Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

A manufacturing system consists of machine and control system. In the past humans were the
main methods for controlling a system. More recently electricity has been used for control and
early electrical control was based on relays. These relays allow power to be switched on and
off without a mechanical switch. Depending on the type of technology used, controllers can
be divided into pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical and electronic controllers. Frequently, a
combination of different technologies is used. Microprocessors are now rapidly replacing the
mechanical cam-operated controllers and being used in general to carry out control functions.
Introduction to control devices relay- timers and counter
Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Relays are switches that open and close circuits
electromechanically or electronically. Relays control one electrical circuit by opening and
closing contacts in another circuit. Relays are the primary protection as well as switching
devices in most of the control processes or equipment’s. Early electrical control systems were
composed of mainly relays and switches.
Relays are either electromechanical relays or solid-state relays. In electromechanical
relays (EMR), contacts are opened or closed by a magnetic force. With solid-state
relays (SSR), there are no contacts and switching is totally electronic.
Working of an electromagnetic relay
Apply a voltage to the coil and a magnetic field is generated. This magnetic field sucks the
contacts of the relay in, causing them to make a connection. These contacts can be considered
to be a switch. Relays are ideally suited for controlling everything from lights and motors to
telecommunication, audio, and video signals. Relays come in many sizes and ratings.
Basic parts and functions of electromechanical relays include coil, armature and contacts
The Solid State Relay (Static Relay):
The term static‟ implies that the relay has no moving mechanical parts in it. Compared to the
Electromechanical Relay, the Solid Static relay has longer life-span, decreased noise when
operates and faster respond speed. However, it is not as robust as the Electromechanical
Relay. Static relays were manufactured as semiconductor devices which incorporate
transistors, ICs, capacitors, small microprocessors etc. The static relays have been designed to
replace almost all the functions which were being achieved earlier by electromechanical
relays.
In an SSR a small input voltage, typically 3 to 32VDC, is used to illuminate an LED. When
the LED is turned on, an output photo-sensitive device, such as a TRIAC, turns on and
conducts current.

Relays typically have two or three connections: Common, Normally Open, and Normally
Closed. Relays often have two ratings: AC and DC. These rating indicate how much power
can be switched through the relays.
The NO Normally relay has an opened circuit state when no current is applied to its coil so
basically it disconnects the power to the load in the inactive state. When current is applied to
its coil the generated magnetic field switches the armature and closes the contact so you can
say that it turned ON the load (fan, light bulb, etc). Normal Closed contact allows the current
to flow when the contact is still or de-energised state
Timers
In many control tasks there is a need to control time. As the name implies is used for timing
purpose. It consists of internal clock, a count-value register and a accumulator. A timer starts
timing after receiving a start signal. When a pre-assigned timing value is reached, it outputs a
signal
For example, a motor or a pump might need to be controlled to operate for a particular
interval of time, or perhaps be switched on after some time interval. PLCs thus have timers as
built-in devices. A common approach is to consider timers to behave like relays with coils
which when energised result in the closure or opening of contacts after some preset time.
Their purpose is to control an event based on time.

Clock

Accumulator
reset

Register

contact
Contact

output

Types of timer
It is possible to construct a relay with a built-in time delay device that causes the relay to
either switch on after a time delay, or to switch off after a time delay. These types of relays
are called time delay relays, or TDR’s. There are two basic types of time delay relay. They
are the delay-on timer, sometimes called a TON (pronounced Tee-On), and the delay off
timer, sometimes called a TOF (pronounced Tee-Off).
ON-Delay relay timer (TON)
ON delay timer - after the input is turned on there is a delay before the output is turned on.
When voltage is applied to the coil, the relay contacts remain in the off state and closed after
the set time. The contacts remain in the on state until the voltage remains on. The timer is
reset by removing the coil voltage. When the coil is energized, the internal timer in the relay
begins running (this can be either a motor driven mechanical timer or an electronic timer).

EN-Enable Bit: - The enable bit indicates the TOF instruction is enabled.
DN- Done Bit: - The done bit changes state whenever the accumulated value reaches the
preset value.
Off-Delay timers
After the input is turned off there will be a delay before the output is turned off.
In this case, at the instant power is applied to the relay coil, the contacts activate - that is, the
N/O contacts close, and the N/C contacts open. The time delay occurs when the relay is
switched off. After power is removed from the relay coil, the contacts stay activated until the
relay times-out.

