Project Report
Project Report
Project Report
INTRODUCTION
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1.3 Objectives Of The Project:
For this the prepared biodiesel will be taken under test to determine physical properties of
blends. This will be then compared with standard diesel fuel and a conclusion will be derived.
Above tests when conducted will eventually reveal some of the best blends which can be
used as biodiesel.
Some study regarding the topic is already available which can be used to further clarify the
conclusions.
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1.4 About Diesel
Diesel fuel in general is any liquid fuel used in diesel engines, whose fuel ignition takes
place, without any spark, as a result of compression of the inlet air mixture and then injection
of fuel. (Glow plugs, grid heaters and block heaters help achieve high temperatures for
combustion during engine startup in cold weather.) Diesel engines have found broad use as a
result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and thus fuel efficiency. This is particularly noted
where diesel engines are run at part-load; as their air supply is not throttled as in a petrol
engine, their efficiency still remains very high.
The most common type of diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil,
but alternatives that are not derived from petroleum, such as biodiesel, biomass to liquid
(BTL) or gas to liquid (GTL) diesel, are increasingly being developed and adopted. To
distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petro diesel. Ultra-
low-sulphur diesel (ULSD) is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered
sulphur contents.
Diesel fuel is a mixture of hydrocarbons obtained by distillation of crude oil. The important
properties which are used to characterize diesel fuel include cetane number (or cetane index),
fuel volatility, density, viscosity, cold behaviour, and sulphur content. Diesel fuel
specifications differ for various fuel grades and in different countries.
Diesel fuel is used in the diesel engines found in most freight trucks, trains, buses, boats, and
farm and construction vehicles, and in some cars and small trucks. Diesel fuel is also used in
diesel engine generators to generate electricity, such as in some remote villages and towns
around the world. Many industrial facilities, large buildings, institutional facilities, hospitals,
and electric utilities have diesel generators for backup and emergency power supply.
The downside to diesel is that when compared to other fuels, it induces a much bigger risk to
the environment. Also, another major downside is that it is in the process of depletion.
However, the 2nd incomplete combustion of diesel is responsible for the harmful release of
carbon, sulphurous and nitrogenous oxides into the atmosphere. These are the main
compounds/gases responsible for most of the problems regarding earth‘s atmosphere and the
weakening of ozone layer. Presence of such impurities in the atmosphere can lead to what is
known as acid rain and other climate disturbancesthat damage the natural order; the
ecosystem. Inhalation can cause headaches, nausea and prolonged exposure may lead to
3
permanent brain-damage or even death. Diesel, being a non-renewable source of energy is
now available in fewer quantities as earth‘s natural resources are nearly depleted as scientists
are trying to find newer and better alternatives.
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1.6 About Biofuel
One of the useful forms of biomass is biofuel. Bio fuel because one of the primary uses of it
is that it can be used in vehicle, more interestingly, without any modification in engines.
Biofuel, Also known as agro fuel, these fuels are mainly derived from biomass or bio waste.
The main use for which they have to be brought is in the automobile sector.
