614374

research-article2015
JOMXXX10.1177/0149206315614374Journal of ManagementEmployee Volunteering

Journal of Management
Vol. XX No. X, Month XXXX 1­–30
DOI: 10.1177/0149206315614374
© The Author(s) 2015
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Employee Volunteering: A Review and

Framework for Future Research
Jessica B. Rodell
University of Georgia
Heiko Breitsohl
Melanie Schröder
University of Wuppertal
David J. Keating
University of Georgia

Employee volunteering is a topic of growing importance in workplaces around the globe.

Likewise, research on employee volunteering has seen a marked increase over the past decade,
particularly in leading management and psychology outlets. Despite this increasing visibility,
there is little consensus on the state of the literature or directions for the future. In particular,
research is currently based on a variety of different definitions and operationalizations and is
spread across several disciplines. In order to advance management research on employee vol-
unteering, this review focuses on three contributions: (1) clarifying the definition and various
forms of employee volunteering, (2) reviewing the current body of knowledge on employee
volunteering, and (3) providing a future research agenda for the role of employee volunteering
in the workplace.

Keywords: employee volunteering; work life management; corporate social responsibility;

review

Employee volunteering is a topic of growing importance in workplaces around the globe.

Each year, reports suggest that employees continue to devote time and effort—either on their
personal time or as part of a company initiative—to volunteering (Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2013). Likewise, surveys of corporate volunteering programs indicate that organizations

Corresponding author: Jessica B. Rodell, Terry College of Business, University of Georgia, 411 Brooks Hall,
Athens, GA 30602, USA.

E-mail: [email protected]

1
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2   Journal of Management / Month XXXX

worldwide support employee engagement in charitable activities as part of their strategy for
corporate social responsibility (Basil, Runte, Easwaramoorthy, & Barr, 2009). Indeed, esti-
mates suggest that close to 90% of companies now support employee volunteering in some
fashion (Committee Encouraging Corporate Philanthropy, CECP, 2011; Points of Light
Foundation, 2006). Reports also indicate that the newest generation of employees places
significant value on volunteering opportunities when evaluating employers (Deloitte
Development, 2014).
In reaction to this growing attention to volunteering in practice, research on employee
volunteering has markedly increased—particularly in leading management and psychology
outlets (e.g., Caligiuri, Mencin, & Jiang, 2013; Grant, 2012; Jones, Willness, & Madey, 2014;
Rodell, 2013). This work has largely demonstrated that employee volunteering is beneficial
for both employees and companies. It provides an opportunity for employees to develop
skills, improving morale and ultimately performance (Caligiuri et al.; Jones, 2010; Rodell),
and serves as a resource to attract and retain employees (Jones; Jones et al.).
Beyond the increasing popularity of this topic in both research and practice, there are
several additional reasons for presenting an integrative analysis and discussion of this litera-
ture. First, there is little definitional and operational consensus about the construct of
employee volunteering (e.g., Grant, 2012; Penner, 2002; Rodell, 2013; see also Clary &
Snyder, 1999; Musick & Wilson, 2008). Scholars have adopted different definitional
approaches, for example, examining the intensity versus longevity of volunteering efforts
(e.g., Booth, Won Park, & Glomb, 2009; Caligiuri et al., 2013). In addition, they have con-
ceptualized volunteering as having different boundaries, as some scholars have examined
volunteering exclusively conducted through workplace initiatives (e.g., DeVoe & Pfeffer,
2007) and others have focused on, or at least included, volunteering after work hours (e.g.,
Mojza & Sonnentag, 2010; Rodell).
Second, research on volunteering is multidisciplinary and fragmented. It is currently
spread across several areas—including organizational behavior (e.g., Grant, 2012), psychol-
ogy (Clary et al., 1998), sociology (Musick & Wilson, 2008), marketing (e.g., Mattila &
Hanks, 2013), corporate governance (Sanchez-Hernandez & Gallardo-Vázquez, 2013), and
nonprofit management (e.g., Samuel, Wolf, & Schilling, 2013)—with minimal integration.
Although there is a small handful of volunteering reviews, they either focus on a specific
aspect of the volunteering experience, for example, reviewing corporate volunteering pro-
grams (Henning & Jones, 2013), or take a more global view of volunteering, for example,
encompassing the nonworking population (Wilson, 2000). Combined, these issues—a rela-
tive lack of definitional convergence and the fragmented nature of existing research on vol-
unteering—present a challenge to systematically integrating the current knowledge in a
manner that offers guidance for future research.
The purpose of our review is to provide clarity and cohesion around both (a) the construct
of employee volunteering and (b) its role in the corporate world. In addition to reviewing the
current state of the literature, we provide frameworks that integrate existing knowledge about
the construct and its nomological network with the goal of providing a foundation for research
moving forward. In particular, we first review the various definitions of volunteering in the
literature and present a framework to guide decisions about conceptualization and measure-
ment. Next, we present an integrative figure that summarizes the existing knowledge about
the antecedents and consequences of employee volunteering, taking note of issues such as the

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 Rodell et al. / Employee Volunteering   3

level of analysis and theoretical perspectives. Finally, we discuss directions for future
research that would best serve the development of this literature and how they fit into our
integrative framework.

Employee Volunteering: Definition and Measurement

Research on volunteering has adopted a variety of different definitions and measurement
approaches. For example, adopting a social psychologist’s view, Wilson defined volunteering
as “any activity in which time is given freely to benefit another person, group, or organiza-
tion” (2000: 215), while Penner defined it as “long-term, planned, prosocial behaviors that
benefit strangers and occur within an organizational setting” (2002: 448). In the realm of
organizational research, the definition of employee volunteering has varied from the “extent
to which employees initiate and sustain involvement in volunteering activities” (Grant, 2012:
593; Peterson, 2004b) to “giving time or skills during a planned activity for a volunteer
group” (Rodell, 2013: 1274).
Although these definitions may look the same upon first glance, they vary on a variety of
components—such as the motivation for engaging in volunteering and the presumed benefit
of the recipient—thereby creating relatively low consensus on how to best define and mea-
sure employee volunteering. Moreover, defining employee volunteering requires further
consideration of whether the behavior can be conducted both through one’s work, as part of
a company’s initiatives, or outside of one’s work on an individual’s own personal time. In the
following section, we build a definition of employee volunteering that is both grounded in
existing volunteering research and incorporates aspects unique to employees.

Defining Employee Volunteering

Musick and Wilson (2008) proposed that scholars should adopt a behavioral approach to
defining volunteering. They argued that this approach is most conducive for scientific
research because it creates an internally consistent concept and clarifies distinctions between
the phenomenon of volunteering and other related phenomenon that we might study.
Following Rodell (2013), we adopt a behavioral definition that is built from the three most
core definitional components of prior theorizing on volunteering (Clary et al., 1998; Musick
& Wilson; Omoto & Snyder, 1995; Penner, 2002; Wilson, 2000). Thus, we define employee
volunteering as

employed individuals giving time during a planned activity for an external nonprofit or charitable
group or organization.