Counters
Counters are provided as built-in elements in PLCs and allow the number of occurrences of
input signals to be counted. This might be where items have to be counted as they pass along a
conveyor belt, or the number of revolutions of a shaft, or perhaps the number of people
passing through a door. A counter is set to some pre-set number value and, when this value of
input pulses has been received, it will operate its contacts. Digital counters output in the form
of a relay contact when a pre-assigned count value is reached. A counter is a register capable
of incrementing and/or decrementing its contents
input
Register

Accumulator
reset

contact

output
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a digital computer used for the automation of
various electro-mechanical processes in industries.
A programmable logic controller is a specialized computer used to control machines and
processes. It therefore shares common terms with typical PCs like central processing unit,
memory, software and communications. Unlike a personal computer though the PLC is
designed to survive in a rugged industrial atmosphere and to be very flexible in how it
interfaces with inputs and outputs to the real world.
The components that make a PLC work can be divided into three core areas.
 The power supply and rack
 The central processing unit (CPU)
 The input/output (I/O) section
PLCs come in many shapes and sizes. They can be so small as to fit in your shirt pocket
while more involved controls systems require large PLC racks. Smaller PLCs (a.k.a.
“bricks”) are typically designed with fixed I/O points.
The word “Programmable” means it can be easily programmed or changed as per the
application’s requirement. It is basically a microprocessor based control system.
Microprocessor does its basic functions of taking decisions according to the instructions
written in the programs which are stored in the memory. Then it evaluates their logic
relationships to defined outputs according to a logic program. At last it sets the outputs
according to the programmed logic
The program is written on a computer and is downloaded to the PLC via cable. It can be used
for different applications via means of changing the program. The original task of a PLC
involved the interconnection of input signals according to a specified program and, if "true",
to switch the corresponding output.
“The programmable logic controller is defined as a digital electronic device
(microprocessor- based controller) that uses a programmable memory to store instructions
and to implement functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic
words to control machines and processes.”
A programmable logic controller is a specialized computer used to control machines and
processes. PLCs come in many shapes and sizes. PLCs can range from small devices with
tens of inputs and outputs (I/O) to thousands of I/O devices.
1. Variety of programs can process the multiple inputs to give multiple outputs.
2. The programs can be altered/ reprogrammed to change the output specifications.
3. There is programmable memory to store instructions and carry out control function
Components of a PLC system:
 CPU –They perform functions including logic operations, arithmetic operations,
computer interface and many more. Keeps checking the PLC controller to avoid errors.
 Memory – Fixed data is used by the CPU. System (ROM) stores the data permanently
for the operating system. RAM stores the information of the status of input and output
devices, and the values of timers, counters and other internal devices.
  I/O section – Input keeps a track on field devices which includes sensors, switches.
 O/P Section - Output has a control over the other devices which includes motors,
pumps, lights and solenoids. The I/O ports are based on Reduced Instruction Set
Computer (RISC).
 Power supply –. Most of the PLCs work at 220VAC or 24VDC.
 Programming device – This device is used to feed the program into the memory of the
processor. The program is first fed to the programming device and later it is transmitted
to the PLC’s memory.

PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controllers. They are basically used to control
automated systems in industries. They are one of the most advanced and simplest forms of
control systems which are now replacing hard wired logic relays at a large scale.

Due to its robust construction, exceptional functional features like sequential control, counters
and timers, ease of programming, reliable controlling capabilities and ease of hardware usage
– this PLC is used as more than a special-purpose digital computer in industries as well as in
other control-system areas.
Need/Advantages/ Importance of PLC
1. They are user friendly and easy to operate
2. Easy to change the logic
3. They are very fast
4. High reliability and performance
5. Convenient and versatile device
6. Best Suited to withstand the industrial environment (heat, noise, vibrations etc.)
7. Error detection is easier and reduce downtime
8. Reduced space requirement
9. Reliable components of PLC to operate for years before failure
10. Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
11. Has simplicity of operation and maintenance by plant technicians
12. It is suitable for automation in industries.
Before the advent of industrial revolution, relays were used to automate machines and were
interconnected using wires inside the control panel. The control panels are very huge and
sometimes covered the entire wall. The system was very complex, and error detection was
very difficult. The control panel is not flexible, it has to be changed to bring about any
changes in the manufacturing process, and it was very difficult. The bigger and complex the
process, the more is need for a PLC.
The basic idea behind these programmable controllers was to provide means to eliminate high
cost associated with inflexible, conventional relay controlled systems. Programmable
controllers offer a system with computer flexibility.
Some Areas of applications
1. The manufacturing industries make the product out of raw materials using
robotics/machines.
2. Process Plant Automation (examples: chemical, cement plant, food, paper plants)
3. Automated Boiler System for thermal power plant
4. Induction Steel Heating Furnaces
5. Automobile industry
6. Glass industry- to control the material ratio
7. Washing machine, elevators working and traffic signals control
8. Assembly industries
9. Robotic arm in car manufacturing

