studied through the developed 2D thermo-
angular pressing method. They found that the mechanical model. The authors experimentally studied
mechanical properties were improved due to the the micro, macro and axial shortening of the friction-
deformation process in addition to refining the grains. welded joints. The friction time increased the heat
It was known that if the pass level in the equal channel conduction in the materials and the flash extruded at
process was increased as one-pass, two-pass etc., then 1.75 sec FW time. The shear stress during the welding
the joining yielded higher hardness and strength. was major up to the welding time of 0.75 sec. Through
Raab. U et al. [56] did research on the joining of the microstructures, the presence of the fine-grained
titanium (Ti) alloy through both orbital and linear FW structures was found at the flash and the weld interface
processes with identical weld parameters and their zones. Yanni Wei et al. [62] utilized a continuous drive
results were compared. The results showed that orbital FW machine to join aluminium and copper at different
FW needed a shorter time for the weld preparation welding conditions. Joint performance was studied
compared to linear FW and the heat generation was through SEM, EDS and X-ray diffraction (XRD)
also more due to the orbital speed. The continuous techniques. There was no defect found. The
orbital speed improved much stronger than that of the temperature at the weld interface during the welding
reciprocating speed in the linear FW process. was in the range of 375-450°C. CuAl2 and Cu9Al4

phases were found in the joints through EDS and XRD. versa in the GTAW joint with heterogeneous
This research proved the prediction of Cu-Al phases microhardness.
through the Gibbs free energy model. According to Ramsey. F. Hamade et al. [68],
Stinville. J.C. et al. [63] did the welding of a Ti- generally, plastic pipes are being joined by the fusion
6Al-4V titanium alloy plate using the linear FW process and showed the improvement in the plastic
process and studied the fatigue behaviour of a similar pipe joining by friction heating process with good
joint. The report said that the crack propagation and joining quality. The author compared the advantages of
nucleation were not found in the weld interface and the FW over the butt welding fusion process in joining
Thermomechanical Affected Zone (TMAZ), but it plastic pipes. In the case of energy consumption, rotary
happened in the base metal region which was mainly FW showed almost one-tenth less compared to butt
by the welding conditions. According to the fatigue welding. So, the impact of FW on the environment and
conditions, the fracture occurred where the from an economic point of view was understood. Ho
accumulation of strains was higher and the maximum Thi My Nu et al. [69] studied the joining of a similar
strain accumulation was found in the TMAZ. Daniela Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy, which was a high-strength
Ramminger Pissanti et al. [64] did the FW of S32205 alloy, through the rotary FW process. The authors
stainless steel (pipe girth). They studied the indicated the significance of the rotary FW of this
microstructure and Charpy v-notch test at 0°C titanium alloy as the fusion welding yielded poor
temperature. The results showed a modification in the properties. They developed a thermo-mechanical
microstructures which depended on the plastic model to predict the temperature gradients while
deformation formed and the high temperature. There welding. The strength of the friction-welded Ti-6Al-
was a reduction in the impact strength of the joint due 4V joint was greater compared to the base alloy. The
to the formation of ferrite and the changes in the upset can be produced in titanium welding by the
austenite phase in the microstructure. The fractography higher forging pressure. This research recommended
study showed the cleavage fracture in the impact-tested having small forging pressure during the rotary FW
specimen. According to Xujing Nan et al. [65], the process.
maximum entropy production principle called MEPP Xiangjun Xu et al. [70] studied the feasibility of
can be used for the development of a 2D finite element the FW process on the alloy TiAl (high Nb). The
model with the use of DEFORM software in the joining microstructure and tensile properties were evaluated.
of GH4169 super alloy by continuous drive FW All the weld joints had a transition zone between the
process. The effect of friction pressure and linear speed severely deformed zone and the parent or base metal in
in the process was observed. The results showed that the range of a few microns. The joint’s tensile strength
less frictional time was required when the linear speed was higher than that of base metal. The bi-concave lens
was approximately 2.0 m/s and the friction pressure geometry formation was identified through the
increased. The transition temperature was higher than microstructure. According to the fractography, the
the recrystallization temperature. fracture took place in the base metal with a brittle
Yu Su et al. [66] linear-friction welded the fracture. The grain size increased with the increase of
titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-2Zr) and studied the joint distance from the sever-deformed zone. Selvamani
performance through microstructure and mechanical S.T. et al. [71] joined low chromium carbon AISI
properties. The results showed that the grains were 52100 steel by FW and studied the corrosion
refined due to the thermo-mechanical effect. There was behaviour. Plain carbon steel can be replaced by this
a difference in the microstructure of the base metal and kind of metal, so the frictional joining of this steel is
the weld zone. The strength was higher in the weld needed in the automobile industry. An empirical
zone than that of the base metal as the breakage relation was developed for the ease of predicting the
happened at the base metal during the tensile testing. optimized parameters. The friction pressure (FP) was
Further, the impact energy absorption of the joint was more than that of forge pressure (FOP) about 0.5
also increased by 19% when compared to the base MPa/sec time and these parameters produced a
titanium alloy. Carlos Alexandre Pereira de Moraes et maximum notch tensile strength of 710 MPa. The
al. [67] did a comparative study of residual stress results showed that the chuck rotational speed had
assessment between the FW (FW) and gas tungsten arc much more effect on the tensile strength followed by
welding (GTAW). For this, the metal API 5L X65 pipe FP and FOP. The small grains of 11 µm showed a
girth was wielded by both gas-tungsten arc welding maximum hardness of about 310 HV. Further, the
and FW and each of them gave distinct residual electrochemical impedance showed 72% of charge
stresses. To find the residual stresses X-ray diffraction transfer for the welded joints.
was used and a microhardness and microstructure
study was done on the weld specimen. It was noted that 4. FW OF DISSIMILAR METALS
there was no porosity in the joint prepared by FW, but
some porosity was found in the joints by the GTAW. One of the most notable advancements in FW research
The microhardness was increased and lower residual is its application to dissimilar materials. This
stresses were found in the FW joint and these are vice development has opened up new possibilities for
joining materials with vastly different properties,