There are three core components to this definition. First, volunteering involves giving
time and not simply financial donations (Omoto & Snyder, 1995; Wilson, 2000). The impor-
tant distinction is that volunteering represents active involvement, whereas monetary dona-
tions represent a more passive form of support. An employee who spends an afternoon at a
soup kitchen is volunteering, while an employee who writes a check to support that soup
kitchen is not. In addition, this component of the definition is focused on giving time—
regardless of whether that time involves the application of a volunteer’s particular skills.
Although some volunteers are applying their knowledge or expertise in order to help a

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4   Journal of Management / Month XXXX

volunteer group (e.g., an accountant volunteering to do taxes for a volunteer group), others
are doing something outside of their normal work behavior (e.g., an accountant volunteering
on a house build). Moreover, individuals are still volunteering even if their efforts wind up
being less than helpful for the volunteer group (e.g., an accountant does a bad job on the
house build).
Second, volunteering is a planned activity and not a spontaneous act of helping (Penner,
2002; Wilson, 2000). An employee who signs up to clean a local roadway one Saturday
morning is volunteering, while an employee who assists an elderly individual across the
street on the way to lunch is not volunteering. Scholars have historically noted that volunteer-
ing involves either actively seeking out an opportunity or a period of thought and deliberation
about engaging in the activity (Clary et al., 1998; Omoto & Snyder, 1995).
Third, volunteering takes place in the context of some volunteer group or organization
(e.g., charitable or nonprofit groups; Musick & Wilson, 2008; Penner, 2002). Volunteer
groups or organizations are the object or recipient of the volunteers’ behaviors. A unifying
component of most volunteering definitions is that it is a formalized and public activity,
where volunteers do not typically know the recipient personally ahead of time (Omoto &
Snyder, 1995; Wilson, 2000). This third component builds off the previous two compo-
nents—in order for volunteering to be active and planned, it is nearly essential that it occur
in a more formal setting.
Other, more debated, components were intentionally excluded from this definition—two
of which are particularly relevant to defining employee volunteering. First is the idea of an
individual’s intent for volunteering. Several definitions reference altruistic intentions for
engaging in volunteering, for example, that volunteering is “given freely” (Wilson, 2000:
215), that it is “non-obligatory” (Penner, 2002: 448), or done with the goal to “benefit” others
(Wilson: 215). However, scholars have shown that motivations for volunteering can range
from individuals fulfilling their values to socializing with others to escaping their own trou-
bles (Clary et al., 1998; Clary & Snyder, 1999). This may be particularly true in regard to
employee volunteering, as motivations might extend to managing impressions with one’s
supervisor or attempting to receive recognition at work (e.g., Booth et al., 2009). The deci-
sion to exclude intention from our definition is consistent with Musick and Wilson (2008)
and with the broader convention in organizational behavior to separate motives for behavior
from a behavior itself (Mitchell & Daniels, 2003).
Another debated aspect of volunteering is whether the act can benefit the volunteer. A
“net-cost” definition of volunteering proposes that volunteers sacrifice more than they gain
from the experience (Musick & Wilson, 2008). Although a handful of scholars have refer-
enced this sort of sacrifice when defining volunteering (e.g., Clary et al., 1998; Omoto &
Snyder, 1995; see also Musick & Wilson), it is less common than the previously discussed
components. This concept is not only refuted by empirical research—many volunteers derive
immense gratification and growth from the experience (e.g., Austin, 1997; Clary et al.)—but
also difficult to evaluate (Musick & Wilson; Wilson, 2000). The notion of volunteers “sacri-
ficing” is particularly problematic when defining employee volunteering, as many employ-
ees volunteer on company time (e.g., Cavallaro, 2006; MacPhail & Bowles, 2009) and, thus,
receive some form of monetary compensation.
One additional area of “muddiness” with respect to defining employee volunteering per-
tains to the domain in which this behavior occurs—either part of one’s work domain or part

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 Rodell et al. / Employee Volunteering   5

of one’s nonwork or personal domain. Does it include volunteering that employed individu-
als do on their own time or is it limited to volunteering through a specific company initiative?
As with the other definitional components, scholars have taken various approaches to this
issue. While some studies have examined participation in corporate volunteering initiatives
(e.g., Caligiuri et al., 2013; DeVoe & Pfeffer, 2007), others have focused specifically on
employees volunteering on their own time (e.g., Mojza & Sonnentag, 2010; Mojza,
Sonnentag, & Bornemann, 2011), and still others have taken a broader approach encompass-
ing both of these options (e.g., Booth et al., 2009; Rodell, 2013).
Each of these approaches has its merits depending on the research question. Therefore, we
review research that has adopted any of them and employ the following labels in order to
make the connection between these approaches more explicit. Namely, we use the term
employee volunteering to refer to any volunteering exhibited by employed individuals. Under
this general heading, employees can engage in either corporate volunteering (employee vol-
unteering conducted through a company initiative) or personal volunteering (employee vol-
unteering conducted on one’s own personal time).

Operationalizing Employee Volunteering

The various conceptual distinctions in defining volunteering have manifested in different
approaches to measuring the phenomenon. Studies have operationalized volunteering as any-
thing from a dichotomous decision to volunteer (e.g., Davis, Mitchell, Hall, Lothert, Snapp,
& Meyer, 1999; Harrison, 1995; Penner, 2002) to the frequency of volunteering (e.g., Booth
et al., 2009; Brockner, Senior, & Welch, 2014; Rodell, 2013) to the length of volunteering
service (e.g., Boezeman & Ellemers, 2007; Caligiuri et al., 2013). Reasonable arguments can
be made for and against each of these approaches. However, this decision should depend
largely on the research question. Examining the implementation of a new corporate volun-
teering program may point to measuring the decision to volunteer, whereas examining vol-
unteers’ skill development may point to measuring either the frequency or the length of
volunteering.
We propose that adopting a perspective traditionally employed with work motivation
(Latham & Pinder, 2005; Pinder, 1998) can provide a useful framework to guide this decision.
Pinder argued that motivation could be described in terms of the direction, intensity, and per-
sistence of one’s effortful behavior. Given that we have defined volunteering as a specific
form of effort or behavior, we can draw on these distinctions to make meaningful and valid
operationalization decisions. Using a decision-tree format, Figure 1 depicts how this frame-
work—of direction, intensity, and persistence—can be applied to employee volunteering.
Following this framework, volunteering direction captures an individual’s decision to
devote effort toward a volunteering activity rather than toward another activity, such as exer-
cising, spending time with family, or working. Studies of employee volunteering that focus
on the decision to sign up for a “day of service” at their company and studies that compare
groups of volunteers to nonvolunteers are examining the concept of volunteering direction.
In his conceptual model of volunteering, Penner labeled this the “decision to volunteer”
(2002: 460). An example of this approach is Peterson’s (2004b) research on corporate recruit-
ment strategies for volunteering programs, where individuals responded to a yes/no question
about whether they volunteered.

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6   Journal of Management / Month XXXX

Figure 1
Conceptualizing Employee Volunteering as Direction, Intensity, and Persistence

Volunteering intensity captures the extent to which, or frequency with which, an individ-
ual volunteers. The majority of research on employee volunteering has taken this approach,
as have a handful of studies on volunteering in general. Similar to other constructs in organi-
zational behavior, such as citizenship behavior (K. Lee & Allen, 2002), scholars pursuing this
route to examining employee volunteering are interested in understanding the causes and
consequences of the magnitude of employee involvement in volunteer activities. A variety of
approaches have been employed to assess volunteering intensity, such as self-reports of the
number of hours spent volunteering (e.g., Booth et al., 2009; Mojza et al., 2011; Wilson &
Musick, 1997b, 1998), the breadth of volunteering in various categories of activities (e.g.,
Gillath, Shaver, Mikulincer, Nitzberg, Erez, & Van Ijzendoorn, 2005; Paço & Nave, 2013;
Wilson & Musick, 1997a, 1997b, 1998), and scale-based measures of the extent of frequency
of volunteering (e.g., Brockner et al., 2014; Rodell, 2013).
Despite the prevalence of measuring volunteering intensity with the number of hours,
scholars also point to concerns with that approach (e.g., Cnaan & Amrofell, 1994; Hinkin,
1995; Musick & Wilson, 2008). For example, relying on a self-report of the number of hours
volunteered brings with it the reliability problems of other one-item measures, given that
reliability cannot be estimated in the absence of measurement repetition (Hinkin; Kenny,
1979; Nunnally, 1978). In addition, this type of measurement may be prone to issues of con-
tamination. Musick and Wilson highlight two such concerns: that reports of volunteer hours
may be influenced by the framing of the question (e.g., Is it hours per week, month, or year?)
and that people vary in the boundaries they put on the activity (e.g., Does time spent driving
to the site count?). Scale-based measures—like the type used by Brockner et al. (2014) and
Rodell (2013)—seem less susceptible to these sorts of validity issues.
Volunteering persistence captures the longevity of an individual’s volunteering activity.
Scholars who adopt this approach are interested in the ultimate impact of volunteering on the
volunteer, and the volunteer group, in the long run (e.g., Boezeman & Ellemers, 2007;
Caligiuri et al., 2013; Dawley, Stephens, & Stephens, 2005). A few definitions, in fact,