10. Airport runway lighting control

11. Traffic signal control

12. Smoke alarm control

13. Process valve control

 14. Textile equipment’s etc

PLC Programming
There are six programming language available for any PLC, But the most common between
them is Ladder Programming.
Ladder programming (ladder diagram)
A very commonly used method of programming PLCs is ladder diagrams. Writing a program
is equivalent to drawing as witching circuit. Ladder logic uses symbols, instead of words, to
emulate the real world relay logic control. The left and right rails indicate the positive and
ground of a power supply. Circuits are connected as horizontal lines, i.e. the rungs of the
ladder, between these two verticals. The completed program looks like a ladder but in
actuality it represents an electrical circuit.
Components of ladder diagram and instruction
1. Two vertical line called power rails –input and output power rails
2. Horizontal lines called rungs (rung1, rung2 etc) can be any number depending upon
the complexity of problem- number of rungs, but limed by PLC capacity
3. Each rung can have more than one input, but not more than one output devices.
4. All the input devices are graphically represented in left hand side of rungs
5. All the input devises are represented as switches (temperature sensor, flow sensor etc)
6. Input region is full of combinations of NC and NO switches
7. All outputs in laden diagram is represented by circle sign (motor, lamp, solenoids etc.)
8. Run the program from left to right and down ward till ends and repeats the same cycle

Ladder diagram symbols

There are three main symbols we will use to begin with.
 Normally open contact —| |—
Open contact at rest- closed when it is energized.
 Normally closed Contact —|/|—
Closed contact at rest – open whenever it is energized
 Normally Open Coil — ( )—
Open coil at rest – closed when energized
 Timer and counter
Simple examples of ladder programming
Example 1
Ladder diagram that will cause output lamp or motor to go true when switch A and switch B
are closed
Draw a ladder diagram that will cause output lamp or motor to be on when push button A is B
on, or either

Example 2
Motor should remain in ON state after Start pushbutton is pressed and should Off When Stop
pushbutton is pressed. Checking if the motor is running normally by pressing test pushbutton.

X0 – START push button to Start Motor

X1 – STOP pushbutton to Stop Motor
X2 – Test button
X3- Error switch
M0.1 phase Motor

1. Press START button lightly and X0 = ON. The Motor will keep running if no error
occurred (X3 = OFF). The action can be practiced by a latching circuit which takes
output Y0 as one of the input condition to keep the motor running even if the START
button is not pressed (See normally open contact M0.1 below X0).
2. When STOP button is pressed, X1 = ON and M0.1 = OFF. The motor will stop
running.
3. If error occur (X3 = ON), M0.1 will be OFF and the motor will stop running.
When TEST is pressed (X2 = ON), M0.1 = ON. The motor will start running if no error
occurred (X3 = OFF). On the contrary, when TEST is released, the motor will stop running.
The testing function is performed by this process.
Example 3
Switching on the Lamp whether they are at the bottom or the top of the staircase
X0 – Switch at the bottom of Staircase
X1 – Switch at the top of Staircase
Y0 – Lamp

Example 4
When is switch is ON, motor and green light is ON and if motor is OFF red light will glow

Example 5
Consider the design of a Burglar Alarm for a house. This alarm will be activated if an
unauthorized person is detected by a Window Sensor or a Motion Detector. Implement
this Alarm System in PLC using Ladder Diagram programming language.

Example 6
Ladder program for automatic water filling tank
Example 7
PLC Program for Automatic Bottle Rejection System.