enabling the creation of hybrid structures that optimize transgranular mode of fracture was observed and the
the strengths of each material. Researchers have made damage was mainly due to the cavity growth.
significant strides in understanding the challenges and Muralimohan.CH et al. [77] did work to joint stainless
solutions for dissimilar FW, making it an invaluable steel and titanium with electroplated Ni interlayer
process for industries requiring such combinations. through the FW process. The results showed a decrease
The literature stated the need for joining dissimilar in interlayer thickness when FT increased and the TS
metals and described the research with different increased with the increase of UP. The fracture study
material combinations like aluminium to stainless on the tensile-tested samples showed a brittle mode.
steel, carbon steel to aluminium, steel to copper alloys, Feng Jin et al. [52] experimented on the DDFW
aluminium to copper alloys, aluminium to magnesium, of SUS304 in the diameter of ϕ25 mm at 80 MPa. A
and carbon steel to stainless steel etc. [72]. The 2D finite element analysis (FEA) model was
possibility of joining alumina composite with AA6061 constructed to simulate the thermo-mechanical
alloy by the FW is proved through the study conducted coupling during welding. The results show that the
and the study inferred that the interface was thick and corona bond develops and fills out the interface, in
had a mixture of silicon (Si), magnesium (Mg), and which the temperature is rising. Alloy 42CrMo steel
aluminium (Al) oxide [73]. However, the plastic and Ni-based superalloy K418 were joined by inertia
deformed zone (FPDZ) zone, which is a contrast to the FW by Yuhan Ding et al. [78]. Intermetallic
deformed zone (DZ), was identified in the weld compounds and carbides like NbC and TiC were found
interface. Wei Guo et al. [74] did a study on joining at the interface with a diffusion layer. Rajesh Jesudoss
7A04 aluminium alloy and AZ31 magnesium alloy Hynes and Shenbaga Velu P [79] welded alumina and
dissimilar welding by inertia FW (IFW). The steel with an aluminium interlayer and developed a
intermetallics Al12Mg17 and Al3Mg2 were identified in numerical model to study the thermo-mechanical
the weld interface and their layer thickness was behaviour of the weld. Zhida Liang et al. [76] studied
decreased in micron size (µm) when increasing FP. the continuous drive FW of AZ31B magnesium alloys
According to Andrzej Ambroziak et al. [75], in the to AA5A33 aluminium alloys and reported that the
dissimilar joining of steel with aluminium, the fragile tensile strength was increased with the increase of
intermetallic leads to weld degradation. Emel Taban et friction time (5 sec) and the formed intermetallics
al. [11] confirmed the formation of Al-Fe improved the hardness of the joints. Radosław
intermetallics related to FeAl and Fe2Al5 through their Winiczenko [12] achieved 87% joint efficiency when
investigation of joining AA6061 alloy with AISI1018 joining AISI1020 with A536 dissimilar alloys, in the
steel. The effects of softening on AA6063 and study the author found the diffusion of carbon from
hardening on AA5052 were identified through their iron to steel through EDS. The significance of the
research and also proved that the pressure reduction process is a small amount of the base metal is heated
narrowed down the thickness of the softened HAZ. and that which is melted is thrown from the joint,
Maximum tensile strength of 250 MPa was achieved. therefore, the intermetallic material is kept to a very
Zhida Liang et al. [76] evaluated the FW feasibility minimum. Prasanthi et al. [26] successfully welded
of joining pure Aluminium-1060 and AZ31B Mild steel with a titanium rod of ϕ10mm x100mm
Magnesium dissimilar joints. The performance of the using the FW process. Through the study, they
joints was characterized by microstructures and confirmed the formation of a fine FeTi intermetallic
mechanical tests. During the experiments, forge and phase at the weld interface and the hardness value of
friction pressures were varied and 2800 rpm speed and 350 VHN at the interface was obtained. Kundu.S and
10 sec friction time were constant. The Al-Mg Chatterjee.S [80] welded titanium and SS304 alloys
intermetallics like Mg2Al3, Al12Mg17 etc. were found at with ‘Ni’ interlayer. Through their research, it was
the interface region, and intermetallic phases were not identified that the Ni interlayer did not block the
benefiting to improve the properties of the joints. The diffusion of Titanium to the stainless steel side. In their
increase in friction and forging pressure decreased the study, the strength of a weld joint would drop with an
thickness of the intermetallic. If the thickness of the increase in joining temperature because of the
intermetallic layer was higher, then it weakened the formation of Fe-Ti brittle intermetallic.
strength of the bonding. A tensile strength of 138 MPa A broad investigation was performed by Xinyu
was obtained as a maximum with 77% joint efficiency. Wang et al. [81] on Ti-6.5Al-3.5Mo-1.5Zr-0.3Si
Meisnar M et al. [10] proved in their research that the titanium alloy joined by linear FW (LFW). The results
possibility of joining dissimilar FW with no showed that friction pressure refines the grains in the
intermetallics compounds (IMC) and having the grain weldment efficiently and the sound LFW joint is not
refinement and elongation in the vicinity of weld possible at low shear velocity, but it is possible to
interface when did research on joining AA6082 and Ti- reduce the width of the Thermo mechanically-affected
6Al-4V for aerospace applications. The study showed zone (TMAZ) by friction pressure, and shear velocity.
the possibility of residual stress in solid-state welding Marlon A. Pinheiro and Alexandre. Q. Bracarense [17]
also. Javed Akram et al. [15] welded dissimilar metals studied the influence of the surface contact geometry
P21 and SS304 and analysed the creep behaviour of the (faying modifications) of joining Al.6351/1020 steel
joints. Through their work, they implied that a through FW and accepted that the geometry on the

