LESSON 4: KEY RESEARCH CONCEPTS: Variables and

Hypotheses
Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. compare the types of variables used in research;
2. classify the different levels of measurement in research;
3. define a hypothesis and give the characteristics of its various kinds; and,
4. discuss the basic guide line in the formulation of a hypothesis.

Keywords and Phrases:

variable discrete variable categorical data

continuum variable qualitative variable nominal scale

operational definition interval scale independent variable

LEARNER
ordinal scale dependent variable null hypothesis

alternative hypothesis

Introduction

In conducting research, one has to gather data or a set of observations or persons, informants,
respondents etc. Such observations are classified and categorized into groups that have similar
characteristics. These characteristics belong to different categories or groups.
Variables and Data

A variable is a characteristic of a unit of observation or a subject that can take on different values
for different subjects or for similar subjects at different periods or time.

Simply, it is an attribute or characteristic in which individuals differ.

Some examples are:

Name of variable Possible value

Sex/Gender Male, female

Civil status Single, married, widow, separated
Ethnic Group Tagalog, Ilocano, Visayan etc.
Number of Tourists 0,1,2,3 …….
Economic Status Low, middle, high
Performance rating Outstanding, Very Satisfactory, Satisfactory, Fair etc.

The Research Process [Key Research Concepts: Variables and Hypothesis] 34

 It is up to the researcher to define the values of the variable in his own way. We can define the
value of economic status as low, middle or high or the specific peso category as “Between P15,000 –
P20,000”, or “Between P21,000 – P25,000”. It is therefore possible that different individuals might use
different sets of values to describe the same variable.

When a description or procedure for determining the value of a variable is clearly specified, the
variable is said to be operationally defined. It is therefore expected that different individuals give different
definitions for a variable, or they are defined in terms of how they are used in the study.
Example:

The performance of a student can be operationally defined as follows:

1. Average grade in high school

2. Average grade in high school mathematics
3. Grade in College Algebra

Data and Observed Value

When the value of a variable is observed and recorded, it is known as an observed value. The set
of observed values is called data.

Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Qualitative data are values of variables expressed in words or statements. They are also called
categorical data.

Examples: gender educational qualification

ethnic groups sibling order
civil status

Quantitative data are values of variables expressed in numerical terms or quantities (either
counted or measured). They are also called numerical data.

Examples: age
economic status
number of Asian tourists
number of births

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Discrete and Continuous Variables

Discrete variable is a variable which can take only a finite number of possible values within a
limited range of values.

Examples: number of female students in a class

number of male mayors in Rizal province

Continuous variable is a variable that can take an infinite number of possible values within a range.

Examples: weight of babies born

cost of gasoline
time it takes to finish a test

Independent and Dependent Variables

In an experiment, the independent variable is varied or manipulated in the researches (for

example, cigarette smoking) and the dependent variable is the characteristic which is affected (in the
example, this might be lung cancer).

In nonexperimental research, where there is no experimental manipulation, the independent

variable is assumed to have some effects on a dependent variable (which might be for example, the
administrator’s management skills) . When the independent variable is not manipulated, it is technically
referred to as a status variable (e.g. gender, civil status, educational qualification, etc.). Even though
researchers do not actually control or manipulate status variables, they can treat them as independent
variables (Heppner, 1999).

The dependent variable refers to the status of the outcome in which the researcher is interested
in. The independent variable refers to the status of the presumed cause which lead to the changes in the
status of the dependent variable. There are instances, however, that any event or condition can be
conceptualized as either an independent or a dependent value.

Levels of Measurement

Measurement refers to assigning numbers to objects, persons or events based on a predetermined

set of rules. It ensures a way of representing the object, person or event.
There are four (4) types of scales of measurement. We describe the kind of information a
measurement gives by classifying what kind of scale the measurement depicts.

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 • Nominal Scale – if the measurement tells only what class a unit falls in with respect to a
characteristic.

Examples: Sex Civil status

Ethnic origin Employment status

Educational qualification

• Ordinal Scale – If the measurement tells us that one unit has more of the characteristic than that
of another unit.
Example: mental ability

score in the College Entrance Test

score in a beauty pageant

• Interval Scale – If the measurement tells us that one unit differs by a certain amount of the
characteristic from another unit.
• Ratio Scale – If the measurement tells us that one unit has so many times as much of the
characteristic than that of another unit. Because of this definition, it is possible that examples
for both interval and ratio scales are the same.
The scale of measurement depends on the method of measurement. The age of a student has an
interval scale. Once compared with a class, it becomes ratio scale and if the ages are labeled by categories
as young, adolescent, or adult, the age is then measured in an ordinal scale.

Reading Assignment:

• Links: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/variable.php
http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/help/user_guide/graph/variables.asp

http://www.stats.gla.ac.uk/steps/glossary/hypothesis_testing.html

• e-Journals/e-Books

ƒ PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup

ƒ Password: powersearch

The Research Process [Key Research Concepts: Variables and Hypothesis] 37

Exercises/Written Assignments:

1. Suggest an operational definition for each of the following concepts:

1.1 respondent’s income.
1.2 a student’s mathematical ability
1.3 a teacher’s communication skill
1.4 an individual’s verbal aptitude
1.5 job satisfaction
1.6 a principal’s supervisory skill
1.7 a dean’s management functions
1.8 a faculty member’s morale
1.9 a student’s math anxiety
1.10 a respondent’s economic status
2. For each of the following variables, list a set of values in either qualitative and
quantitative values:
a. family income
b. number of tourists
c. sex
d. ethnic groups
e. region
f. occupations
g. political affiliation
h. household size
i. height/weight
3. Determine whether the given variable is discrete or continuous.
a. weight of babies born
b. cost of goods sold
c. number of councilors in Manila
d. employment waiting time
e. number of students in a university
f. cost of construction materials
g. number of students who passed the test
h. time to finish an examination
i. height of a person
j. number of teachers in a region

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 4. Determine the kind of scale used in the measurement of:
a. weight of a person
b. sex/gender
c. sibling order
d. income
e. number of boys and girls in a class
f. honor students
g. registered cars
h. volume of water in a cylinder
i. length of a room
j. employment status
5. Give five (5) examples of a null hypothesis applicable in your field of specialization.

References/Bibliography:

Cohen, Louis. (1994). Research Method in Education. 4th ed. London: Routledge.

Graciano, Anthony M. and Michael L. Raulin. (2000). Research Method: A Process of Inquiry.
4th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Garcia, Carlito D. (2003). Fundamentals of Research and Research Designing. Katha Publishing
Co. Inc.

Heppner, PP. (1999). Research Design in Counseling (2nd edition) New York: Books/Cole.

Pion, et. al. (2003). Encyclopedia of Education, Vol 6. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R.L. (1991). Essentials of Behavioral Research: Methods and Data
Analysis (2nd edition). New York: McGraw_hill, Inc.

Ranjit, Kumar. (1996). Research Methodology. Busybook Distributors.

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