A biofuel is a fuel that is produced through contemporary biological processes, such as
agriculture and anaerobic digestion, rather than a fuel produced by geological processes such
as those involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as coal and petroleum. A proper
biofuel is recognized as something which provides qualities and characteristics as our
petroleum based fuels. Figure 1.2 shows percentage use of various raw materials in
production of bio fuel.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Chatpalliwarl, Deshpande, Modak and Thakur (2011) described the brief overview of the
Biodiesel production plant. Various issues- sources, opportunities, challenges, plant design,
and evaluation etc. are discussed related to the Biodiesel production. Important contribution
of the presented work is- it discusses the important issues concerned with the Biodiesel
production plant design, it provides the fundamental details required for the formulation of
Biodiesel plant design problem, also it presents possible approach for the mathematical
Gulab N. Jham et al.(2009) research on wild mustard (Brassica juncea L.) oil is evaluated as a
feedstock for biodiesel production. Biodiesel was obtained in 94 wt.% yield by a standard
transesterification procedure with methanol and sodium methoxide catalyst. Wild mustard oil
had a high content of erucic(13(Z)-docosenoic; 45.7 wt.%) acid, with linoleic (9(Z), 12(Z)-
acids comprising most of the remaining fatty acid profile. The cetane number, kinematic
viscosity, and oxidative stability (Rancimat method) of the methyl esters was 61.1, 5.33 mm2
s-1 (40 _C) and 4.8 h (110 _C), respectively. The cloud, pour and cold filter plugging points
were 4, -21 and -3 _C, respectively. Other properties such as acid value, lubricity, free and
total glycerol content, iodine value, Gardner color, specific gravity, as well as sulfur and
phosphorous contents were also determined and are discussed in light of biodiesel standards
ASTM D6751 and EN 14214. In summary, wild mustard oil appears to be an acceptable
processing, was used as a feedstock for biodiesel production via transesterification in a two-
step process. Two different types of salmon oil were tested: salmon oil extracted from
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acidified salmon hydrolysate and salmon oil extracted from salmon by-products. Optimal
amounts of chemicals required to give the highest biodiesel yield from each oil were
determined using batch production procedures. It was found that due to the high acid value of
biodiesel from the salmon oil. Therefore a two-step process was applied, in which a sulphuric
acid-catalysed pretreatment was used in the first step to reduce the acid value from 12.0 to
3mg [KOH] g [oil]_1 and then, in the second step, KOH-catalysed transesterification was
applied. All experiments were performed at a temperature of 5272 1C with a mixing intensity
of 600 rpm. Based on the total weight of salmon oil used, the maximum biodiesel yield of
99% was achieved using a total methanol/molar ratio of 9.2% and 0.5% (w/w) KOH. Ester
loss due to the formation of emulsion during the washing and drying steps was 15%
maximum. This loss could be reduced in practical applications by better design of washing
and drying techniques. A preliminary economic analysis showed that the cost of biodiesel
production from salmon oil was almost twice that produced from soybean oil.
HanifaTaher, et al.(2011) evaluated the microalgae oil extraction is a major step in the overall
biodiesel production process. Recently, supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) has been
solvent, which can easily be separated from the products. In addition, the use of SC-CO2 as a
reaction media has also been proposed to eliminate the inhibition limitations that encounter
SC-CO2 allows easy separation of the product. In this paper, conventional biodiesel
production with first generation feedstock, using chemical catalysts and solvent-extraction, is
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Md. Imran Kais, FarsadImtiazChowdhury, KazyFayeenShahriar (2011) research in
Chlorella and Botroyococcusbraunii was executed in open pond and bioreactor system. Then
diesel was produced by transesterification from collected algae oil. Later data was collected
from this experiment. Cost analysis was prepared to get a clear concept of the actual scenario
of algae fuel probability. This study indicates high potentiality of algae based fuel to be used
in Bangladesh replacing diesel for energy production. It can be a model for any third world
Matt Johnston1 et al. (2011) examined both the magnitude and spatial variation of new
agricultural production potential from closing of ‗yield gaps‗ for 20 ethanol and biodiesel
feedstock crops. With biofuels coming under increasing pressure to slow or eliminate indirect
land-use conversion, the use of targeted intensification via established agricultural practices
might offer an alternative for continued growth. We find that by closing the 50th percentile
production gap essentially improving global yields to median levels—the 20 crops in this
study could provide approximately 112.5 billion liters of new ethanol and 8.5 billion liters of
new biodiesel production. This study is intended to be an important new resource for
yield and agricultural intensification potential, as well as employing these data to better
utilize existing infrastructure and optimize the distribution of development and aid capital.
of biodiesel from three mixtures of vegetable oil and used cooking oil by
and coconut oils were tested. The effect of used cooking oil content in oil feedstock (used
cooking oil/vegetable oil ratios of 0.03-0.2 v/v) on methyl ester formation was investigated
and optimized. The methyl ester content from each reaction condition was determined by gas
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chromatography (GC). The optimum used cooking oil/vegetable oil ratio was 0.03 v/v for all
three kinds of oil feedstock. At this ratio, the methyl ester content of three kinds of biodiesel
were higher than the minimum limit set for Thai biodiesel (B100) specification. The
measured properties of three biodiesel products were within the limit prescribed by Thai
standards, except for the lower viscosity of biodiesel produced from coconut-used cooking oil
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CHAPTER 3
LINSEED OIL
Linseed oil production is extensive practiced throughout the world. Linseed oil is a yellow
coloured compound extracted by pressing dried flax plant seeds. It is an edible oil widely
used as a nutritional supplement and also for cooking purposes in some European regions.