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 Rodell et al. / Employee Volunteering   7

reference longevity as a component of volunteering (Grant, 2012; Penner, 2002). We argue

that although persistence may be an important aspect of volunteering for the volunteer group
receiving the assistance (Penner), it is not a necessary component of the definition. For exam-
ple, employees who participate in a single “day of service” (e.g., serving at a soup kitchen or
cleaning a highway) through their company are still giving their time during a planned activ-
ity for a volunteer group and, thus, volunteering. Indeed, some conceptualizations specifi-
cally define volunteering as a “discrete or episodic” (e.g., Harrison, 1995: 372) behavior
rather than a continuous behavior. Thus, we propose that persistence is one option for opera-
tionalizing employee volunteering, depending on the research question. For example,
Caligiuri et al. assessed “continued volunteerism” in an examination of the benefits of
employee volunteering programs for volunteer agencies.
To illustrate the value of the framework in Figure 1, consider a research question that
might utilize volunteering direction, intensity, and persistence in tandem. For example, a
study might be interested in examining why exactly volunteering on one’s own time is ben-
eficial for employees at work: Is it simply the decision to engage in volunteering (direction)
that improves employee attitudes and morale, or is there a certain threshold of involvement
(intensity) or long-term investment (persistence) required in order to reap those benefits? We
believe that the framework described above not only provides a way to integrate the existing
research on volunteering but also sets the groundwork for future research questions like this
that are important for both the literature and in practice.
In addition, the framework in Figure 1 incorporates the distinction between the two types
of employee volunteering discussed above—corporate and personal. Once an employee
decides to devote attention toward volunteering (volunteering direction), the intensity and
persistence of that effort can be either (or both) corporate or personal in nature. This frame-
work offers scholars a common language to describe the phenomena they are examining and
allows them to adapt measures of volunteering direction, intensity, and persistence to refer-
ence either employee volunteering in general or its more specific corporate and/or personal
substrates.
We should note that some scholars have taken an entirely different approach to examining
employee volunteering. Instead of addressing the act of volunteering as a behavior, these
scholars have assessed attitudes towards a company’s volunteering programs and/or the exis-
tence of company volunteering programs (e.g., Jones, 2010; Jones et al., 2014). Although this
decision differs from our behavioral approach, these endeavors are informative and relevant
to the current discussion. As noted above, the precise approach and measure adopted by
scholars should be driven by their research question. In an effort to increase clarity in this
research stream, we will make note of the conceptualization employed as we review the
existing research below.

Integrative Framework of Employee Volunteering

Research on employee volunteering has addressed a variety of issues ranging from indi-
vidual-level motivations and outcomes to company-level program details and reputational
implications (Booth et al., 2009; Brockner et al., 2014; Caligiuri et al., 2013; Grant, 2012;
Jones et al., 2014; Rodell, 2013). Given that this research spans several areas of study, a
multitude of theoretical perspectives have also been employed, varying from motivation to

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8   Journal of Management / Month XXXX

job design to signaling (Grant; Jones et al.; Rodell). In this section, we present an integrative
framework that summarizes the current state of this literature, as depicted in Figure 2. We
walk through this framework, starting with individual-level factors and building to organiza-
tional-level factors—first for the antecedents of volunteering (including individual factors,
workplace characteristics, and company-level factors) and then for the consequences of vol-
unteering (including personal outcomes, work outcomes, company performance, and exter-
nal perceptions). Figure 2 also includes suggestions for future research (denoted in gray text),
which we review in a subsequent section. Table 1 provides a summary of the current employee
volunteering literature, noting the various definitions, measures, theoretical perspectives, and
context of each study.

Antecedents of Employee Volunteering

A variety of factors influence employees’ decisions to volunteer, as well as their volun-
teering intensity and persistence. Some of these factors can be found in research on volun-
teering in general, such as demographic characteristics and personality traits. Others, however,
are unique to employees in a work context, for example, aspects of one’s job design and work
context, as well as organizational-level structures and policies regarding volunteering. In the
following section, we review the existing research on these antecedents of employee volun-
teering, starting with individual factors and working up to workplace characteristics and
company-level factors (as depicted in Figure 2).

Individual factors. Research on individual-level antecedents of employee volunteering has

built on a prolific body of studies from sociology, as well as personality and social psychology
(Musick & Wilson, 2008). These studies have documented how volunteering, both in general
and in the corporate context, is associated with four main classes of antecedents: demographics,
personality traits, motives, and identity (depicted in Figure 2; see also Henning & Jones, 2013).
Below, we summarize the findings of this research, focusing our discussion on employee volun-
teering.
The demographic antecedents of employee volunteering most commonly studied are age,
gender, education, and responsibility for children. Studies of employees tend to find that
volunteering increases with age (Cornwell & Warburton, 2014; DeVoe & Pfeffer, 2007;
Peterson, 2004b; Rodell, 2013). However, Musick and Wilson (2008) have clarified that,
across the full human life span, the decision to volunteer (volunteering direction) resembles
an inverted U and the amount of time spent volunteering (volunteering intensity) is more
linear. Evidence of volunteering intensity by gender is mixed (e.g., DeVoe & Pfeffer;
Houghton, Gabel, & Williams, 2009; Houston, 2006; Rodell), although research tends to
show that women are more likely to volunteer than men (Cornwell & Warburton; DeVoe &
Pfeffer; Y. J. Lee & Brudney, 2012). More consistently, higher levels of education are associ-
ated with greater volunteering intensity (Houston; Marshall & Taniguchi, 2012; Rotolo &
Wilson, 2006; Wilson & Musick, 1997b). Finally, employees with child-rearing responsibili-
ties, particularly for school-aged children, tend to exhibit more volunteering (Cornwell &
Warburton; DeVoe & Pfeffer; Houston; Marshall & Taniguchi; Peterson).
Beyond demographics, personality traits have attracted considerable attention among
volunteering scholars. Among the traits investigated, the one most proximal to volunteering

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 Figure 2
An Integrative Framework and Future Research Agenda for Employee Volunteering

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9
Note: Black text signifies topics covered in existing research; gray text signifies topics suggested for future research. OCB = organizational citizenship
behavior; CWB = counterproductive work behavior.
 10
Table 1
Summary of the Empirical Studies on Employee Volunteering

Volunteering Volunteering Antecedents of Consequences of

Citation Definition Measure Theoretical Perspectives Study Context Volunteering Volunteering

Bartel (2001) Corporate Direction Categorization Field study at consumer — Company identification
Identity goods company Effort and cooperation
Basil, Runte, Corporate — Organizational ecology Field study across multiple Timing of volunteering —
Easwaramoorthy, Organizational stages companies Employer
& Barr (2009) encouragement
Booth, Won Park, Corporate Intensity Gift exchange Field study based on Timing of volunteering Skill development
& Glomb (2009) Social exchange national survey Employer support Job success
   Employer recognition
Brockner, Senior, Personal and Intensity Functionalist theory (1) Field study at Volunteer motivation Self-integrity
& Welch (2014) Corporate pharmaceutical company, Self-integrity Company commitment
(2) Field study at
technology company
Caligiuri, Mencin, Corporate Persistence Social learning Field study at Volunteer Skill development
& Jiang (2013) Theory of learning pharmaceutical company meaningfulness
Stakeholder theory Volunteer group support Engagement
Utilize work skills
Caudron (1994) Employee — — Field study across multiple — Teamwork and morale
companies Skill development
Company pride
Cornwell & Personal Direction Social capital Field study based on Work schedule —
Warburton (2014) national survey Education level

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de Gilder, Schuyt, Personal and Direction — Field study at banking Demographics Volunteering attitudes
& Breedijk Corporate company Work attitudes
(2005) Company identification
Career commitment
Turnover intentions
Citizenship behavior

(continued)
 Table 1 (continued)