There are two sensors are used, for standing and fallen bottles detection, one pneumatic
cylinder for pushing the fallen bottle from the conveyor.
Problem 8
Ladder logic control for a simple starter system of a 3 phase AC motor with starter and stop
switch. And also run light should be ON while motor is running and stop light should ON
when motor id OFF condition

Example 9
Ladder logic diagram for starting the oil pump motor immediately when START is pressed.
The main motor will be started after a 10 sec delay and then the auxiliary motor after a 5 sec
delay and also stopping all motors immediately when STOP is pressed.

X1 – Start Switch. Y2 – Auxiliary Motor

X2 – Stop Switch. T1 – 10 second Timer,
Y0 – OIL Motor T2 – 5 second Timer,
Y1 – Main Motor
 When START is pressed, the NO contact X0 will be activated, which makes Y0 to be
ON. The oil pump motor will start the lube system. At the same time, timer T1
instruction will be executed. When T1 reaches its set value of 10 sec, the NO contact
T1 will be ON.
 When the NO contact T1 is ON, Y1 will be ON, which starts the main motor and stops
timer T1. At the same time, timer T2 is executed, and the NO contact T1 will be ON
when timer T1 reaches its set value.
 When the NO contact T2 is ON, Y2 will be ON, which starts the auxiliary motor and
stops T2.
 When STOP is pressed, the NC contact X1 will be activated, which makes Y0, Y1 and
Y2 OFF. The oil pump motor, main motor and auxiliary motor will stop working.
Example 10
A light to be ON after 5 seconds of switching

Example 11
Enabling the indicator to be ON immediately when switch pressed and OFF after a 5 sec delay
by the switch.
X1 – Start Switch.
Y1 – Output Indicator
T1 – 5 second Timer,

 When X1 = ON, Timer T1 will be ON and start counting for 5 sec and indicator will be ON
 When T1 reaches its set value, closed contact T1 becomes open and indicator will be
OFF

Problem 12
Once the photoelectric sensor detects 10 products, the robotic arm will begin to pack up.
When the action is completed, the robotic arm and the counter will be reset.

X1 - Photoelectric sensor for counting products. X0 = ON when products are detected.

X2 - Robotic arm action completed sensor. X1 = ON when packing is completed.
C - Counter:
Y1 - Robotic arm for packing
Example 13
 Fill the tank with fluid A until reaches low level
 Then close the fluid A and fill the tank with fluid B till high level
 Close the valve B and stir for 60 seconds
 OFF the stir and open valve Y2 outlet for 120 seconds
 Also emergency switch for stop

X0 – Start Switch.
X1 – Low level float sensor. X1 = ON when
the liquid level reaches X1.
X2 – High level float sensor. X2 = ON when
the liquid level reaches X2.
X3 – Stop Switch.
X10 - EMERGENCY STOP button. X10 =
ON when the button is pressed.
Y0 – Liquid A Inlet
Y1 – Liquid B Inlet
Y2 – Mixture Outlet
Y3 – Agitator /Stirrer
T0 – 60 second Timer, 100 ms Time Base.
(See K60 Preset Value for Timer)
T1 – 120 second Timer, 100 ms Time Base.

 X0 = ON when START is pressed. Y0 will be ON and the valve will be opened for
infusing liquid A until the level reaches the low-level float sensor.
 X1 = ON when the level reaches the low-level float sensor. Y1 will be ON and
latched, and the valve will be opened for infusing liquid B until the level reaches the
high-level float sensor.
 X2 = ON when the level reaches the high-level float sensor. Y3 will be ON and
activates the agitator. Also, timer T0 will start to count for 60 sec. After 60 sec, T0
will be ON, and the agitator motor Y3 will stop working. Y2 will be ON and latched,
and the mixture will drain out of the container.
 When Y2 = ON, timer T1 will start to count for 120 sec. After 120 sec, T1 will be ON
and Y2 will be OFF. The draining process will be stopped.
 When an error occurs, press EMERGENCY STOP button X10. The NC contact X10
will be ON to disable all the outputs. The system will then stop running.
NC systems
Numerical control (NC) refers to control of a machine or a process using symbolic codes
consisting of letters and numbers. In NC, the programme of instructions comprising letters
and numbers designed for a particular work part or job. As the job type changes, the program
of instruction also changes. This capability to change a program for each new job gives NC its
flexibility. Motion is controlled along multiple axes, normally at least two (X and Y), and a
tool spindle that moves in the Z (depth). The position of the tool is driven by direct-
drive stepper motor or servo motors in order to provide highly accurate movements
Classification of NC system
According to the type of power to the drives
 Electrical
 Hydraulic
 Pneumatic
According to motion type
 Point- to – point system
 Contour (or) continuous path system
According to the feedback system
 Open loop system
 Closed loop system
According to positioning program system
 Incremental positioning system
 Absolute positioning system
Coordinate Systems
In order for the part programmer to plan the sequence of position and movements of the
cutting tool relative to the work piece, it is necessary to establish a standard axis system by
which relative position can be specified. The main three axes of motion are referred to as the
X, Y. and Z axes. The coordinate system is laid out by identifying the Z axis first. The Z axis
is always in line with the main rotating spindle.