Linseed oil is used as a major painting compound that binds paint material, contains it and
makes it extra glossy and shiny. It brought about a transformation in painting industry, used
by people as putty that works as a sealant for glass windows when mixed with chalk powder.
Its natural characteristic of drying upon application comes in handy for efficient wood finish.
Linseed oil has an incredible history of over 5000 years being used as food supplement and
an effective medicine. This oil is also world‘s seventh largest and China country‘s largest oil
crop. Rampant production of linseed has been found in many countries globally, including
the United States, Canada, Argentina, China, and other south Asian countries. Approximately
2.4 million tons of linseed is produced throughout the world.
Linseed is composed of 30 to 40 per cent protein and same amount of oil. It also has
important amino acids and is packed with dietary fiber, essential vitamins, minerals, lecithin
and flavonoids, making it perfect for consumption and holding great medicinal value as well.
3.1 Linseed Oil Prodution Technologies
Advantages:
Linseed oil is rich in flavor and high in oil yield.
Disadvantages:
High temperature frying seeds will reduce the content of active ingredients in oils and
fats, resulting in protein denaturation.
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3.1.3 Linseed Oil Extraction And Refining Process
The linseed oil extraction process means the linseed is extracted by organic solvents (such as
gasoline, ethanol, etc.) to get oil. The extraction method uses solvent oil (No. 6 light gasoline)
to soak the oil raw material linseed and extract the oil at high temperature. The oil first
extracted is a mixture of organic solvents and oils, which cannot be eaten directly and can
only be eaten after a series of oil refining processes (dewaxing, degumming, dehydration,
deodorization, deacidification, decolorization and other chemical treatments). After extracted,
the oil is generally lighter in color, which remains light original natural odor in the seeds or
has no obvious odor. The extraction process can extract almost all the oil from linseed, and
the economic benefit is very high. It is the most popular processing method in the modern oil
industry.
Advantages:
Very high oil yield, low cost and higher economic efficiency. The most popular
processing method in the modern oil industry.
Disadvantages:
Destroy almost all nutrients and there remain traces of organic solvents.
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CHAPTER 4
Diesel Engine:
In the 1890s, Rudolf Diesel invented an efficient, compression
ignition, internal combustion engine that bears his name. Early diesel
engines were large and operated at low speeds due to the limitations of
their compressed air-assisted fuel injection systems. In its early years, the
diesel engine was competing with another heavy fuel oil engine
concept—the hot-bulb engine invented by Akroyd-Stuart. High-speed
diesel engines were introduced in the 1920s for commercial vehicle
applications and in the 1930s for passenger cars.
Intake Stroke:
The intake event is when the air-fuel mixture is introduced to fill the
combustion chamber. The intake event occurs when the piston moves
from TDC to BDC and the intake valve is open. The movement of the
piston toward BDC creates a low pressure in the cylinder. Ambient
atmospheric pressure forces the air-fuel mixture through the open intake
valve into the cylinder to fill the low pressure area created by the piston
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movement. The cylinder continues to fill slightly past BDC as the air-fuel mixture
continues to flow by its own inertia while the piston begins to change direction. The
intake valve remains open a few degrees of crankshaft rotation after BDC. Depending
on engine design. The intake valve then closes and the air-fuel mixture is sealed inside
the cylinder.
Compression Stroke
The compression stroke is when the trapped air-fuel mixture is compressed
inside the cylinder. The combustion chamber is sealed to form the charge. The charge is
the volume of compressed air-fuel mixture trapped inside the combustion chamber
ready for ignition. Compressing the air-fuel mixture allows more energy to be released
when the charge is ignited. Intake and exhaust valves must be closed to ensure that the
cylinder is sealed to provide compression. Compression is the process of reducing or
squeezing a charge from a large volume to a smaller volume in the combustion chamber.
The flywheel helps to maintain the momentum necessary to compress the charge.