contact pin would influence the mechanical properties. increasing the wettability during FW. The failure took
Alloy 42CrMo steel and Ni-based superalloy K418 place at the alumina and pure aluminium interface.
were joined by inertia FW by Yuhan Ding et al. [78]. It was a tough task of welding high-density (16-17
Intermetallic compounds and carbides like NbC and g/cm3) tungsten heavy alloy and low-density (2.7
TiC were found at the interface with a diffusion layer. g/cm3) aluminium dissimilar alloys. Radoslaw
Nanotechnology research is about depositing Winiczenko et al. [85] frictionally welded aluminium
nanolayer films on specimens to reduce defects during alloy with tungsten heavy alloy and studied the micro
FW [82]. Many explorations have been tried in FW and mechanical performance of the joints. Around 84
with the interlayer. When TiNi alloy is welded to % of joint efficiency was achieved maximum with
stainless steel, a large amount of brittle Fe2Ti good bonding. Friction pressure of 40 MPa and 3.5 sec.
intermetallics, which is brittle, at the weld interface, friction time showed maximum strength. it had to be
would be formed [32]. Fu Li and Du Suigeng [34] noted that the increase of friction pressure increased the
studied the performance of molybdenum and die alloy tensile strength of the joint and gradually decreased
dissimilar joints through a continuous drive FW after reaching the maximum level. No intermetallic
process and obtained defect-free joints with good was found at the weld interface except the Fe-Ni
strength. The authors identified the grain refinement element enrichment and no diffusion of tungsten into
near the weld interface. Jeswin Alphy James and the aluminium side was found. Tran Hung Tra and
Sudhish. R [14] studied the effect of interlayers in the Motoki Sakaguchi [86] fabricated the friction-welded
frictional joining of AISI304L and AISI1040 dissimilar joint of metals Inconel-718 and M247 and
dissimilar alloys. The research concluded that the analysed the fatigue property of the joint. The fracture
nickel interlayer increased the tensile strength with happened in the M247 base metal instead of the joint.
maximum burn-off length and decreased the hardness The joint showed good strength and properties under
at the weld interface. The reason behind the hardness high cycle at 700°C. Jian Luo et al. [18] joined high
reduction was the chromium carbide precipitation by carbon steel (HCS) with brass metal through inertia
nickel. FW. The character of the weld interface was analysed.
Hazman Seli et al. [24] developed a thermo- Some weld defects like trench-shaped holes were in the
mechanical finite element model to evaluate the joint. The holes were formed due to the insufficient
friction-welded alumina/mild steel dissimilar joints. In frictional effect. The phases with copper (Cr) and iron
this research, the AA6061 sheet was used as an (Fe) compounds were found in the weld interface.
interlayer to improve the bonding strength. Through Longwei Pan et al. [23] frictionally (Rotary) joined
the model, the temperature distribution was simulated aluminium and copper metals. The maximum strength
and the highest deformation, strain and stress were and elongation obtained through this research were 88
found in the heat-affected zone of the joint. The FW MPa and 20%. As mentioned in some of the literature,
can be successfully used for the joining of composite the strength of the joint could be reduced due to the
materials. Rotundo. F et al. (2013) [83] studied the wide thickness of intermetallic. Fractography showed
dissimilar welding of aluminium matrix composite the net-like fracture at the centre of the tensile fractured
(AA2124 aluminium alloy + 25% by Vol. silicon samples. Most of the intermetallic formed during the
carbide particles) and the AA2024 aluminium alloy FW were CuAl2 and Cu9Al4. It was further mentioned
using an FW machine. The prepared joint quality was in this article that the preheating temperature could
analysed and the results showed that no blending was decrease the strength and elongation and increase
found between composite and aluminium alloy and the intermetallic thickness.
mechanical testing also proved that the frictional Peng Li et al. [87] fabricated the titanium (TC4
joining was feasible for the composite metal joining alloy) with 316L steel dissimilar joints through rotary
with good weld properties. Further, it was noted that FW. The structure and mechanical characterisation
the addition of silicon carbide particles in the were done on the welded joints with and without post-
composite restricted the plastic flow and the fracture heat treatment. A different interface was found i.e. the
happened near the TMAZ region of the weld joint. concave and convex shapes were formed at 316L and
Peng Li et al. [84] did research to weld copper and TC4 alloy sides. The results showed that the post-weld
alumina dissimilar metals with AA1100 aluminium heat treatment highly increased the value of tensile up
interlayer through a continuous/direct drive FW to a maximum of 419 MPa as compared to the strength
process. The tensile strength of the joint, of 117 MPa for the joints without heat treatment. Some
microstructures at the interface and fracture of joints of the intermetallic like Fe2Ti, AlTi3, Fe-Ti, and FeNi3
were evaluated. The results showed that micro cracks were found at the weld interface and decreased the
were available in the weld zone due to the thermo- weld strength. The brittle cleavage fracture mode was
mechanical coupling and the joints with good bonding. observed during the fracture analysis. The post-heat
The authors found that 12 MPa friction pressure and 12 treatment helped attain a homogeneous structure in the
sec friction time were the optimized parameters weld. Radhakrishnan. E et al. [19] studied the FW
providing maximum strength. The pure aluminium between the C44300 alloy tube and the AA7075 alloy
interlayer improved the strength and bonding by tube plate. They studied the hardness and strength of
the joint with and threading on the tube plates. The

results showed that the compressive strength was al. [30] studied the frictional joining effect on the
higher for the joint with thread. The rotation speed led tensile strength of the friction-welded joint of nickel-
to having better weld strength than other parameters. based super-alloy and heat-resistant steel. The results
The sample with low speed produced maximum showed that there was no crack in the joint and the
hardness at the weld interface. The microstructure effect of welding parameters on the dissimilar joint.
study showed fine grain refinement and good bonding The phenomenon of the joining process was identical
at the interface. The threaded joint had no defects. This for both friction pressures 30 MPa and 90 MPa. When
study helped consider the effect of different friction the forge pressure was equal to the friction pressure in
rotational speeds on mechanical and microstructure the process, it did not show 100% joint efficiency
characterisation during the FW of joining dissimilar during the welding, but 100% joint efficiency was
tubes and tube plates. achieved for 3 sec. friction time with 360 MPa forge
Mumin Sahin [22], did research on the dissimilar pressure. It was identified that the nature of the weld
joining of aluminium and copper through the FW region whether softened or hardened depends on the
process at 60 MPa friction pressure on 10 mm diameter friction time.
rods and found that the axial shortening of the From an application point of view, FW is more
aluminium side was more than the copper side through helpful. Yoshihiko Hangai et al. [91] fabricated
the macro and microstructures examination; this was AA1050 aluminium tubes filled with Al-Si-Cu alloy
mainly due to the low melting point of aluminium than foam by the FW process. During the welding process,
copper. Thus, the aluminium metal expelled more no deformation was found on the metal. The holding
flash. The elongated grain near the weld interface of time and the holding temperature of the foaming
the aluminium side was also found. The brittle process influenced the sound tube fabrication. The
intermetallic Fe3Al was further found in the aluminium suggested holding time and temperature were about
zone. It further showed the mixed layer of fracture with 510 sec. and 675°C. Senthil Kumaran.S et al. [92]
brittleness on the aluminium side during the tensile predicted the tensile value of friction-welded dissimilar
testing. Maximum tensile strength of 140 MPa was joints made of SA387 tube plate and SA213 tube. This
obtained through this research. Pandiarajan.S et al. [88] research confirmed the possibility of welding tube
welded the metals SA213 (tube) and SA387 (tube plates with a tube in a fast and easy manner without
plate) by friction welded process as per the L9 defects. The input parameters considered for the
orthogonal array and found that the welded joints had joining were a projection of the tube, rotational speed,
no defects. Microstructure and mechanical properties and depth of cut, and the strength was the output
were studied. The authors experimented with two parameter. From the results obtained, it was informed
modes; one was with holes and another one was that the grain refinement in the weld zone improved the
without holes on the circumference of the tubes. The tensile strength of the joint with a maximum of 839
results showed that the projection of the tube during the MPa. The genetic algorithm was used for the prediction
welding was the most influencing factor and identified and the deviation between the obtained value and the
the fine grains near the weld interface. The joint experimental value were minimal. Yingping Ji et al.
without holes on the circumference showed higher (2016) [93] welded the dissimilar titanium alloys Ti-
hardness and strength compared to that of joints with 6Al-4V Ti-5Al-4Mo-4Cr-2Sn-2Zr through FW (linear)
holes. Rajesh Jesudoss Hynes and Shenbaga Velu. P and studied their microstructure and mechanical
[89] welded the titanium Ti/6Al/4V alloy with AA6061 properties of the joints. Microstructures showed that
aluminium alloy by rotary FW and studied the effect of the larger grain refinement and the smaller grains were
the speed of weld specimen rotation. The results found found in the weld zones than in the thermo-
an increase in the friction heat at the centre of the joint mechanically affected zone. The strength of the joint
while the rotational speed increased. The equiaxed was higher than the base alloy. The failure happened at
grain structure was formed in the joint. Phases like approximately a 1.20 mm distance from the weld joint
TiAl and Ti3Al were found at the interface. It was line. The fracture study showed a mixed pattern of
stated that a speed of 100 rpm was needed to attain trans. and intergranular fracture in the weld joint. The
improved strength and impact toughness. impact toughness was recorded as a minimum for the
Efe Isik and Cicek Ozes [90] successfully welded weld joint having the mixture fracture than the base
(rotary friction) the hot-forged steel tube yoke with weld metal having transgranular fracture mode.
cold-drawn steel tube (thin-walled) available in Stefano Rossi et al. [94] studied the corrosion-
automobiles. This is considered a dissimilar frictional fatigue behaviour of the friction-welded dissimilar
joining from an application point of view as both joints made of ASTM A105-AISI304 alloys. This
components are different and as per the manufactured study acts as a tutorial for developing an effective set-
method of steel. A maximum of 553 HV was achieved up for the corrosion-fatigue behaviour study. The
along the weld joint and the fatigue life of the joint was results showed the effect of cathodic protection on
estimated at 220 cycles at a 72 MPa shear stress. The fatigue behaviour improvement. The failure analysis
least strength was less than the base alloy of about stated that the failure happened in the plastic zone of
13%. The heat-affected zone length of the tube yoke the weld interface itself instead of at the parent metal.
side was less than the tube side (2 mm). Kimura. M. et Packiaraj Rajendran et al. [95] studied the tensile,