Volunteering Volunteering Antecedents of Consequences of

Citation Definition Measure Theoretical Perspectives Study Context Volunteering Volunteering

DeVoe & Pfeffer Personal Direction and Economic value of time (1) Field study based on Employment pay —
(2007) Intensity national survey, (2) schedule
Online experiment Demographics
Industry
DeVoe & Pfeffer Personal Direction Self-determination (1) Field study across Employment pay —
(2010) multiple law firms, (2) schedule
Experiment with students
Gatignon-Turnau & Corporate Intensity Social exchange Field study across two Employer support Company commitment
Mignonac (2015) Social identity companies (insurance Employer motives
Attribution theory and airline)
Geroy, Wright, & Employee — — Field study across multiple Motivation —
Jacoby (2000) companies
Gomez & Employee Intensity Household production Field study based on Work schedule —
Gunderson (2003) theory national survey
Industry
Houghton, Gabel, Corporate Intensity Planned behavior Field study of working Employer requirements Work compliance
& Williams masters of business
(2009) administration students
Houston (2006) Employee Intensity — Field study based on Employment sector —
national survey
Jain, Malhotra, & Employee — — Field study across Volunteer motives Affect
Guan (2012) four pharmaceutical Service-oriented
companies citizenship behavior
Customer loyalty

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Jones (2010) Corporate —a Social exchange Field study at consumer — Company identification
Organizational goods company Company pride
identification Task performance
Citizenship behavior
Intention to stay
(continued)

11
 12
Table 1 (continued)
Volunteering Volunteering Antecedents of Consequences of
Citation Definition Measure Theoretical Perspectives Study Context Volunteering Volunteering

Jones, Willness, & Corporate —a Signaling (1) Experiment with Communal orientation Company pride
Madey (2014) Social identity students, (2) Field study Values fit
Person/organization fit of job seekers Expected treatment
Company attractiveness

Kim, Lee, Lee, & Corporate Intensity — Field study across multiple — Company prestige
Kim (2010) companies Company identification
Company commitment

MacPhail & Bowles Employee Intensity — Field study based on Type of volunteer —
(2009) national survey activity
Employer support
Timing of volunteering
Marshall & Employee Intensity Gender-identification Field study based on Job characteristics —
Taniguchi (2012) spillover national survey Employment status
   Occupation
Gender
Mattila & Hanks Employee Direction Information processing Online experiment — Customer attitudes
(2013) Customer relationship
Mayer, Fraccastoro, Employee Intensity — Field study of Organizational-based —
& McNary (2007) volunteers from one self esteem
nongovernmental
organization
Mojza & Sonnentag Personal Intensity — Field and diary study Job stressors Positive affect

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(2010) across multiple public Active listening
sector companies
Mojza, Sonnentag, Personal Intensity Self-determination Field and diary study — Detachment from work
& Bornemann Recovery across multiple Mastery experiences
(2011)   companies Need satisfaction
Affect at work
Active listening

(continued)
 Table 1 (continued)
Volunteering Volunteering Antecedents of Consequences of
Citation Definition Measure Theoretical Perspectives Study Context Volunteering Volunteering

Paço & Nave Corporate Intensity Functionalist Field study at energy Motivation Volunteering
(2013) company satisfaction
Happiness
Pajo & Lee (2011) Corporate Direction Job design Field study at technology Motivation —
company Volunteer characteristics
Pavlova & Employee Direction Life span development Field study of household Occupational uncertainty —
Silbereisen (2014) Transactional stress sample

Peloza & Hassay Corporate and Direction — Field study across multiple Motivation Work efficiency
(2006) Personal companies Team building
   Company recognition
Peloza, Hudson, & Corporate and Intensity Social exchange Field study across multiple Motivation —
Hassay (2009) Personal companies Timing of volunteering
Coworker volunteering
   Employer support
Peterson (2004a) Personal and Direction — Field study of working — Skill development
Corporate university alumni Company commitment
Job satisfaction
Peterson (2004b) Corporate Direction and Functionalist Field study of working Recruitment strategies —
Intensity university alumni
Rodell (2013) Employee Intensity Enhancement (1) Field study of working Job meaningfulness Job absorption
Compensation students, (2) Field Volunteering Job interference
Resource drain study across multiple meaningfulness Task performance
companies Prosocial identity Citizenship behavior

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Reduced counter­
productive behavior
Rotolo & Wilson Employee Intensity Rational choice Field study based on Employment sector —
(2006) Generation theory national survey Work hours

(continued)

13
 14
Table 1 (continued)
Volunteering Volunteering Antecedents of Consequences of
Citation Definition Measure Theoretical Perspectives Study Context Volunteering Volunteering

Stukas, Snyder, & Employee Direction Theory of planned (1) Field study of students, Required participation —
Clary (1999) behavior (2) Experiment with
students
Tuffrey (1997) Corporate — — Field study across multiple — Skill development
companies Employee morale
Work motivation
Webb & Abzug Employee Direction — Field study of working Occupational norms —
(2008) volunteers Professional norms
Wilson & Musick Employee Intensity Spillover theory Field study based on Altruism —
(1997b) national survey Occupation
characteristics

aThese studies used alternative approaches to examining volunteering; instead of measuring the behavior, they measured either employee attitudes about volunteering or

the existence of a volunteering program.

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 Rodell et al. / Employee Volunteering   15

is prosocial personality (Penner, Fritzsche, Craiger, & Freifeld, 1995)—a two-dimensional

construct composed of other-oriented empathy (prosocial thoughts and feelings) and helpful-
ness (a behavioral tendency to help). Findings support the notion that prosocial personality is
relevant to both volunteering intensity and persistence (e.g., Finkelstein, 2009; Penner, 2002;
Penner & Finkelstein, 1998). Research conducted on related topics, such as empathic con-
cern or assuming responsibility for others, corroborates these results (Einolf, 2008, 2010).
Adopting a more distal approach, scholars have also applied the five-factor model of per-
sonality to the study of volunteering. Agreeableness and extraversion, in particular, have
been linked to volunteering direction (Carlo, Okun, Knight, & de Guzman, 2005; Elshaug &
Metzer, 2001), indicating that volunteers are likely to be more extraverted and agreeable than
nonvolunteers. Yet when examined alongside other individual differences, the Big Five traits
showed no effect on volunteering intensity (Erez, Mikulineer, van Ijzendoorn, & Kroonenberg,
2008). Although these findings do not yield a perfectly clear consensus, they seem to indicate
that an orientation toward others is an important factor for volunteering.
Of all of the research conducted on individual-level antecedents of employee volunteer-
ing, the majority has focused on motives for volunteering. From the perspective of managing
employees, motives (as compared to personality) may provide a more useful basis for recruit-
ing and managing employee volunteering efforts in companies (Clary et al., 1998; Peterson,
2004b). Qualitative and quantitative investigations have found that volunteers are typically
driven by more than a single motive, suggesting a complex motivational mechanism at work
(Geroy, Wright, & Jacoby, 2000; Kiviniemi, Snyder, & Omoto, 2002; Pajo & Lee, 2011;
Peloza & Hassay, 2006). Consequently, researchers have adopted and developed several
models to examine volunteering motives (e.g., Ajzen, 1991; Clary et al.; Knoke, 1988; Omoto
& Snyder, 1995).
Scholars have most commonly adopted a functionalist approach—a theoretical model that
suggests that volunteering serves certain functions for individuals, which motivates volun-
teering behavior (Clary & Snyder, 1999). Broadly, the functional perspective of volunteering
distinguishes between self-oriented and other-oriented motives (Musick & Wilson, 2008).
Self-oriented motives focus on a variety of potential outcomes for the volunteer, such as
increased positive (and decreased negative) affect and self-esteem, acquiring new knowledge
and skills, advancing one’s career, and maintaining social relationships (Clary et al., 1998;
Omoto & Snyder, 1995). Other-oriented motives are concerned with increasing the well-
being of those benefitting from voluntary work, which has been modeled as an expression of
altruistic values (Clary et al.) or concern for a specific community of people (Omoto &
Snyder).
A number of empirical studies have found evidence of the effects of these motives on
volunteering. For example, there are generally convergent findings that other-oriented
motives are a significant driver of volunteering intensity in students (Carlo et al., 2005;
Finkelstein, 2009), the general adult population (Penner & Finkelstein, 1998), and employ-
ees (Brockner et al., 2014; Pajo & Lee, 2011; Peloza & Hassay, 2006; Peloza, Hudson, &
Hassay, 2009). Results for self-oriented motives, however, tend to be less conclusive. The
most common finding is that self-oriented motives have little to no effect on volunteering
(Carlo et al.; Finkelstein; Penner & Finkelstein), though only one of these studies was con-
ducted with employees (Brockner et al.).