The more the charge vapour molecules are compressed, the more energy
obtained from the combustion process. The energy needed to compress the charge is
substantially less than the gain in force produced during the combustion process. For
example, in a typical small engine, energy required to compress the charge is only one-
fourth the amount of energy produced during combustion.
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The compression ratio of an engine is a comparison of the volume of the combustion
chamber with the piston at BDC to the volume of the combustion chamber with the
piston at TDC. This area, combined with the design and style of combustion chamber,
determines the compression ratio. Gasoline engines commonly have a compression
ratio ranging from 6:1 - 10:1. Higher the compression ratio, the more fuel-efficient the
engine. A higher compression ratio normally provides a substantial gain in combustion
pressure or force on the piston. However, higher compression ratios increase operator
effort required to start the engine. Some small engines feature a system to relieve
pressure during the compression stroke to reduce operator effort required when starting
the engine.
Ignition Event
The ignition (combustion) event occurs when the charge is ignited and rapidly
oxidized through a chemical reaction to release heat energy. Combustion is the rapid,
oxidizing chemical reaction in which a fuel chemically combines with oxygen in the
atmosphere and releases energy in the form of heat.
Proper combustion involves a short but finite time to spread a flame throughout the
combustion chamber. The spark at the spark plug initiates combustion at approximately
20° of crankshaft rotation before TDC (BTDC). The atmospheric oxygen and fuel
vapour are consumed by a progressing flame front. A flame front is the boundary wall
that separates the charge from the combustion by-products. The flame front progresses
across the combustion chamber until the entire charge has burned.
Power Stroke
The power stroke is an engine operation Stroke in which hot expanding gases force
the piston head away from the cylinder head. Piston force and subsequent motion are
transferred through the connecting rod to apply torque to the crankshaft. The torque
applied initiates crankshaft rotation. The amount of torque produced is determined by
the pressure on the piston, the size of the piston, and the throw of the engine. During
the power Stroke, both valves are closed.
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Exhaust Stroke
The exhaust stroke occurs when spent gases are expelled from the combustion
chamber and released to the atmosphere. The exhaust stroke is the final stroke and
occurs when the exhaust valve is open and the intake valve is closed. Piston movement
evacuates exhaust gases to the atmosphere.
As the piston reaches BDC during the power stroke combustion is complete and the
cylinder is filled with exhaust gases. The exhaust valve opens, and inertia of the
flywheel and other moving parts push the piston back to TDC, forcing the exhaust gases
out through the open exhaust valve. At the end of the exhaust stroke, the piston is at
TDC and one operating cycle has been completed. Fig 3.3 explains diesel cycle.
In this process, the piston moves from Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) to Top Dead
Centre (TDC) position. Air is compressed isentropically inside the cylinder. Pressure of
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air increases from p1 to p2, temperature increases from T1 to T2, and volume decreases
from V1 to V2. Entropy remains constant (i.e., s1 = s2). Work is done on the system in
this process (denoted by Win in the diagrams above).
Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition
In this process, heat is added at constant pressure from an external heat source. Volume
increases from V2 to V3, temperature increases from T2 to T3 and entropy increases from
s2 to s3.
Heat added in process 2-3 is given by
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Fig 4.2 Engine Schematic
Engine Analytics
Engine specifications
The test engine which was used for testing of blends of biodiesel was Field Marshall‘s
FM-II 4 cylinder CI engine with direct injection. The engine has max power of
5.90kW@ 850 RPM with maximum torque of 66.28 Nm @850 RPM. Field marshal is
Gujarat based company which is famous for manufacturing slow speed engines for
agricultural and small domestic purposes. Some engine specifications Of FM-II are
discussed below.
Bore:
Bore in general is the measure of cross-section of the cylinder in which piston
reciprocates. It is expressed either in diameter of cylinder or directly in the area of
cylinder. The bore diameter of test engine used was 114.30mm.
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Displacement:
It is the volume traced by the moving piston inside the cylinder. Engine
displacement is calculated by multiplying the cross-section area of the cylinder
(determined by the bore) by the stroke length. This number is multiplied by the number
of cylinders in the engine, to determine the total displacement. Number of cylinders in
engine was 4. The total displacement of the test engine used was1432cm3.