hardness and axial shortening of the friction-welded and found that an intermetallic compound layer (IMC)
dissimilar joints of low-carbon steel and tool steel. The was developed at the joining interface of the weld,
study informed that the maximum strength obtained and a thicker IMC layer was observed while
was 341 MPa which was higher than the base metals. increasing rotational speed. Kimura et al. [2] joined
The microhardness was increasing on the tool steel side aluminium 6063 and stainless steel 304 dissimilar
2 mm distance away from the weld joint. Brittle alloys through the FW process and achieved 100%
intermetallic formed reducing the hardness and the efficiency with good joints. Honggang Dong et al., [5]
strength and the fracture also showed the brittle mode. studied the linear growth of the Fe4Al13 phase in the
Rajesh Jesudoss Hyne. N et al. [96] proposed a joining of 5052 aluminium alloy and 304-stainless steel
numerical simulation in the FW process to study the by rotary FW with post-weld heat treatment.
joining phenomenon of ceramics with pure metals or The intermetallic compound formations can be
alloys. This simulation was mainly to analyse (finite reduced with the application of interlayers. When
element) the thermal behaviour of the joints based on Nickel (Ni) interlayer is used it changes the
the heat generated during the process. It was suggested microstructure at the weld interface area and improves
that the aluminium metal sheets could be applied to the joint strength. Many trials ended up improving the
improve the wettability nature of the FW and the dissimilar weld strength like welding with a compatible
analysis was done at different interlayer thicknesses. interlayer [7], [98] introduced in between both the
The results showed that the increase in thickness metals during DDFW, which, in turn, is called three-
reduced the heat-affected zone of the joint and element FW. Kannan P et al. [99] studied the effect of
increased the strength with maximum efficiency. silver interlayer in the joining of AA6061 metal matrix
composite with AISI304 by FW. Through the research,
5. FW OF ALUMINIUM AND the authors reported that the Ag interlayer decreases the
STAINLESS STEEL particle fracture and frictional coefficient.
Aluminium is a non-ferrous metal; stainless steel

mainly consists of Nickel, Chromium; lastly, iron is
burse ferrous metal. It is difficult to weld both
dissimilar metals by traditional welding techniques due
to their different chemical metal compositions. The
research was done on the weld feasibility test and
showed that it is possible to weld aluminium with
stainless steel using rotary friction welding (RFW)
with no scar, no defects and a narrow heat-affected
Fig. 4. AISI304L/AA6063 dissimilar RFW joint: a)
zone. As aluminium is a soft material, there is the
before machining; b) after machining [9]
penetration of stainless steel (hard metal) into the soft
metal.
Fig. 5. Aluminium-iron binary diagram [100], [101]

Fig. 3. Overlap penetration of AISI304L into AA6063
soft alloy during dissimilar RFW joint: a) before
Kumar. R and Balasubramanian. M [31]
penetration with frictional force; b) penetration due to
stated that the copper interlayer also can impart
frictional effect [9]
excellent bonding during FW and it prevents the
martensitic stages in HAZ which is narrow. Figure 4
In figure 3 (a, b), it is shown that the penetration
shows the dissimilar joint of AA6063 (non-ferrous
that usually happens during the FW of aluminium with
aluminium) and AISI304L (ferrous austenitic stainless
stainless steel and with excess metal as a flash comes
steel) alloys. The welding specimens of dia. ɸ12 mm
out. Yong Liu et al. [97] did research on
were 100 mm in length each and finally, the dissimilar
aluminium/stainless steel dissimilar metals with IFW

weldment (after RFW) had a length of 175 mm. spacecraft and cryogenic applications and welding of
Around 24 mm was noted as material loss/axial both metals was not possible by fusion welding. The
shortening. Figure 5 shows the Fe-Al binary phase results showed that the Ag interlayer produced a strong
diagram [100, 101] that is having intermetallic. and ductile joint compared to others. The reason was
According to Xiaolin Li et al. [102], at Al-rich in the Ni and Cu interlayer formed the NiAl3 and CuAl2
phase diagram, the complex intermetallic compounds brittle intermetallic at the weld interface and the Ag
available are FeAl, Fe5Al8, FeAl2, Fe2Al5, and Fe4Al13. stopped the development of Fe2Al5 intermetallic in the
Mantra Prasad Satpathy et al. [103] did a study on AA6061/SS304 dissimilar joint.
joining Aluminium 3003 alloy and AISI304 steel alloy Frictional force in the form of stirring may be used
sheets using a copper interlayer employing a solid-state in the preparation of dissimilar lap joints. Raju Prasad
welding process. The results showed that superior Mahto et al. [106] studied the effect of friction stir-lap
plastic deformation and microhardness are higher in welding in joining AA6061 and AISI304 alloys. The
the parent metal than in the weld zone. The interfacial results showed that the quasi-cleavage fracture was
failure occurred in the weld interface, which failure found at the low joining speed, but the ductile fracture
was dependent on friction time. mode was shown through SEM images when the speed
Suresh D. Meshram et al. [7] joined AA6061 and was at maximum. The micron-level intermetallic like
AISI4340 by the FW with a silver (Ag) interlayer and Al-Fe and Al5Fe were confirmed by point energy
proved that Ag replaced Fe2Al5 intermetallic and dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The main benefit of
magnesium content in the aluminium side thus this friction stir-lap welding was the generation of low
reducing the width of the intermetallic layer and heat near the weld region which in turn reduced the
increasing tensile strength. The introduction of the intermetallic thickness. The fractures happened outside
nickel interlayer improves the mechanical property by the weld interface.
replacing the Fe2Ti phase [32]. Kimura M et al. [28] According to Reddy Prasad K and Sridhar V.G
worked on the joining of aluminium (pure) to SS304 [107], FW is advisable in the welding of dissimilar
steel and evaluated the tensile strength and the bend alloy combinations like aluminium and steel. The
ductility of the joint. Through that study, it is observed heating profile on the aluminium side is huge in the
that the maximum joint efficiency was obtained at joining of aluminium alloy with stainless steel; this is
about 80% as 100% could not be possible due to the because of the high thermal conductivity of aluminium.
decrease in tensile strength of pure aluminium. The The heat generation is involving directly the quality of
weld interface temperature reached a maximum with the weld prepared, and it is the combination of friction
an increase in friction time. The maximum temperature pressure, rotational speed and FW time.
on the weld interface was about 300°C at 2 sec. friction Shubhavardhan R.N and Surendran.S [108] joined
time during FW. The main intermetallic developed aluminium 6082 with AISI304 metals through the FW
when joining aluminium (Al.) and stainless steel (SS) process at the parameters 80 MPa friction pressure, 5
dissimilar metals are FeAl (Fe rich), FeAl2, Fe3Al, sec. friction time, 1500 rpm rotational speed, upset
FeAl16, Fe2Al5 (Al. rich), Fe2Al3, and FeAl3. These time (5 to 8 sec.) and upset pressure (150 to 300 MPa).
intermetallic may weaken the weld strength, thus it is The tensile and impact energy observations were
necessary to choose the welding technique which is studied in addition to the microstructural analysis. The
suitable for improving the weld quality by reducing the tensile strength obtained was the maximum of 192
intermetallic formation and narrowing the HAZ. MPa. The results showed the initial increase in joint
Hardik Vyas et al. [104] joined aluminium 6063 strength while increasing upset time and upset pressure
and stainless steel 304L dissimilar pipes through a gradually decreased. A maximum of 12 J was achieved
continuous drive FW process. They found that there at the 180 MPa upset pressure. It was also mentioned
was no crack or defects in the welded joints. The that the upset times tried in this study could not
enormous aluminium flash was developed by the large generate the required heat for the joining at the
deformation due to the frictional force. The method upsetting phase. The accumulation of FeAl
yielded 60% joint efficiency and 15% elongation at intermetallic at the joint interface had reduced the
350 rpm. strength.
Karthik. G. M.et al. [105] introduced a new Eder Paduan Alves et al. [109] studied the
buttering method in their research of joining austenitic temperature gradients during the FW of AA1050 and
stainless steel and Al-Cu-Mg alloy. It was reported that AISI304L alloy using a thermocouple data logger at
the buttering method showed its effect on the low pressures of about 2.1 MPa and 52 sec. AA1050 is
performance of the joint and it eased the joining of pure aluminium and commercially available with a soft
metals. nature. Through this research, they found that the
Madhusudhan G. Reddy et al. [6] studied the maximum temperature at the weld interface was about
influence of Cu, Ni and Ag interlayers formed by the 375°C and further announced that the heating rate
electroplating process in the joining of aluminium 6061 reached the maximum in the first 10 seconds of the
with stainless steel (SS) 304 by direct drive FW welding process.
process. The authors mentioned that the combination Honggang Dong et al. [110] studied the rotary FW
of aluminium and stainless steel is widely used in of AA5052 alloy and AISI304 alloy. The