For a lathe, the infeed/radial axis is the x-axis, the carriage/length axis is the z-axis. There is
no need for a y-axis because the tool moves in a plane through the rotational center of the
work. In drilling and milling machines the X and Y axes are horizontal. For example, a
positive motion command in the drill moves the X axis from left to right, the Y axis from
front to back, and the Z axis toward the top. In the lathe only two axes are required to
command the motions of the tool.
NC system based on motion control system of slides/tool
In order to accomplish the machining process, the cutting tool and work piece must be moved
relative to each other. In NC, there are three basic types of motion control system (Point-to-
point, straight cut and Contouring). Point-to-point systems represent the lowest level of
motion control between the tool and work piece. Contouring represents the highest level of
control.
Point-to-point Positioning Control:
Point to point system (PTP) is also called positioning system which represents the lowest level
of motion control between the tool and the work-piece. The motion between beginning point
and end point is at maximum velocity. Machining operations are performed only at specific
points. The main advantage is that it has a simple control system. But this is the slowest
system. It is usually used for drilling, boring, reaming, sheet metal punching, spot welding etc.
 Sequential: - the stool will move in one axis at a time. (X or Y axis one at a time)
 Simultaneous: - both axes start at the same time, the tool path will be approximately.

NC drill presses are a good example of PTP systems. The spindle must first be positioned at a
particular location on the work piece. This is done under PTP control. Then the drilling of the
hole is performed at the location, and so forth. Since no cutting is performed between holes,
there is no need for controlling the relative motion of the tool and work piece between hole
locations. Example figure above illustrate path of three drilled holes.
Straight-cut Positioning Control:
Straight-cut control systems are capable of moving the cutting tool parallel to one of the major
axes at a controlled rate suitable for machining. It is therefore appropriate for performing
milling operations to fabricate work pieces of rectangular configurations. An example of a
straight cut operation is shown in Figure. An NC machine capable of straight cut movements
is also capable of PTP movements.
Contouring (continuous) Path CNC System
The path of the cutter is continuously controlled to generate the desired geometry of the work
piece. For this reason, contouring systems are also called continuous-path NC systems.
Milling and turning operations are common examples of the use of contouring control.

To achieve contoured motion, a series of points is provided during programming, and the
motion controller extrapolates a smooth line or curve from these points. In contouring motion
guarantees that the tool system passes through each point, using either linear or circular
interpolation.
Difference between contouring and point-to-point motion
With point-to-point systems, control is achieved over the x and y coordinates. With straight-
cut systems, control is provided for either dx/dt or dy/dt, but only one at a time. With
contouring systems, both of the rates dx/dt and dy/dt can be controlled simultaneously. This is
accomplished by breaking the curved path into very short straight-line segments that
approximate the curve.
Contouring is the most complex, the most flexible, and the most expensive type of machine
tool control. It is capable of performing both PTP and straight-cut operations. In addition, the
distinguishing feature of contouring NC systems is their capacity for simultaneous control of
more than one axis movement of the machine tool.
The choice between point-to-point or contoured motion depends on the application and
process. The smooth shapes generated by contouring are important for CNC applications such
as cutting, welding, and routing, as well as for dispensing applications where a specific path
must be followed. In point-to-point motion, the end position is designated, but the path used to
reach the end position is irrelevant.
Linear interpolation is used when the desired move is a straight line involving two axes of
motion. The controller synchronizes the motion of both axes. Circular interpolation works
much the same way as linear interpolation, but also requires the specification of a center point,
radius, and direction (clockwise or counter clockwise) so that the motion created is circular
rather than linear.
NC system based on positioning system
The purpose of the coordinate system is to provide a means of locating the tool in relation to
the work piece. Depending on the type of NC machine, the part programmer may have several
options for specifying the location.
Option available to the part programmer is to use either an absolute system of tool positioning
or an incremental system.
Incremental Systems
It is also called relative positioning system. In this system, the coordinate of a point is defined
with respect to the previous point. Each subsequent position is based on the previous position.
After each programmed movement, the current position becomes the starting position for the
next programmed movement.