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16   Journal of Management / Month XXXX

It is possible that self-oriented motives may be more relevant in an employee context.

Peloza et al. (2009) found that self-oriented motives—a combination of career advancement,
social interaction, and learning—increased corporate volunteering intensity but decreased
personal volunteering intensity. Furthermore, there may be motives that are unique to corpo-
rate volunteering. For example, Peloza and colleagues found evidence that employees are
motivated to volunteer because they believe it will benefit their employer (Peloza & Hassay,
2006; Peloza et al.). In addition, employees may volunteer in an effort to look good to their
supervisor and manage impressions in the workplace (Peloza & Hassay).
In addition to functionalism, other theoretical models have been applied to the study of
employee volunteering. Harrison (1995) tested the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991)
in a multiwave sample and found support for the influence of moral obligation on volunteer-
ing direction. Booth et al. (2009) chose yet another approach in adopting Knoke’s (1988)
distinction between affective bonding with others, normative conformity to help, and rational
choice. Booth and colleagues reported that affective bonding (operationalized as socializing
with others) and rational choice (operationalized as improving job opportunities, exploring
strengths, and using skills and experience) were associated with volunteering intensity among
volunteers.
Finally, a smaller number of studies have investigated how role identity affects volunteer-
ing behavior. Identifying with the volunteer role is purportedly driven by prior experiences
volunteering, personal values, and individual differences (Penner, 2002). In addition, a strong
volunteering identity is thought to result in volunteering intensity and persistence (Grube &
Piliavin, 2000; Penner). The effect of a volunteer role identity on volunteering has been dem-
onstrated across research designs and contexts (Finkelstein, 2009; L. Lee, Piliavin, & Call,
1999), and identifying with a specific volunteer role for a certain charitable organization
appears to be particularly impactful (Grube & Piliavin). While none of these studies explic-
itly investigated volunteering among employed individuals, Rodell (2013) found that
employees with greater prosocial identity volunteered more frequently.
Several common themes can be identified across the research reviewed above regarding
personality, motives, and identity. In particular, research on these individual antecedents of
volunteering appears to converge on three common themes—other orientation, social aspects,
and self-orientation. First, whether assessed as a form of prosocial personality (e.g., Finkelstein,
2009), prosocial identity (e.g., Rodell, 2013), or helping motives (e.g., Brockner et al., 2014),
it appears that increasing others’ well-being is a common driver of volunteering. Second, vol-
unteering is also largely driven by a social component, including trait extraversion (e.g., Carlo
et al., 2005), perceived moral obligation (Harrison, 1995), or a motive for affective bonding
(Booth et al., 2009). Last, self-oriented concerns, such as career advancement and impression
management (Peloza & Hassay, 2006), also seem to factor into volunteering. A small number
of studies have explicitly integrated these antecedents of volunteering into a more comprehen-
sive picture, suggesting, for instance, that personality traits give rise to motives, which mani-
fest in behavior (Carlo et al.; see also Mowen & Sujan, 2005; Penner, 2002).

Workplace characteristics. In addition to individual factors, employee volunteering may

be influenced by the characteristics of one’s workplace. Factors such as the type of job an
employee holds, the norms of the workplace, and the behaviors of coworkers may be relevant
to employee volunteering. Not surprisingly, a substantial portion of the existing research on
employee volunteering has included various workplace characteristics, as they represent a

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 Rodell et al. / Employee Volunteering   17

unique aspect of employee volunteering. The characteristics explored appear to fall under
two broad categories—job design and the work context.
Building on the job characteristics model (Hackman & Oldham, 1980) and theories about
work-nonwork relationships (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006), there
are contrasting views about how, exactly, the design of one’s job influences employee volun-
teering. One approach posits that employees perceiving their jobs as interesting and chal-
lenging may be grateful to the organization for providing a desirable job and may reciprocate
through corporate volunteering (Greenhaus & Powell; Slattery, Selvarajan, Anderson, &
Sardessai, 2010). The underlying notion is that positive attitudes towards the job and the
organization may spill over to behaviors that are indirectly related to the job but still con-
nected to the organization (Wilson & Musick, 1997a).
Taking a different approach, Grant (2012) theorized that participation in volunteering
might be driven by compensatory motives, such that employees perceiving a lack of mean-
ingfulness in their jobs aim to compensate by obtaining meaningfulness from volunteering
(see also Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). Empirical findings by Rodell (2013) provide support
for both of these perspectives—that employees with highly meaningful jobs are inspired to
volunteer and that employees with less meaningful jobs attempt to compensate through
meaningful volunteer experiences. In addition, Pajo and Lee (2011) discuss an employee
motive to volunteer as an instrument of occasional diversion from their regular job and
responsibilities. Moreover, volunteering differences across occupational and professional
groups are thought to be due to varying job characteristics and norms (Webb & Abzug, 2008).
Beyond the general relationship between job design and volunteering, gender-specific
differences have also been investigated. Marshall and Taniguchi (2012) observed that women
performing supervisory jobs volunteered relatively more hours compared to their male col-
leagues in similar positions. According to those authors, a potential explanation for this pat-
tern might be that women with supervisory authority seek a chance to compensate for excess
masculinity in their regular job tasks. In addition, they found job autonomy to promote men’s
volunteering but not women’s.
Other factors of the work context can facilitate or hinder employee volunteering as well,
including work schedules, payment schedules, and job uncertainty. These aspects of work are
influential because they determine employees’ temporal and financial autonomy, which are
essential to planning and taking part in volunteering activities. Relative to a regular day shift
at work, options to split one’s shift or telecommute increase the probability of volunteering,
possibly because they provide the flexibility to fit volunteering into the day (Gomez &
Gunderson, 2003). In contrast, rotating shifts do not seem to increase volunteering, which
might be due to reduced opportunity for long-term planning with constantly changing work
hours. More generally, temporal role conflicts can limit possibilities to volunteer in spite of
willingness (Farmer & Fedor, 2001). Furthermore, DeVoe and Pfeffer (2007) reported a rela-
tionship between the schedule of work payment and volunteering. Workers paid by the hour
were less likely to volunteer and spent less time volunteering than colleagues who were sala-
ried. Presumably, some of these factors may exert weaker influence on corporate volunteer-
ing than personal volunteering because time off for volunteering is often granted by the
employing organization.
A final aspect of work-related antecedents concerns individual perceptions of job uncer-
tainty. Pavlova and Silbereisen (2014) examined the implications of coping with occupa-
tional uncertainty for volunteering at different stages in one’s career. Across two field studies,

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18   Journal of Management / Month XXXX

they found that employees early in their career who were actively focused on coping with
occupational uncertainty were more likely to volunteer than employees who simply disen-
gaged from the uncertainty that they perceived. However, methods for coping with uncer-
tainty were unrelated to volunteering at later career stages.