microstructure and mechanical characterizations were pressure had a greater influence on the tensile strength
studied. The formations of phases Fe4Al13, and Fe2Al5 of joints followed by friction time. Bennett C [121]
were found. The centre and edge locations of the weld researched inertia FW on CrMoV alloy and concluded
joints were analysed. The brittle intermetallic was not that when high pressure was used for the welding, the
developed in the centre of the joint, but the phases with HAZ width was reduced. Changbao Song et al. [122]
more thickness were identified towards the edges near analysed atomic diffusion behaviour, plastic
the weld flash from the centre, 99.5% of joint deformation, and temperature change while welding
efficiency was obtained. The heat-affected zone was between titanium (Ti) based alloys with linear FW.
thinner on the AISI304 side rather than the side of the Their investigation revealed that the deformed area of
AA5052 alloy. The fracture study stated that the failure the welded zone was increased with the increase of
was there in the R/4 location from the centre with a friction time and also Ti showed higher diffusion
brittle fracture. ability than that of Aluminium. Friction time
substantially affects the quality of the weld.
6. INFLUENCE OF FW PARAMETERS Adrian Lis et al. [123] did work on linear FW with
250 Hz oscillation frequency for joining AA5052 and
Friction and upset pressures, and friction time, upset AA6063 and found that the sound joint was achieved
time and the rotating speed, burn-off length are the FW at 30 MPa friction pressure and discussed the
parameters that dominate the microstructural and importance of frictional time. The effects of softening
mechanical properties of the welded joints [111] and on AA6063 and hardening on AA5052 were identified
they are varied for optimizing the welding process to through their research and also proved that the pressure
get a strong joint [112]. According to Peng Li et al. reduction narrowed down the thickness of the softened
[113], initially, the required process parameters have to HAZ. Kimura M et al. [2] identified that if the heating
be selected by the try-and-error method in the rotary time increases then the weld interface becomes thicker.
FW process and the authors developed a model and the Interface temperature increases with FT while joining
mathematical expressions for estimating the heat by FW, it was noted that the heating time increases the
generation at the weld interface during the rotary FW flash of the joint. In the joining of A6063/304SS
process. When operating with high friction pressure, materials, the efficiency of friction welded joints
the quantity of the released heat, as well as extruded increased with the increase of FT, but the efficiency
metal heat, is also increasing [114]. Serdar Mercan et and the bending ductility can be improved by the UP.
al. [115] evaluated the influence of FW parameters The friction pressure (FP) shows a direct effect on the
when joining AISI2205 alloy with AISI1020 alloy. tensile strength (TS) of the AISI 1020-ASTM A536
According to them, if the welding parameters are joint but upset force decreases the TS. When FP
selected correctly considering the materials to be increased, the value of TS also increased. There is a
welded and the geometrical dimension of the weld possibility to increase TS by increasing friction time
specimen, then they would improve the performance of (FT) [12]. During the joining of pure Al. and pure Fe
the weld joint. However, during the FW of aluminium with DDFW, there was a formation of a discontinuous
and steel, there is some possibility of forming a thin layer in the interface and the TS increased with the
layer of brittle intermetallic compounds [116]. Friction increase of pressure.
time, upset time, burn-off length and speed are the An extensive investigation was performed by
parameters controlling the FW efficiency [8]. For Xinyu Wang et al. [81] on Ti-6.5Al-3.5Mo-1.5Zr-
instance, the creation of FeAl3 brittle IMC may be 0.3Si titanium alloy joined by linear FW (LFW). The
controlled by increasing the speed [29, 117]. results showed that friction pressure refines the grains
Kimura M et al. [2] studied the importance of in the weldment efficiently and the sound LFW joint is
friction time (FT) in joining AA6063 with SS304 at not possible at low shear velocity. It is possible to
friction pressure 30 MPa and concluded that when reduce the width of the Thermomechanical Affected
friction time increases the weld interface temperature Zone (TMAZ) by friction pressure, and shear velocity.
also increases, which in turn softens the weld interface. Gawhar and Sherko [3] joined 316L steel to 1045
Peak temperature and cooling rate play a vital role steel and the fracture took place near the thermo-
since they influence the residual stress in the welded mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), but the author
joint. Some trial was also tried by Ajith P.M et al. [118] discussed that the forge pressure increases the
to weld S32205 duplex stainless steel and the study hardness. Palanivel. R et al. [124] investigated the
said that the percentage contribution of input effect of welding parameters on the tensile strength of
parameters, for instance, upset pressure (47%) and friction-welded titanium tubes. From their research, it
friction pressure (27%) were dominating majorly. was known that the rotational speed influences the
Rupinder Singh et al. [119] have done work on joining weld flash and the weld zone geometry. The size and
dissimilar polymer materials with FW. The maximum the ring shape of the flash were increased with the
values were obtained at 1200 rpm and for 4 sec time. increase in speed. The amount of deformed metal was
Paventhan R et al. [120] welded AA6082 alloy and increased due to the increase in rotational speed, which
AISI 304 dissimilar joints with FW and found through in turn plasticized the material and increased the
response surface methodology (RSM) that friction material ejection. The higher speed reduced the grain