Advantages
 For complicated components, this dimensioning is more advantageous.
Disadvantages
 Positioning errors add up in incremental positioning. If error occurs at any line in the
program, all the subsequent lines will add up to the error.
 It is difficult to check a program written in incremental system

Absolute System
With absolute coordinates, the origin is always in a fixed position. Each new location is
calculated from this fixed origin instead of the previous location. Even if there is an error
while reaching the current location, that error is corrected once the tool or work piece moves
to the next location
Advantages
 Very easy to correct and check a program when written
 If there is any mistake in any block, only that block will be affected. The remaining of
program will remain intact
Most modem CNC systems permit application of both incremental and absolute programming
methods. Even within a specific part program the method can be changed These CNC systems
provide the user with the combined advantages of both methods
Control system of NC machine
When a number of elements are combined together to form a system to produce desired output
then the system is referred as control system. Each element connected to the system has its
own effect on the output. Control systems are used to arrange and manage components in a
way that the required condition or output is obtained. A control system can be functioned
electrically, mechanically or it can be combination of these ways.
The main feature of control system is, there should be a clear mathematical relation between
input and output of the system. When the relation between input and output of the system can
be represented by a linear proportionality, the system is called linear control system. Again
when the relation between input and output cannot be represented by single linear
proportionality, rather the input and output are related by some non-linear relation, the system
is referred as non-linear control system. The system used for controlling the position, velocity,
acceleration, temperature, pressure, voltage and current etc. are examples of control systems.
Types of control system
1. Open loop control system
2. Closed loop control system
Open loop control system
An open loop control system is the system, in which the desired output is only depends on the
input signal. If there are disturbances in between, the output does not give any changes with
respect to these disturbances. An open loop control system is generally known as system
without feedback. The primary drawback of the open-loop system is that there is no feedback
system to check whether the program position and velocity has been achieved. If the system
performance is affected by load, temperature, humidity, or lubrication then the actual output
could deviate from the desired output. For these reasons the open -loop system is generally
used in point-to-point systems where the accuracy requirements are not critical.
Programmed instructions are fed into the controller through an input device. These
instructions are then converted to electrical pulses (signals) by the controller and sent to the
servo amplifier to energize the servo motors.

Advantages of Open Loop Control System

1. Simple in construction and design.
2. Economical.
3. Easy to maintain.
4. Generally stable.
 5. Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.

Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System

1. They are inaccurate.
2. They are unreliable.
3. Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.
Practical Examples of Open Loop Control System
1. Electric Hand Drier - Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your hand under
the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried.
2. Bread Toaster - This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.
Closed Loop systems
The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to monitor the actual output and correct any
discrepancy from the programmed input. These systems use position and velocity feedback.
Closed-loop systems are very powerful and accurate because they are capable of monitoring
operating conditions through feedback subsystems and automatically compensating for any
variations in real-time.
The difference between the actual value of the variable and its set point is the error. The
control law takes the error as the input and drives the actuator, in this case the servo motor and
its drive system, to achieve motion variables that are close to the set points.