Every engine built has capacity to provide torque when it is rotating. However this
torque providing capacity is different at different speeds. The rated power of engine is
therefore defined as the maximum power (torque at rated speed multiplied by rated
speed) which it can produce. The speed at which this power is obtained is called as rated
speed. The rated power of the test engine used was 5.90kW at 850 RPM (rated speed)
with a torque value of 66.28 Nm.
Engine cooling is the process of removing waste heat out of the engine which if not
removed can increase the temperature of engine to critical values. Internal combustion
engine cooling uses either air or liquid to remove the waste heat from an internal
combustion engine. The test engine that was used had water cooling method.
It is the storage place of lubricating oil which is circulated through the engine
manifold for lubrication at various moving parts. Oil sump also performs cooling of
engine oil. The capacity of oil sump of test engine used was 4.5 litres. Lubricating oil
used was of SAE 30 grade.
It is the space dimensions of engine measured from one end to other end along
cylinders for length and perpendicular to it in the same plane for width. Length and
width of test engine used was 914mm and 600mm.
The numerical value of the cylinder volume divided by the numerical value of
clearance volume is called as the compression ratio. It gives measure of extent to which
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the air inside the cylinder can be compressed. The compression ratio of test engine used
was 16:1.
Parameters Value
Stroke length 139.77 mm
Model FM-II
Brand Field Marshal
Bore 114.30 mm
Power 8.00 /5.90 H.P/Kw
Engine Cooling method Water cooling
Oil sump 4.50 liters
Oil SAE 30
Length 914 mm
Width 600mm
Displacement 1432 cm3
Number of cylinders 4
Compression Ratio 16:1
Rated RPM 850
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Injection Method ID
Fuel consumption Gm/kw hr
Maximum torque 66.28 Nm
Method of starting Handle start
Indicated Power
It is the power generated inside the engine cylinder during the expansion of gases
after combustion. Indicated power is considered as the theoretical power which is
obtained experimentally using the indicator diagram or by using the following formula
if indicated pressure is known.
Indicated power = PLANk kW
60
N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and
k = Number of cylinders.
𝐼𝑝∗60
Mean Effective pressure =
LANK
Brake power
The power which is available at the shaft to drive the external load is called as the
brake power. It is also called the shaft power. Brake power gives an idea about how
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well the engine does is capable of using its generated (indicated) power. It is calculated
by running the engine at specific speed for various loads (torque) using dynamometer
and using the following formula.
T = Torque in Nm.
N = Rotational speed of the engine
Friction Power
The power which is lost in overcoming the friction of the engine moving parts
is called as the friction power. The more is the friction between moving parts the
more will be the friction power loss. Friction power can be obtained mathematically
by using below given equation if indicated power of engine is known.
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
It can also be calculated experimentally using Morse test or Willan‘s line method.
For this testing Willan‘s line method was used for calculating friction power.
brake power
Brake thermal efficiency =
fuel flow∗calorific value
Mechanical Efficiency :
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake power to the indicated power
brake power
Mechanical efficiency =
indicated power
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Volumetric Efficiency :
The engine output is limited by the maximum amount of air that can be taken
in during the suction stroke, because only a certain amount of fuel can be
burned effectively with a given quantity of air. Volumetric efficiency is an
indication of the ‗breathing‘ ability of the engine and is defined as the ratio of
the air actually induced at ambient conditions to the swept volume of the engine.
In practice the engine does not induce a complete cylinder full of air on each
stroke, and it is convenient to define volumetric efficiency as:
Volumetric efficiency
Specific Output:
Specific output of an engine is defined as the brake power (output) per
unit of piston displacement and is given by,
brake power
Specific output =
A∗L
Friction Power :
This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation method. In this
method a graph of fuel consumption (vertical axis) versus brake power
(horizontal axis) is drawn and it is extrapolated on the negative axis of brake
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power. The intercept of the negative axis is taken as the friction power of the
engine at the speed. As shown in figure, in most of the power range the relation
between the fuel consumption and brake power is linear when speed of the
engine is held constant and thus permits extrapolation. Further when the engine
does not develop power, i.e brake power= 0, it consumes a certain amount of
fuel. This energy in the fuel would have been spent in overcoming the friction.