Company-level factors. Rising up another level within the organization, it is also likely
that company-level factors influence employee volunteering. Reports suggest that the
majority of companies in today’s business world have some involvement or affiliation with
employee volunteering (Points of Light Foundation, 2006). The primary method of this
involvement is through some form of employee volunteering program. Indeed, at least 60%
of companies have formal programs for employee volunteering, and that estimate increases
with company size (Basil, Runte, Basil, & Usher, 2011; CECP, 2014). In addition, these pro-
grams are flourishing; employee participation rates are growing each year, as are the median
number of hours volunteered (CECP).
A handful of scholars have focused their research specifically on these employee volun-
teering programs (for a recent review, see Henning & Jones, 2013). In some cases, studies
have focused on the formalization of company involvement, which can range from initiating
and coordinating volunteering opportunities to supporting employee-driven initiatives to no
involvement at all (e.g., Basil et al., 2011; Cavallaro, 2006). In other cases, studies have
examined the various features along this spectrum, such as providing time incentives for
volunteering, recognizing employees for their volunteering, and providing financial support
in the form of donations to the charities or reimbursement of employee costs for volunteering
(e.g., Basil et al., 2009; Booth et al., 2009; Gatignon-Turnau & Mignonac, 2015; Peloza
et al., 2009; Peterson, 2004b).
Despite the broad range of features that could be considered, they appear to fit into four
main categories (as depicted in Figure 2): time-based support, financial or logistical support,
employer recognition, and publicity of volunteering opportunities. First, and most commonly
examined, is time-based support for volunteering (e.g., Basil et al., 2009; Booth et al., 2009;
Bussell & Forbes, 2008; Cavallaro, 2006; Gatignon-Turnau & Mignonac, 2015; MacPhail &
Bowles, 2009; Peloza et al., 2009; Peterson 2004b). By and large, these efforts typically
include either providing employees paid time off in order to volunteer or allowing employees
to adjust their work schedules to accommodate volunteering. Reports indicate that anywhere
from 50% to 80% of companies provide time off or allow employees to volunteer during
work hours (Cavallaro; CECP, 2014). In addition, approximately 80% of companies provide
employees flexible work hours in order to accommodate their volunteering (Basil et al.).
Second is a category that we label financial and logistical support (Booth et al., 2009),
which refers to the monetary and physical assets that a company donates in order to sup-
port employee volunteering. A wide range of actions fit into this category, including allow-
ing employees to use company facilities, equipment, or transportation (Basil et al., 2009;
Booth et al.; Cavallaro, 2006); donating goods, such as prizes, gift certificates, or T-shirts,
for the volunteering efforts (Booth et al.; MacPhail & Bowles, 2009); making financial
donations to the charity (Basil et al.; Booth et al.; Gatignon-Turnau & Mignonac, 2015;
Peterson, 2004b); or providing financial support, such as paying entry fees or reimbursing
costs, for employee volunteering efforts (Booth et al.; Cavallaro; Gatignon-Turnau &
Mignonac).

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 Rodell et al. / Employee Volunteering   19

Third, several scholars have examined the role of employer recognition of employee vol-
unteering. Recognition may come in the form of awards, receptions or lunches, letters of
appreciation, commendations, or articles in newsletters or newspapers (Basil et al., 2009;
Cavallaro, 2006; Peterson, 2004b). Reports indicate that slightly more than half of compa-
nies with volunteer programs make an attempt to recognize and reward employee volunteer-
ing (CECP, 2014). Finally, companies have different philosophies and approaches to the
publicity they give to employee volunteering opportunities. They can choose to take a pas-
sive approach where employees need to seek out opportunities on their own or they can
actively publicize that information to employees (Basil et al.; Gatignon-Turnau & Mignonac,
2015; Peterson). Going a step further, Basil et al. reported that a smaller subset of companies
go beyond publicizing volunteering opportunities and educate their employees about the
importance of volunteering, as well as maintain records of employee skills and experience in
order to make them aware of best-fitting opportunities.
Although the studies discussed above provide valuable descriptive information about the
nature and structure of employee volunteering programs, only a handful of them examined
the impact on workplace outcomes. In general, these studies confirm the expected positive
effects—that such company efforts increase the direction of employee attention toward vol-
unteering (Peterson, 2004b) as well as employee volunteering intensity both in terms of
volunteering hours and the breadth of volunteer activity (Booth et al., 2009; MacPhail &
Bowles, 2009; Peterson). There are also, however, a few studies that appear to contradict the
expected benefits of company-level factors. For example, Peloza et al. (2009) found that
time-based support and recognition for volunteering were not effective methods of increas-
ing employee participation. Likewise, in both a field study and a laboratory experiment,
Stukas, Snyder, and Clary (1999) showed that perceptions that volunteering was manda-
tory—“voluntolding”—reduced future intentions to volunteer.
These seemingly contradictory findings suggest that there may be a “fine line” in the
appropriate level of company involvement in employee volunteering. This possibility mir-
rors findings from the broader literature in organizational behavior, which has shown that
relying on formal rules and policies (rather than norms and behaviors) to control employees
may backfire, causing them to rebel and resist (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1996). Indeed, Li,
Chiaburu, and Kirkman (in press) recently reported that organizational support was not nec-
essarily a positive force for employees; rather, in some conditions, employees responded
negatively.

Consequences of Employee Volunteering

Research conducted on volunteering outside the field of management has demonstrated a
variety of outcomes associated with the behavior. For example, volunteers tend to report
higher levels of self-esteem and life satisfaction (e.g., Harlow & Cantor, 1996), as well as bet-
ter physical health and lower depression levels (e.g., Musick, Herzog, & House, 1999; Thoits
& Hewitt, 2001). Although these outcomes are likely true for employee volunteering as well,
there are also a host of outcomes unique to employee volunteering, for example, the impact on
job performance, employee retention, and company reputation. In the sections that follow, we
summarize the current knowledge on these types of consequences. Following the design in
Figure 2, we begin with the most individual-level outcomes—personal outcomes—and work

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20   Journal of Management / Month XXXX

our way up through work outcomes, company performance, and, finally, external perceptions.
Whenever possible, we also discuss the various mechanisms, particularly in the form of
employee attitudes, that have been demonstrated to account for those types of outcomes.

Personal outcomes. The personal outcomes of employee volunteering broadly pertain to

need satisfaction and general well-being. Evidence suggests that employees may satisfy a
variety of personal needs through volunteering. The largest portion of this research demon-
strates that employees feel a sense of accomplishment from volunteering—either corporate
or personal—and believe that they have been able to develop and grow from the experience
(Booth et al., 2009; Caligiuri et al., 2013; Mojza et al., 2011; Mojza & Sonnentag, 2010).
Employee volunteering also provides employees an opportunity to connect with others and
experience a sense of belonging (Mojza et al.; Mojza & Sonnentag). Moreover, there is some
evidence that employees derive a sense of meaning or purpose from their volunteer experi-
ences (Brockner et al., 2014; Caligiuri et al.; Geroy et al., 2000; Rodell, 2013). Mojza et al.
and Mojza and Sonnentag demonstrated that such effects of employee volunteering exist
even beyond other forms of leisure activity.
Employee volunteering is also largely beneficial for employees’ well-being. On the basis of
a 2-week diary study, Mojza et al. (2011) found that personal volunteering served as a form of
recovery for employees by allowing them to psychologically detach from their work. They
also demonstrated that, by fulfilling employee needs, volunteering improved employees’ emo-
tional states—allowing them to exhibit more positive affect and less negative affect the fol-
lowing day at work. Similarly, Paço and Nave (2013) found that satisfaction with corporate
volunteering was related to greater happiness in volunteers. In a related vein, research shows
that employees are also able to benefit from volunteering in the form of employer recognition
and appreciation for their efforts (Booth et al., 2009; Peloza & Hassay, 2006).