size and improved the hardness. The friction time mechanical properties of the various similar and
increased the size of the weld zone. In this titanium dissimilar joints like AA6061-AA6061 alloy, Al.6061-
frictional joining, the grain size was further reduced matrix composite (AMC)-AA6061 combination,
and tensile strength increased when the friction time AMC-AMC. Notch tensile strength and fatigue
increased. strength of the joints were evaluated. The friction
Peng Li et al. [84] stated in their research that when pressure showed its effect on the tensile property of all
the friction pressure and friction time increased the the joints, but upset pressure showed its effect only on
tensile strength of the dissimilar joint (copper-pure the notch tensile strength of the joint with the AA6061-
aluminium-alumina) and the optimized welding AA6061 alloy combination. The variation in friction
parameters were obtained. time did not affect the notch tensile strength values of
Raji Reddy et al. [125] strongly mentioned that any joint. The dissimilar combination had lower-notch
FW process parameters must influence the weld tensile strength compared to others. The fatigue
quality. The authors did a study on the influence of FW strength of frictionally welded joints was low as
parameters on the impact toughness while joining pre- compared to the base metals.
heated 15CDV6 alloy. The maximum toughness value Chennakesava R. Alavala [4] studied the influence
was achieved as 53 Joule and the preheating process of parameters in the frictional joining of AA2024 alloy
also helped improve the toughness value. The with SS304. The ANSYS analysis software was used
parameters upset force and the burn-off length showed in this research to the weldability through the finite
more effect on the joint toughness. element method. The parameters considered were
Romero. J et al. [126] studied the effect of forging friction pressure, friction time, forging pressure and
pressure in the joining of titanium alloy (Ti.6AL.4V) rotational speed. Here, the ratio of forging pressure
through the linear FW process and found the (Pfo) and the friction pressure (Pf) was above the one of
relationship between forging pressure and the residual 1.25, 1.5, and 1.7. The bulk deformation decreased
stress developed during welding. Forging pressure when the forge pressure increased and the rotational
showed its effect in the generation of weld alpha- speed increased. The research further stated the
titanium element texture along the weld line. If the importance of the Pfo/Pf ratio and its influence on the
forge pressure is low the texture is strong. Weld zone property of the joint and the friction time and rotational
width and the development of residual stress were speed were also influencing the process.
decreased with the increase of forging pressure. The Deepak Mani and Ananthapadmanaban.D [128]
research also confirmed the decrease in weld studied the mechanism of FW between aluminium and
temperature when the pressure increased. stainless steel and mentioned that friction pressure was
Marjan Safarzadeh et al. [16] studied the effect of more important in improving tensile strength. The
friction rotational speed on the properties of composite thickness and type of the intermetallic phases formed
(Alumina+ Mullite) and aluminium 6061 alloy during the welding at the weld interface can also
dissimilar joints. It was noted that the fracture influence the strength of the joints and it was reported
propagates along the cleavage planes at low frictional that Fe2Al5 was the common phase during the welding
speed whereas the dimple structure was formed at high between aluminium alloy with 304 austenitic stainless
speed and the higher rotational speed improved the steel.
bending property and the hardness of the friction Palanivel. R et al. [129] studied the mechanical and
welded joints. microstructure properties of friction-welded titanium
Uday. M. B et al. [73] tried to join 25%, and 50% tubes. Through this research, it was confirmed the
alumina (Al2O3 ceramic) reinforced yttria-stabilized significance of FW in joining thin tubes. It was stated
zirconia with aluminium 6061 alloys using an FW that the speed of the weld specimen in the chuck
machine. For joining, rotational speed was maintained showed its effect on the weld bonding and the
from 900 to 1800 rpm, friction pressure was constant microstructure. While the chuck rotation increased, the
at 7 MPa, and the friction time was 30 sec. The frictional torque production decreased and this
microstructure and mechanical properties were phenomenon thus increased the welding time. It was
evaluated. The results showed that the strength of the informed that the higher rotational speed improved the
joint was good at the low rotational speed. The rate of fine grain refinement in the centre of the weld joint
deformation was high on the Al.6061 side. The rather than the coarse grain in the outer region of the
rotational speed during FW increased the frictional joint near the flash. The grain sizes of 2.5 µm and 1.2
heat between the weld surfaces and showed changes in µm were obtained for the speeds of 1600 rpm and 2800
the interface thickness. Further, the speed increased rpm, respectively. An increase in speed decreased grain
grain refinement. The bending strength could be size. Similarly, maximum microhardness was achieved
increased at a low speed and the joint specimen of a at the speed of 2800 rpm. There was no change in the
low percentage of alumina showed the maximum formation of the grains between the heat-affected zone
bending strength. The effect of the rotational speed was and the parent zone in the weld joint. A maximum of
thoroughly understood through the performance of the 98% weld efficiency was obtained for the maximum
joint. As per the research done by Zhou. Y et al. [127] rotational speed. From the research, it could be
using FW, the welding parameters were influencing the understood that the rotational speed parameter was one