Hence the extrapolated negative intercept of the horizontal axis will be the work
representing the combined losses due to friction, pumping and as a whole is
termed as the frictional loss of the engine. This method of measuring friction
power will hold good only for a particular speed and is applicable mainly for
compression ignition engines. Fig 3.6 shows Willan line.
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Description of Apparatus:
An engine test stand is a facility used to develop, characterize and test engines. The
facility, often offered as a product to automotive OEMs, allows engine operation in
different operating regimes and offers measurement of several physical variables
associated with the engine operation. Fig 3.7 shows schematic of test rig used. A
sophisticated engine test stand houses several sensors (or transducers), data
acquisition features and actuators to control the engine state. The sensors would
measure several physical variables of interest which typically include:
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Information gathered through the sensors is often processed and logged through data
acquisition systems. Actuators allow for attaining a desired engine state (often
characterized as a unique combination of engine torque and speed). For gasoline
engines, the actuators may include an intake throttle actuator, a loading device for the
engine such as an induction motor. The engine test stands are often custom-packaged
considering requirements of the OEM customer. They often include microcontroller-
based feedback control systems with following features:
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CHAPTER 5
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
C. Brake specific fuel consumption =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
brake power
E. Brake thermal efficiency =
fuel flow∗calorific value
indicated power
F. Indicated power =
fuel flow∗calorific value
brake power
G. Mechanical efficiency =
indicated power
For description purpose calculations for blend B25 on 25 % (9 kg) load on the basis of
above given formulae is shown along with the observation table for all other blends
and loads.
𝑑1 = Diameter of drum in m
𝑑2 = Diameter of rope in m
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N = Speed in rpm Ρ = Density of fuel in gm/ cc
Calculations:
Torque (T)
T = W*g*r ………(1)
𝑑1+𝑑2
But, r=
2 𝑑1 = 0.36 m , 𝑑2 =0.015
0.36+0.015
r=
2
r = 0.1875 m
= 16.5543 N-m
= 2𝜋∗850∗16.5543
60
= 1.472kW
𝜌∗𝑉
Mass flow rate of fuel ( 𝑚) =
𝑡
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0.843∗10
=
80∗1000
= 0.0010407 kg/s
0.843∗10
= 1.474∗0.025
= 0.254167 kg/kW hr
Heat supplied ( )
= 𝐶. V ∗ m
= 41890 ∗ 0.00010407
= 4.3594 kW
Friction power
It is found out from the Willan‘s line method by plotting graph of mass flow
rate vs BSFC. For B25 and at 25% load friction power is found to be 4.655
kW.
𝑛𝑏𝑡𝑒 = 𝐵.𝑃.
ℎ
1.472
= * 100
4.3594
= 33.76 %
1.472
= *100
6.127
= 24.024 %
31
Observation Table:
Observation table is presented in two ways. First table includes observed
values freom actual test. These set of observations were used to calculate
indirect quantities such as fuel consumption and various powers.
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Observation Table 5.2
Heat brake
Brake friction Indicated supplied thermal mechanical
Blends power(kW) power power kJ/sec efficiency efficiency
33
CHAPTER 6
RESULTS
4.500
B00%
4.000 2.948
3.000 B05%
BP (KW)
B10%
2.500
3.500 B15%
B20%
1.474
2.000
B25%
B30%
1
1.500
0.500 Series8
000
0.
1.000 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
0.000
Load in kg
The graph 6.1 shows variation of Brake power with respect to load which obviously
would follow a straight line graph as shown in graph because power is directly
34
proportional to load. The load of 0 kg, 9kg, 18 kg and 27kg corresponds to 0%, 25%,
50%, and 75% load for the engine.
80.200
70.200
60.200 B00%
50.200 B05%
BTE %
The above graph 6.2 shows variation of load with respect to Brake thermal
efficiency. From graph it is evident that as the load is increasing brake thermal
35
efficiency is also increasing for all blends. However no general trend is being followed
as the percentage of biodiesel is increasing in the blends. When blends are compared to
diesel fuel a slight decrease in efficiency has been observed for all blends except for
B10. The highest decrement of about 7% was seen in B05 blend followed by B25 blend
with decrement of 3.64 % compared to diesel. While other blends does not show any
significant variation. However B10 blend is the only blend that showed quite higher
brake thermal efficiency of 44.381 %. As the load was increased it was found that B20
performed optimally as compared to other blends. From the above discussion it can be
concluded that B10 blend has performed optimally
Brake specific fuel consumption Vs load graph indicates the fuel consumed for
per kWh of energy produced at the shaft with respect to load. For low operating cost
the fuel consumed should be less hence it is desirable that average value of this
characteristic should be low. The blend that shows overall less value will be considered
as optimum.