Work behaviors. In addition to the personal rewards of employee volunteering, employ-

ees may benefit in terms of improved important work behaviors, namely, job performance
and employee retention. Although only a handful of studies have addressed the perfor-
mance implications of employee volunteering, the results are largely supportive of this
relationship. In particular, it appears that employee volunteering—both corporate and per-
sonal—is related to increases in core task performance and citizenship behaviors, as well
as decreases in counterproductive behavior (de Gilder, Schuyt, & Breedijk, 2005; Jones,
2010; Rodell, 2013).
Scholars have adopted a variety of theoretical approaches to examine the possible expla-
nations for such performance improvements. One explanation regarding corporate volunteer-
ing in particular is that it provides employees a stronger sense of connection (identification)
with their employer on the basis of a sense of respect and pride for the company’s support of
such activities (e.g., Caudron, 1994; de Gilder et al., 2005; Jones, 2010; Kim, Lee, Lee, &
Kim, 2010). In terms of personal volunteering, research suggests that it can have a cross-
domain enhancement effect on employee engagement and motivation (Rodell, 2013; Tuffrey,
1997). For example, Rodell demonstrated how volunteering, regardless of whether it was
corporate or personal, acted as a psychological resource that employees could use in the
workplace.
There is also evidence that employee volunteering provides an opportunity for people to
develop and improve work-related skills, such as communication, interpersonal skills, and

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 Rodell et al. / Employee Volunteering   21

active listening (Booth et al., 2009; Caligiuri et al., 2013; Mojza et al., 2011; Tuffrey, 1997).
Indeed, Caudron referred to employee volunteering as a “low cost training option” (1994:
38). Last, studies have also indicated that employee volunteering is associated with higher
levels of job satisfaction and a boost in employee morale (Caudron; Peterson, 2004a; Tuffrey).
Moving beyond job performance, a handful of studies also speak to the relationship
between employee volunteering and retention by examining either company commitment or
employee intentions to remain with the company (de Gilder et al., 2005; Jones, 2010; Kim
et al., 2010; Peloza & Hassay, 2006; Peterson, 2004a). Peterson found that employees who
volunteered through their company’s program reported higher levels of commitment to the
company than employees who did not volunteer. Likewise, Peloza and Hassay reported that
employees reacted negatively to hypothetical interview questions about their company
potentially reducing support for employee volunteering initiatives and stated it would prompt
them to seek employment elsewhere. In terms of explanations for these findings, Jones
reported that employees who viewed their company’s volunteering programs positively were
more likely to remain committed to the organization through a sense of pride and identifica-
tion. Despite these positive indications, we should note that, in a study comparing corporate
and personal volunteering with nonvolunteering, Peterson did not find any differences among
employees’ commitment to their employer.

External perceptions. There is also the potential for employee volunteering to influence
perceptions and behaviors of individuals outside of the company—potential employees, cus-
tomers, or other stakeholders. In particular, evidence thus far indicates that employee vol-
unteering programs have the potential to improve a company’s reputation, as well as attract
potential employees. Although the majority of this information comes from industry reports
(e.g., Deloitte Development, 2011; Points of Light Foundation, 2000), scholars are beginning
to examine these outcomes as well (e.g., Jones et al., 2014; Jones & Willness, 2013).
By and large, companies tend to believe that supporting employee volunteering will help
improve their image and reputation (de Gilder et al., 2005; Points of Light Foundation, 2000).
Indeed, as early as 2000, the Points of Light Foundation reported that over 80% of companies
were investing in employee volunteering in order to improve their public relations. A study
conducted by the Conference Board and the Points of Light Foundation also noted that con-
sumer behaviors are increasingly influenced by the perceived social responsibility of the com-
pany (Wild, 1993). Using an experiment that manipulated a company’s level of volunteer
involvement, Mattila and Hanks (2013) found that thoughtful consumers tended to have more
positive perceptions of corporate volunteering programs, which affected their attitudes toward
the company.
Likewise, there are also indications that employee volunteering opportunities may increase
company attractiveness to potential employees, improving the recruitment process (Jones
et al., 2014; Jones & Willness, 2013). The majority of millennials (70%) reported that a com-
pany’s community involvement would significantly influence their decision between two
potential jobs, holding location, responsibilities, pay, and benefits constant (Deloitte
Development, 2011). This trend was consistent for individuals who rarely, if ever, volun-
teered (Deloitte Development). In both lab and field settings, Jones et al. recently found that
companies can use corporate volunteering programs to distinguish themselves from other
potential employers. In particular, they found that people were more attracted to a company
when their recruitment materials included information about employee volunteering and

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22   Journal of Management / Month XXXX

giving behavior. Moreover, by integrating theorizing on signaling, social identity, and fit,
they were able to conclude that these recruitment materials increased attraction because of
the signals it sent regarding the company’s prestige and values.

Future Research Agenda

Given that employee volunteering is a relatively new area of research, there are quite a
few avenues for scholars to explore in the future. We would like to devote this section to a
few key areas where research is currently lacking. Our suggestions generally fall into two
general categories—either opportunities for refinement and clarity regarding existing areas
of inquiry or currently unexplored areas of inquiry that represent new directions of research.
We believe that examination in these directions will not only broaden our understanding of
employee volunteering but also provide critical information to companies in terms of adopt-
ing and managing employee volunteering programs.

Addressing Discrepancies in Existing Findings

A considerable part of existing research on employee volunteering has focused on individual
and work-related antecedents and outcomes of participating in volunteering opportunities and
has yielded valuable insights. However, there is surprisingly little convergence of results in
some areas, such as which motives drive participation or to what extent volunteering affects
commitment to the company. We see two methodological explanations and corresponding
ways forward. First, discrepancies in results may be due to differences in conceptualizations
(employee, corporate, and personal volunteering) and measurement (direction, intensity, or per-
sistence) of employee volunteering. For example, scholars have noted differences in employee
attitudes as a result of corporate versus personal volunteering (Peloza & Hassay, 2006; Peterson,
2004a). We suggest that, drawing on Figure 1, scholars can make more informed and deliberate
decisions about these issues in the future, bringing more clarity to this literature.
Second, volunteering scholars could strengthen causal inferences by employing more rig-
orous designs and analyses in future research (Aguinis & Edwards, 2014; Aguinis &
Vandenberg, 2014). The majority of studies summarized in Table 1 relied on cross-sectional
research designs, limiting causal interpretation of findings. A small percentage of the existing
studies (approximately 17%) employed alternative approaches, such as experiments or lon-
gitudinal designs (e.g., DeVoe & Pfeffer, 2007, 2010; Jones et al., 2014; Mojza et al., 2011;
Mojza & Sonnentag, 2010).
We encourage scholars to not only follow these examples in future research but also pur-
posefully select their research design and analyses in order to combat potential problems
associated with examining volunteering. For example, given the fact that employees typi-
cally self-select into volunteering (which prohibits randomized experiments; Grant & Wall,
2009), we advocate making use of the rich toolbox of quasi-experimental designs. In addi-
tion, estimates of volunteering outcomes may suffer from bias because volunteers are not
randomly sampled from employees (Antonakis, Bendahan, Jacquart, & Lalive, 2010;
Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002). Future studies could take steps to alleviate this potential
bias, for example, by using well-matched control groups (e.g., nonvolunteering coworkers)
or collecting repeated measurements of focal variables before and after volunteering (Shadish

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 Rodell et al. / Employee Volunteering   23

& Cook, 2009; Shadish et al.). Moreover, several data-analytic tools for improved causal
inference are available, including propensity scores, instrumental variables, and Heckman
selection models (Antonakis et al.).