of the important parameters that affected the weld usually affects the accumulation of the heat at the weld
properties. joint. The error was calculated as less than 8%. While
Normally, optimization is common among FW. considering the coefficients of correlations for rotary
Sreenivasan. K.S et al. [130] used the genetic algorithm and linear FW processes were 0.998 and 0.963
(GA) technique to optimize the FW parameters in respectively.
joining aluminium matrix composite (AA7075 + 10% Guilong Wang et al. [134] studied the effect of
SiC particles). They studied the effect of process energy on the mechanical properties of the 304
parameters on the hardness and the tensile strength of stainless steel rotary friction-welded joint. The welding
the joint. The optimized parameters were equal to 1490 time was varied in the range of 4 to 20 sec at the
rpm, upset and friction pressure 209 MPa and 98 MPa pressure range of 25 to 200 MPa. The forging pressure
respectively. The maximum strength reached a value of was maintained above the friction pressure during the
244 MPa. The GA optimization was confirmed by the rotary FW of AISI 304 alloy. It was observed that the
experimental results. The mixed mode of ductile and increase in the energy input increased the tensile
brittle fracture was observed in the tensile-tested strength of the joint at the constant forging pressure
samples. (170 MPa). An empirical model was created to
Mariane Chludzinski et al. [131] produced higher optimize the parameters and compared with the
outer diametric API 5L X46 pipe girth joints through experimental values and the accuracy of the model was
the FW within less time. There were no defects found. confirmed by checking of tensile strength coefficient
The mechanical properties were decreased at the which was in the range of 90- 96%.
centre. The results showed the possibility of hydrogen Fuqiang Lai et al. [135] studied the effect of inertia
cracking and brittle fracture with the MnS phase. FW process parameters for the 42Cr9Si2 engine valve.
Deep Barua et al. [132] proposed the joining of a It was confirmed that the excellent weld joint
circular bar or tube with a metal plate or sheet metal fabrication relied on the selection of optimized weld
through the FW process. The work has to be parameters and their values. The recommended upset
appreciated from an application point of view. In this pressure and friction weld pressure were the maxima of
work, the effectiveness of process parameters like feed 10.3 MPa and 10.0 MPa. After the durability test, the
rate, rotational speed, frictional torque and the depth of crack was not identified in the friction welded part.
penetration on the property of the joint has been Table 2 discusses the tensile strength, peak load by
discussed. According to the results, the frictional the weld joint and the axial shortening during the
torque played a major role in the development of the friction welding process which was done at different
required heat for the joining. An increase in the welding parameter combinations. When the friction
rotational speed of the spindle reduced the torque pressure increases, it is to be noted the increase in
developed and the axial thrust. When feed increased, strength and peak load. It was noted that when the FP
the torque was also increased. increases then the joint efficiency also increases.
Wei Liu et al. [133] studied the upset prediction on Figure 6 shows the formation of excess metal as
the friction-welded joints using a neural network. It is weld flash and the dissimilar joining during the RFW.
an appreciated method and it can be applied to both It was observed that if the heating pressure increases
rotary and linear FW processes. The predicted values then the joint changes according to the input of forces
were compared to the finite element method simulation due to that heating pressure and then the quantum of
results. It was proved that the heat source depended on weld flash also increases, as shown in the figures.
the rotation speed and the axial frictional pressure
Table 2. Influence of FW parameter on mechanical properties and metal loss [136]
Experimental
Results obtained
parameters in RFW
Vickers hardness at
Joint Axial
FP UP FT Tensile the weld zone Toughness
efficiency shortening
(Bar) (Bar) (sec) (MPa) (Hv0.3) (J)
(%) (mm)
SS304L Al.6063
12 18 3 154 71.6 13.7 286 52 32
12 21 5 159 73.9 19.1 285 50 34
12 24 7 156 72.5 19.5 278 45 34
15 18 5 167 77.6 21.8 289 47 36
15 21 7 165 76.7 23.6 276 48 38
15 24 3 163 75.8 18.1 308 45 36
18 18 7 186 86.5 26.9 282 47 36
18 21 3 178 82.7 20.5 314 47 32
18 24 5 189 87.9 25.0 288 48 36

Fig. 6. Weld flash variation according to friction pressure (FP) [136]
7. INFLUENCE OF FP AND FAYING strength and increases the axial shortening. By

SURFACE MODIFICATIONS IN FW controlling the FP and feed rate, the axial shortening
can be controlled to stop material loss. The level of FP
The influence of friction pressure and faying surface applied affects the amount of heat generated at the
modifications in rotary friction welding is a critical faying surfaces. Higher pressure can lead to increased
aspect of the welding process. FW has proven to be a heat generation, which, if not controlled properly,
highly effective and versatile welding process with a could potentially lead to material overheating or
wide range of applications across industries such as excessive flash formation. The upset time and upset
aerospace, automotive, and energy. Its unique ability to pressure were responsible for the fineness of the grains
create strong, reliable joints while minimizing heat- near the weld joints.
affected zones and distortion makes it an attractive The tapered faying surfaces on the AISI304L
choice for many engineering applications. It is specimen improved the bonding between the weld
necessary to have an improvement in the properties of specimens and the tensile strength of the dissimilar
the welded joints fabricated by rotary friction welding. joint, but it also increased the axial shortening of the
The welding parameters and the faying surface joining trial. The surface modifications on the
modifications dominate the properties of the prepared AISI304L specimen improved the strength of the
joints as they influence the joints’ performance. For AA6063 specimen. The coating on the weld specimen
research, the weld joints were prepared by Senthil et al. by dipping process needed much more friction time for
[9, 138, 139] between aluminium and stainless steel at the bonding to take place with high friction pressure.
different welding conditions and faying surface Similarly, the deep recess method also needed more
modifications on the weld specimens. It was found friction time to have good bonding. The tapering on
through the characterization techniques that the both the weld materials stimulated the attachment
properties were not uniform for all the joints and the between the materials during friction welding. The
properties were varied based on the friction welding geometrically shaped faying surface modifications
parameters and the faying surface modifications. The could be able to improve the microhardness property
parameters like friction pressure, friction time, axial nearby the weld interface since these modifications
feed rate, and upset pressure were important. When the hardened the weld region by pushing the huge force
friction pressure increased it increased the tensile created by the frictional effect through the friction
strength and in turn improved the joint efficiency of the welding process; however, it slightly reduced the
welding trials. It was found that the higher friction impact strength of the joints. The modifications with
pressure caused the higher axial shortening. Similarly, the interlayers through the electroplating process on the
the higher friction time sometimes damages the joint AISI304L specimen improved the strain hardening
and reduces the properties by softening the region near behaviour and the hardness of the joint, but the axial
the weld interface of the soft material AA6063 side. A hardening and elongation of the joint were low (except
higher feed rate of the stationary part onto the rotary ‘Cr’ interlayer) [137].
part during friction welding improves the tensile

The threaded faying surfaces improved the faying surfaces, the strength and properties can be
microhardness near the weld interface. It also increased. The joint efficiency of geometrically
improved the joint efficiency; anyhow, no further modified experiments was compared with the
improvement was identified in elongation and impact experiment without modification (flat faying surfaces)
strength. The joining methods with hemispherical as shown in the table. The axial shortenings observed
faying surfaces were far better in improving the during the welding process of the joints with different
properties of the weld joints especially strength, strain faying surfaces (A to H) are given in Figure 7.
hardening & hardness etc. There was a difference in the
properties of the joints prepared by the methods having
the surface modifications on the AISI304L specimen
only and the methods having the surface modifications
on both AA6063 and AISI304L specimens. Table 3
shows the various geometrically modified faying
surfaces used for FW research in dissimilar joining.
The joint efficiency or joint quality factor was
calculated by the ratio of the strength of the joint to the
strength of the soft base metal. Here, the soft base metal
is AA6063, and its TS value is considered 215 MPa
which is used for the joining efficiency calculated. The
joint was done with 18 bar friction pressure and 24 bar Fig. 7. Axial shortening of joints with various faying
upset pressure with 5 sec. friction time. From the surfaces joints
results, the authors mentioned that by changing the
Table 3. Some of the geometrically modified faying surfaces for dissimilar FW [9, 138, 139]
Faying surface-modified RFW B/W Joining efficiency

Description
AA6063 and SS304 alloys (Methods) (%) achieved
A
FW of AA6063 (AA) specimen with
faying-surface tapered AISI304L (SS) 94.7
specimen. d1=12 mm, d2= 6 mm.
B
faying-surface tapered AISI304L (SS) 101.0
specimen. d1=12 mm, d3= 9 mm.
C
FW of faying-surface recessed AA6063
(AA) specimen with faying-surface
94.5
tapered AISI304L (SS) specimen. d1=12
mm, d2= 6 mm.
D
FW of both faying-surfaces tapered
(1:1/2 ratio of dia.) AA6063 (AA) &
102
AISI304L (SS) specimen. Where, d1=12
mm, d2= 6 mm.