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0.3
0.25
BSFC (Kg/Kws) B00%
B05%
0.2
B10%
0.1 B15%
0.15 B20%
0.05 B25%
B30%
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Load
The above graph 5.3 shows variation of Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
with respect to load. As can be seen from graph BSFC increases till 25% load and then
rapidly decreases till 50% load and smoothly till 75% load for all of the blends. A
general trend which is observed is that as load has increased over 25% the BSFC has
decreased. No general trend can be observed as percentage of biodiesel in blends has
increased. From the average values of BSFC it can be said that B15 blend has performed
most optimally with average consumption of about 0.116kg/kwh that is 7.823% less
than average BSFC of diesel. The second in the list is pure diesel itself. All other blends
show more consumption than diesel fuel. After diesel B20 performs quite well it
consumes abot 2% more than the diesel. The highest consumption of about 0.129
kg/kwh that is 5.75% more than diesel fuel has been reported by B5 blend. The most
optimum blend for this characteristic is therefore B15.
Friction power indicates the part of indicated (theoretical) power which is lost
in overcoming friction between moving mechanical components. Friction power has
been calculated using Wilan‘s line method as diesel engine has been used. As Wilan‘s
method is used therefore friction power becomes dependent of the mass flow rate of
fuel which is different for different blends. Lower the frictional loss more is the power
output obtained from the supplied fuel at the shaft. For engine it should be low as
possible.
37
Table 6.4 Load Vs. Friction Power
LOAD B00% B05% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%
0.000 8.208 7.648 8.023 7.079 9.978 4.656 5.743
9.000 8.208 7.648 8.023 7.079 9.978 4.656 5.743
18.000 8.208 7.648 8.023 7.079 9.978 4.656 5.743
27.000 8.208 7.648 8.023 7.079 9.978 4.656 5.743
Average 8.208 7.648 8.023 7.079 9.978 4.656 5.743
%
0.000 6.819 2.260 13.752 -21.570 43.277 30.031
difference
12.000
10.000
B00%
Friction power
B05%
8.000
B10%
B15%
6.000 B20%
B25%
4.000 B30%
0.000
15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000
0.000 5.000 10.000
2.000 Load
The above graph 6.4 shows variation of friction power with respect to load. As
can be seen from graph the variation of friction power is constant with respect to load.
However as different blends follow different mass flow rate there is a change in friction
power as blends is changed. The highest friction power has been recorded for B20 blend
which is about 9.97 kW that is 21.5 % more than the diesel fuel. It is very clear from
the graph that lowest friction power is obtained for B25 blend the lowest friction power
has been obtained for B25 blend which is about 4.656 kW that is 43.27% less than diesel
fuel. Hence B25 blend proves to be optimum blend for this characteristic.
38
Load Vs. Heat Supplied
Heat supplied is the quantity of heat released per second from burning fuel inside
cylinder. As load is increased it is desired that fuel more readily releases its heat content
for smooth operation at higher loads. The fuel which follows this regime should be
considered as the optimum fuel.
6.000
5.500
B00%
B05%
Heat Supplied
5.000 B10%
B15%
4.500 B20%
B25%
4.000 B30%
3.000
3.5000.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000
Load
Graph No. 6.5 Load Vs Heat Supplied
The above graph 6.5 shows variation of heat supplied with respect to load. As can be
seen from graph the heat supplied by the fuel increases with respect to load. A general
39
thing which is observed is that heat release of all biodiesel blend is more than pure
diesel. However no general trend can be observed in blends as content of biodiesel is
increasing. From comparing average values it is evident that B5 blend has the highest
heat release value of 4.88kW that is about 6.3% more than the diesel. The second blend
in this regime is B25. However difference between heat release rate of B5 and B25 is
much. B25 has average value of 4.723kW that is 2.74% more than diesel fuel. A notable
thing about B25 is that it has comparatively higher heat release rate at higher loads.