Company-Level Factors
Although scholars have examined various company-level factors—particularly the dif-
ferent aspects and designs of corporate volunteering programs—there is little consensus
about how to best categorize and integrate that information for future research and practice.
One option is for scholars to apply existing organizational behavior frameworks. For exam-
ple, drawing from the culture literature, aspects of corporate volunteering programs can be
thought of as artifacts—the things and actions that employees easily observe at work—that
signal what the company values (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1996; Rousseau, 1990; Schein,
1990). It may be possible for future research to use this framework of artifacts to categorize
and theorize about the various aspects of a corporate volunteering program. The more arti-
facts a company has that support volunteerism (such as time-based support, financial or
logistical support, recognition, and publicizing opportunities) may signal that volunteering
is more valued and normative (O’Reilly & Chatman; Salancik, 1977), which may increase
employee volunteering.
Adopting existing frameworks such as this may provide the foundation for scholars to
more deeply explore the implications of corporate volunteering programs for the company
and employees. Only a handful of the studies that we reviewed empirically linked aspects of
a corporate volunteering program to volunteering levels and company commitment (Booth
et al., 2009; Gatignon-Turnau & Mignonac, 2015; MacPhail & Bowles, 2009; Peterson,
2004b). There are still many remaining unanswered questions about these relationships. For
example, do each of these aspects (or artifacts) have a similar effect on volunteering? And do
these aspects influence volunteering direction, intensity, and/or persistence? Is there a “tip-
ping point” beyond which certain characteristics are perceived as such strong normative
pressure that people rebel and resist volunteering? Beyond the act of volunteering, “stronger”
corporate volunteering programs may also affect employees’ attitudes and behaviors
(O’Reilly & Chatman, 1996). For example, does the existence of a strong corporate volun-
teering program improve employee engagement, morale, and performance? And can it deter
a subset of potential employees, such as introverts, from applying to the company?
A related line of inquiry pertains to the mechanism through which the effects of company-
level factors occur. Do these factors affect employees’ attitudes and behaviors through their
individual level of volunteering behavior or some aggregated perception regarding the level
of volunteering among employees at the company? Future research could explore the idea of
a volunteering climate—the degree to which employees as a whole devote time during a
planned activity for a volunteer group or organization in terms of either the direction, inten-
sity, or persistence of such effort. Such a volunteering climate could be assessed with a scale-
based measure that was adapted to reference the work group as a whole (e.g., “Employees
around here give their time to help a volunteer group”) and then aggregated to the group or
company level. This form of creating a group-level construct is what Chan (1998) refers to
as a referent-shift consensus. This potential is illustrated with the gray arrow in Figure 2.
Once aggregated to the organizational level in this manner, research can also expand to

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24   Journal of Management / Month XXXX

examine organizational outcomes of employee volunteering, such as financial and social

performance, as well as organizational reputation and attractiveness.

Personal Outcomes
Although quite a bit of research speaks to individual-level consequences of volunteering,
the findings thus far have been overwhelmingly positive. Employees appear to benefit per-
sonally (e.g., Mojza et al., 2011; Mojza & Sonnentag, 2010) as well as professionally (e.g.,
Jones, 2010; Rodell, 2013) from volunteering. However, outside of a few exceptions, most
of this work has not examined the possible risks of volunteering (e.g., Kiviniemi et al., 2002;
Rodell). In one exception, Gatignon-Turnau and Mignonac (2015) recently found that the
positive relationship between company support for volunteering and organizational commit-
ment disappeared when employees attributed that support to public relations motives.
Moreover, Kiviniemi et al. found that volunteering in order to fulfill multiple motives (com-
pared to a single motive) was detrimental and related to greater stress and lower satisfaction.
Although their experiment was not conducted among employees exclusively, their findings
may be particularly relevant to employee volunteering as the research reviewed above hints
that employees may have many motives for their volunteering (e.g., Pajo & Lee, 2011; Peloza
& Hassay, 2006).
Future research may benefit from a more in-depth study of the potential risks of employee
volunteering, as well as the conditions under which various consequences may emerge. For
instance, employees may react differently to volunteering and their company’s volunteering
program depending on the level of autonomy provided in their volunteering tasks (Grant,
2012; Peloza & Hassay, 2006). Similarly, personal outcomes may depend on the extent to
which the company attempts to reap business benefits from its employees’ volunteering
(Gatignon-Turnau & Mignonac, 2015; Peloza & Hassay). Examining the full scope of risks
and rewards from employee volunteering may benefit from drawing on other relevant litera-
tures, such as work-family theorizing (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000).

Colleague Reactions
Despite research focus on the impact of employee volunteering on the individuals who
volunteer (e.g., Booth et al., 2009; Brockner et al., 2014; Caligiuri et al., 2013; Mojza et al.,
2011; Rodell, 2013), little is known about the influence that volunteering may have on the
other individuals in the workplace. A couple of scholars have alluded to the idea that employee
volunteering may benefit nonvolunteers through improved external perceptions, such as the
reputation of the company (de Gilder et al., 2005; Jones, 2010). In addition, Jones et al.
(2014) provided evidence that job seekers anticipate a sense of pride for and are attracted to
companies who support volunteering.
However, less attention has been given to explicitly examining how employees’ volun-
teering may influence their fellow coworkers. For example, is there a contagion effect? Are
coworkers of volunteers more likely to volunteer? In the only study of this nature that we are
aware of, Peloza et al. (2009) found evidence that employees’ personal volunteering was
related to the volunteering behaviors of their coworkers, hinting that this is indeed a possibil-
ity. Moreover, future research may ask, Can coworkers “bask” in a positive affect or mean-
ingfulness glow of the employee volunteers? In other words, do other employees even need
to volunteer in order to receive the benefits of their colleagues’ volunteering behaviors?

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 Rodell et al. / Employee Volunteering   25

There is also a host of other unanswered questions regarding nonvolunteers in a work-

place (see Figure 2). For example, what do nonvolunteers think of their coworkers who vol-
unteer? Do they respect them for it, perceive it as a waste of company time, or judge them for
it? In one of the only studies of its kind, Snyder, Omoto, and Crain (1999) demonstrated that
volunteers could be stigmatized based on the nature of their volunteer work (e.g., working
with AIDS patients). Ultimately, then, does this opinion affect how nonvolunteers treat
employee volunteers? In addition, outside of reports that employee volunteering is growing
(CECP, 2014), there is little examination of how exactly this behavior spreads. Which affects
nonvolunteers’ decisions to get involved more: having a coworker who volunteers or work-
ing at a company with a strong corporate volunteering program?

Company Performance
Another avenue for future research is to examine company-level performance implications
of employee volunteering. Although few studies have attempted this directly, there are a few
examples that support this relationship. For example, Lewin and Sabater (1996) provide some
evidence that companies can improve their business performance through community involve-
ment. In a sample of U.S. companies, they found that community involvement—measured as
a combination of employee volunteering, company financial and logistical donations, and
recognition of employee volunteering—was related to both return on assets and return on
investments. In addition, a relatively recent report by the CEB Corporate Leadership Council
(2010) compared employee engagement levels and turnover rates between companies with
and without volunteering programs in an attempt to quantify the company-level performance
implications of volunteering. Their calculations suggested that approximately $2,400 of value
is generated by each employee volunteer.
There are also indirect indications of the relationship between employee volunteering and
company-level performance by linking the behavior to individual-level performance. For
example, employee volunteering has been shown to increase in-role and extrarole perfor-
mance (de Gilder et al., 2005; Jones, 2010; Rodell, 2013) as well as higher retention rates
among employees (de Gilder et al.; Jones; Kim et al., 2010; Peloza & Hassay, 2006; Peterson,
2004a). Meta-analytically, these and other forms of individual-level performance have been
linked to company-level performance (Hancock, Allen, Bosco, McDaniel, & Pierce, 2013;
Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, & Blume, 2009). Taken together, these studies suggest that
employee volunteering contributes indirectly to company performance.
However, the fact remains that employee performance is just one factor of a company’s
larger performance levels, such as return on assets, return on investment, and reputational
rankings. The employee volunteering literature may also benefit from more direct attempts
to establish the company-level performance implications. As Koschmann, Kuhn, and
Pfarrer (2012) describe, it is difficult to link these types of social movements to hard data,
such as the return on investment. However, there are perhaps alternative ways in which
scholars may be able to establish the value of employee volunteering at a company level.
For example, scholars may be able to compare the effectiveness of volunteering programs
by comparing the financial performance of firms that provide different types of support for
employee volunteering (e.g., time off or logistical support). In addition, it may be possible
to compare performance indicators between companies with different strengths of volun-
teering climates.

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26   Journal of Management / Month XXXX

Conclusion
Employee volunteering is a rapidly growing topic in both the workplace and academic
research. The purpose of this review was to provide clarity and structure to the expanding
literature on employee volunteering and its role in the corporate world. By integrating a
motivational perspective from management—based on direction, intensity, and persistence
of effort (Latham & Pinder, 2005)—with traditional volunteering definitions (e.g., Penner,
2002; Wilson, 2000), we provide a more structured approach to conceptualize and operation-
alize employee volunteering. In addition, this review provides an integrative framework that
summarizes the existing knowledge on employee volunteering as well as the potential ave-
nues for future research.

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