Advantages of Closed Loop Control System

1. Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of non-linearity.
2. Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of feedback signal.
3. Bandwidth range is large.
4. Facilitates automation.
5. The sensitivity of system may be made small to make system more stable.
6. This system is less affected by noise.
Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System
1. They are costlier.
2. They are complicated to design.
 3. Required more maintenance.
4. Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback.
5. More care is needed to design a stable closed loop system
The feedback system could be either analog or digital. The analog systems measure the
variation of physical variables such as position and velocity in terms of voltage levels. Digital
systems monitor output variations by means of electrical pulses. If a discrepancy is revealed
between where the machine element should be and where it actually is, the sensing device
signals the driving unit to make an adjustment, bringing the movable component to the
required location.
Practical Examples of Closed Loop Control System
1. Automatic Electric Iron - Heating elements are controlled by output temperature of the
iron.
2. Water Level Controller - Input water is controlled by water level of the reservoir.
3. Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar - The direction of missile is controlled by
comparing the target and position of the missile.
4. Air Conditioner - Air conditioner functions depending upon the temperature of the room.
Control of Contouring Systems
In contouring systems, the tool is cutting while the machine axes are moving. The contour of
the part is determined by the ratio between the velocities, along the two axes. The control in
contouring systems operates in closed loop. Therefore, a contouring system uses a cascade
control structure involving an inner velocity loop and an outer position loop for each feed axis
improved dynamic response. In such systems the interpolator generates reference signals (in
form of a sequence pulses or position words) for each axis of motion, in a coordinated manner
so that a desired contour is generated.
It uses an inner velocity feedback loops incorporating a tachometer usually mounted directly
on the motor shaft and an outer position feedback loop which is capable of measuring
incremental (such as from an incremental encoder) or absolute angular position of the lead-
screw shaft. Typical cascade control structure of contouring systems is shown in Fig.

In encoder-based systems each pulse indicates a motion of 1 BLU (basic length unit) of axis
travel. Therefore, the number of pulses over a period represents incremental change in
position over the period and the encoder pulse frequency is proportional to the axis velocity.
In such a system, fed from a reference pulse interpolator the comparison is done by an up-
down counter which is fed by two sequences of pulses: reference pulses from the interpolator
and feedback pulses generated by the encoder. The counter produces a number representing
the instantaneous position error in pulse units. This number can be converted by the DAC and
fed to an analog position control system.
Module I –Questions from powder metallurgy
1. Explain the procedure of manufacturing parts by powder metallurgy.
2. Explain the manufacturing of powder metallurgy components with suitable flowchart.
3. Describe, the steps involved in the production of powder metallurgy parts.****
4. Discuss secondary operations in Powder Metallurgy.
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5. What are the advantages of powder metallurgy offers?****
6. What are advantages and limitations of powder metallurgy?***
7. Discuss/Explain the applications of Powder Metallurgy. ****
8. What are the main industrial uses of powder metallurgy?
9. Explain the process capabilities of powder metallurgy
10. Explain why powder metallurgy has become highly competitive with casting, forging
and machining processes. **
11. What are the design considerations for the powder metallurgy parts?***
12. Describe the design considerations making powder metallurgy parts. How different are
these compared to casting and forging of metals.
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13. Describe briefly the methods by which powders suitable for powder metallurgy can he
produced.******
14. Explain how metal powders are produced by atomization. ***
15. Explain the various methods of powder production. Give the characteristics required
for metal powders
16. Explain three methods of powder production with neat sketches and discuss their
influences on the properties of the final product.
17. Explain the characteristics of metal powders required?****
18. What are the desirable properties of metal powder?
19. What are the important physical characteristics of powder-metals
20. Explain the effects of using fine powders and coarse powders respectively in making
P/M parts
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21. What are some of the objectives of powder mixing or blending**
22. Briefly explain blending of powders in powder metallurgy
23. List and discuss the material properties affecting blending in Powder metallurgy
process.
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24. Explain the various compaction techniques used in Powder metallurgy. ****
25. What are some of the objectives of the compacting operation?
26. Why might double-action pressing be more attractive than compaction with a single
moving punch?
27. In what ways might the final density of a P/M product be reported?
28. What are some of the other methods that can produce high-density PIM products?
29. Why is there a density variation in compacting powders?
30. With suitable sketches explain double compaction of parts out of powders.
31. Discuss cold and hot isostatic pressing process.
32. What is meant by Isostatic pressing?
33. What is isostatic compaction? For what product shapes might it be preferred?
34. What are the disadvantages of hot pressing? How can you overcome them
35. Describe the relative advantages and limitations of cold and hot isostatic pressing.**
36. Describe, with suitable sketches, hot isostatic pressing of metal powders.***
37. What are some of the attractive properties of HlP products?
38. What are some of the major limitations-of HIP process and how does the sinter
process eliminate or minimize them?
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39. Differentiate between infiltration and "impregnation” with reference to powder
metallurgy
40. What is the purpose of repressing, coining or sizing operations?
41. Why can the original compaction tooling not be used to shape the product during
repressing?
42. What are pre alloyed and pre-coated powders? How are these powders manufactured?
43. What are impregnations and infiltration processes in powder metallurgy?
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44. Why it is necessary to use lubricants in the press compaction of powders? State and
explain the advantages of porous and self-lubricating bearings over the standard sleeve
bearings.
45. What are self lubricating bearings?**
46. Why is pore size important in the manufacture of self lubricating bearing? How may
pore size be controlled?
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47. Define the following terms in relation to metal powders :
a. Surface area,
b. Compressibility,
c. Apparent density and particle size distribution.
48. Write notes on
a. Hot pressing,
b. Impact compacting
c. Powder rolling.**
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49. Explain pre-sintering and sintering in detail.***
50. Differentiate between pre-sintering and sintering.
51. What is meant by sintering of powder compacts?
52. Give an account of sintering atmospheres**
53. What are the effects of sintering on the powder compact produced by pressing
54. Explain the mechanism of sintering of single and multi-phase materials.
55. Outline the advantages of pre-sintering and coining on the metal compacts.
56. Give an account of sintering furnaces used in powder metallurgy industries.
57. Should green compacts be brought up to the sintering temperature slowly or rapidly?
Explain the advantages and limitations of each.