Faying surface-modified RFW B/W Joining efficiency

Description
AA6063 and SS304 alloys (Methods) (%) achieved
E
RFW of flat AISI304L (SS) specimen
with hemispherical (half portion
97
spherical) faying-surfaced AA6063 (AA)
specimen. Dia. of rod= 12 mm.
RFW of flat AA6063 (AA) specimen

with hemispherical faying-surfaced
109.7
AISI304L (SS) specimen. Dia. of rod =
12 mm.
RFW of hemispherical faying-surfaced

both AISI304L (SS) & AA6063 (AA) 110.6
specimens. Dia. of rod = 12 mm.

AISI304L (SS) specimen without any 87.89
modification.
Surface modifications that improve adhesion and contact area between the dissimilar alloys. It is proved
wettability between materials can lead to a more that the faying surface modifications increase the
uniform and desirable microstructure at the interface. contact area and the strength by developing plastic
This can result in better joint performance and deformation. Higher FP tends to lead to greater plastic
mechanical properties. Figure 8 (a to h) confirms the deformation at the faying surfaces. This increased
weld interface developed between the alloys 6063 and deformation can result in grain refinement within the
304 by the methods A to H respectively. The weld microstructure. Excessive FP can generate more heat at
interface has no defects and it changed according to the the faying surfaces, potentially causing a wider heat-
faying surfaces selected. The ‘V’ and ‘C’ curved WI affected zone (HAZ) in the base materials.
can be seen, which provides a large weld interface

Fig. 8. Microstructures of the AA6063-SS304 alloy weld joint with different faying surfaces [9, 139]
The results of microhardness on both sides of the

AA6063-SS304L alloy friction weld joint [138, 139],
which were fabricated with different faying surface
modifications (Methods A-H, Table 3) were analysed
and are shown in figure 9.
The graph shows the hardness values on both sides
(soft and hard metals) of the joints in HV 0.3 with 10
sec. dwell time. The values were measured from the
zones of the hardness specimens like the weld zone that
consists of weld interface (WI), thermo-mechanically
affected zone (TMAZ) (‘<±0.1mm’ in figure 9), heat
affected zone (HAZ) (‘<±0.25 mm’ in figure 9) and
parent metal (PM). The measurement was taken from
WI (centre axis in figure 9) towards PM (‘>±0.5 mm’,
figure 9) on both sides separately.
From the results, it was observed that the
microhardness was higher near WI on the 304 side and
it was higher near PM on the 6063 sides as the metal Fig. 9. Vickers’ hardness measurement on both sides
near the WI on AA6063 was affected by FP and led to of the AA6063/SS304L FW joint prepared by
softening during the FW. different joining methods (A-H) from the weld
interface (WI) line.

The values were the maximum of 340 HV and 80 HV

on 304 and 6063 sides respectively. Methods B, C and
D were good hardness. Method A has the highest
hardness value near the WI of the SS304L side. The
toughness values of 6063/304L dissimilar joints are
given in Figure 10. The values are in the range of 12J
to 36J depending on the faying modifications. It is
confirmed that the faying surface design can change the
impact strength of the joint. The joint without weld
surface modifications showed better impact toughness
than the joint with weld surface modifications because
the softness developed in specimen H during the
impact test led to more impact ductility. It is necessary
to analyse the fracture of the impact-tested specimens
which are shown in figure 11 for both AA6063 and
Fig. 10. Impact toughness for the welded joints SS304 sides. Figure 12 is the specimen after the impact
through joining methods A-H test.

Fig. 11. Impact fracture images of both sides of all joints A to H [9, 138, 139]
Fig. 12. Impact fractured specimen with semi-spheroid faying surfaces [139]
The influence of FP and faying surface rods in industries increases and no literature addressed
modifications in rotary friction welding is crucial for the direct-drive FW with small diameter rods with low
achieving high-quality welds. Balancing the pressure FP, constant welding research is still needed.
to optimize both weld strength and energy efficiency is Further, some work reported that the frictional
essential. Additionally, proper surface preparation and, joining could be done with minimum axial shortening,
when necessary, surface modifications can enhance the minimum energy utilization, and safety precautions for
weldability of materials and ensure the integrity of the the welding operators by handling low welding
joint. This knowledge is vital for engineers and pressure conditions and without damaging the weld
technicians involved in rotary friction welding specimen during the FW. To our knowledge, no such
processes, as it allows them to tailor the parameters to solid-state welding (by continuous drive FW) method
specific applications and materials, resulting in strong, was tried before for joining steel AISI304L and
reliable, and efficient welds. Faying surface aluminium AA6063-T6 rods having small diameters
modifications are particularly important in dissimilar for the dissimilar joining at low FP and UP with
material welding. Surface treatments or coatings can different faying surfaces and the research is still
help bridge the gap in material properties and improve limited.
the bond between dissimilar materials. It is further noted that if the axial penetration rate
and upset time rise, the strength of the welded joint
8. CONCLUSIONS might increase. The faying surface modifications can
influence the mechanical properties of the weld
This review of FW research has shed light on the similar/dissimilar joints, WI and alter the
significant influence of this innovative joining microstructures.
technique in various industries and its continuous A research work exhibited that some of the faying
development to address both similar and dissimilar surfaces reduced the FT during FW. The joining
welding scenarios. methods with hemispherical bowl faying modifications
From the survey, it is agreed that FW is quite good showed better tensile properties with more than 100%
for joining aluminium alloys with other metal joining efficiency with these parameters selected.
combinations (ferrous/ nonferrous/ceramic). As the Though such new faying surface designs improve
demand for joining low carbon content ferrous alloy tensile strength, an improvement in other mechanical
with heat treatable non-ferrous alloy of small diameter properties cannot be said without proper research.

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A REVIEW OF FRICTION WELDING RESEARCH ADDRESSING THE

INFLUENCE, DEVELOPMENT, SIMILAR & DISSIMILAR WELDING

KEYWORDS: faying surfaces, friction welding, dissimilar alloys, mechanical, heat

1. INTRODUCTION knowledge is necessary to recognize the optimum

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Table 1. Combinations of Dissimilar metals joining research through FW

Combinations of dissimilar metals for the research Authors and year

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2. DEVELOPMENTS IN FW RESEARCH According to Daniel Soares de Alcantara et al.

Fig. 2. FRIEX process: a) principle; b) pipe welding; c) macrostructure [45]

3. FW OF SIMILAR METALS improves the welding efficiency by above 70%.

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Aluminium is a non-ferrous metal; stainless steel

Fig. 5. Aluminium-iron binary diagram [100], [101]

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Table 2. Influence of FW parameter on mechanical properties and metal loss [136]

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Fig. 6. Weld flash variation according to friction pressure (FP) [136]

7. INFLUENCE OF FP AND FAYING strength and increases the axial shortening. By

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Faying surface-modified RFW B/W Joining efficiency

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Faying surface-modified RFW B/W Joining efficiency

RFW of flat AA6063 (AA) specimen

RFW of hemispherical faying-surfaced

FW of AA6063 (AA) specimen with

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The results of microhardness on both sides of the

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The values were the maximum of 340 HV and 80 HV

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