Questions from PLC

1. What is a hard wired control? what are its disadvantages
2. List five differences between PLC control and Relay control
3. List three input devices commonly used in PLC control
4. Explain the working of functions of CPU, Input and output module and memory in PLC
5. Mention few applications of PLC
6. What are the functions of timer in PLC?
7. Briefly explain the structure of PLC
8. Differentiate between ON time delay and OFF time delay with help of symbols
9. What is meant by bit logic operations in relation to a PLC
10. Give functions of following PLC program elements a) Program coil b) NC contact c)
NO
11. How were early machines controlled before PLC's were developed?
12. When were the first PLC's developed?
13. List four types of I/O modules?
14. List five devices that would be typical inputs to a PLC. List five devices that a PLC
might control.
15. What types of memory might a PLC contain?
16. Which type or types of memory would store the program to be executed by the PLC?
17. What is the purpose of the programming unit?
18. What type of control system did the PLC replace? Why was the PLC better?
19. What industry was primarily responsible for PLC development?
20. What are the two steps the PLC must perform during operation?
21. What is the Output Image Register?
22. Describe the procedure for solving a rung of logic.
23. What are the allowed direction of current flow in a ladder logic rung?
24. Define scan rate.
25. Define scan time.
26. At what time is data transferred to and from the outside world into a PLC system?
27. What common devices may be used to understand the operation of coils and contacts
in ladder logic?
28. Definition of PLC
29. Architecture of PLC
30. Explain the PLC system
31. Function of PLC
32. Application of PLC
33. Need/role of PLC in automation
34. Explain the ladder diagram with a simple example
35. Explain how the PLC are programmed
 Extra notes
PM comparing with casting and forging process
1. Net shape manufacturing
2. Controlled porosity product
3. Higher melting point material product can be easily made
4. Brittle and hard material
5. High production rate with automation
6. Higher finish and dimensional accuracy
7. Less scrap
8. More eco-friendly
9. Higher mechanical and other properties
Advantages of PM
1. Eliminates or minimizes machining
2. Eliminates or minimizes scrap losses
3. Maintains close dimensional tolerances
4. Permits a wide variety of alloy systems
5. Produces good surface finishes
6. Provides controlled porosity for self-lubrication or filtration
7. Facilitates manufacture of complex or unique shapes which would be impractical or
impossible with other metalworking processes
8. Parts can be made to net or near net shape
9. Suited to moderate -to high volume components production requirements
10. Permits the production of nano structured materials

Heat treating:
The main purpose is to improve wear resistance rather than strength. The process of heating
and cooling sintered parts is to improve
1. Wear Resistance
2. Grain Structure
3. Strength
The following heat treatment processes are used to the parts made by powder metallurgy:
1. Stress relieving
2. Carburising
3. Nitriding
4. Induction Hardening