Because of this the optimum blend for this parameter can be considered for B5 as well
B25.
40
60.000
Mechanical Efficiency
B00%
50.000
B05%
40.000
B10%
30.000 B15%
20.000 B20%
10.000 B25%
0.000 B30%
5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000
0.000
Load
From the graph 6.6 it is clear that as the load is increasing the mechanical efficiency
is also increasing. Another thing which is evident is that all the blends except B20 has
higher average value of efficiency compared to diesel. Also it is observed that higher
efficiencies has been achieved by blends with higher amount of biodiesel (like B25 and
B30) at higher loads. The highest average value of efficiency has been achieved by B25
blend which is 27.88% that is 45.4% higher than diesel fuel. The second in the list is
B30 blend which efficiency value of 24.46% that is 27.62% higher than diesel. The
blend that performed most poorly is B25. It showed lower value of 16.59% that is about
13% lesser than diesel. Hence it can be concluded that B25 blend is the most optimum
blend for this characteristic.
Emission Characteristics:
41
Table No. 6.7 Load Vs. CO %
LOAD B00% B5% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%
0 0.008 0.013 0.01 0.013 0.008 0.009 0.012
9 0.013 0.008 0.015 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.013
18 0.015 0.016 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.008 0.011
27 0.012 0.01 0.01 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011
Average 0.012 0.011 0.01175 0.01175 0.01025 0.00975 0.01175
%
difference x 8.333333 2.083333 2.083333 14.58333 18.75 2.083333
0.016
B00%
0.015
B5%
0.014
CO in %
B10%
0.013 B15%
0.012 B20%
0.011 B25%
0.01 B30%
0.009 0 9 18 27 36
0.008 Load
0.007
Graph 6.7 Load vs. CO%
0.006
The above graph 6.7 shows variation of emission of carbon monoxide with
respect to load for various blends. The blends show wavy nature for emission. The
maximum emission is shown by diesel i.e B00. It is evident from observation table that
all the blends have lower CO emission values as compared to diesel. It implies that
addition of biodiesel in the blends have significantly reduced the CO. However as can
be seen in the graph in general no trend is observed as percentage of biodiesel or the
load is increasing. The nature of all graphs is wavy. The lowest emission values from
graph can be inferred for B25 blend which is equal to 0.00975% that is about 18.75%
lesser than diesel. Even at lower loads the emission value for B25 blend is much lower
as compared to diesel. B15, B20 and B30 shows near about same values from 25% to
42
75% load. The second in the list is B20 blend which has about 14.58% lesser emission
than diesel fuel. Hence from the discussion it can be concluded that B25 is best blend
for this characteristic.
1.1 B00%
1 B5%
0.9
B10%
0.8
B15%
CO2 in %
0.7
B20%
0.6
0.5 B25%
0.4 B30%
0.3
0.2
0 9 18 27 36
Load
43
The above graph 5.8 shows variation of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emission with respect
to load for various blends. The nature of graph for some blends is parabolic while for
some it is wavy. A general idea that can be inferred from graph is that with increase in
load there is also increase in the CO2 emission. This trait can be explained because of
the better combustion of fuel at increased loads. From the average values of emission it
is found that blends B5, B15 and B20 shows maximum same average value. However
at low loads (25% load) B15 shows higher values of CO2 emission. Hence it is valid to
say that B15 has performed optimally while B5 and B30 can be placed in second and
third position following the same argument. B15 has shown about 0.725% of CO2
emission value which is 3.57% more than the diesel value.
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) consist of most of NO and in small amount NO2 also traces
of other combinations of nitrogen and oxygen can be found. NOx is very undesirable as
it reacts in atmosphere to form ozone and photochemical smog. Formation of NOx
mainly takes place because of formation of monoatomic nitrogen which generally takes
place at high engine temperatures of around 2000˚C. As NOx is undesirable the blend
which show lowest value of NOx emission can be considered as best blend for this
characteristic.
44
25
B00%
20 B5%
NOx in %
B10%
15 B15%
B20%
B25%
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-5 B30%
Load
5
Load Vs O2 In Percentage
20.3
20.2
20.1
20
B00%
19.9 B5%
O2 in %
19.8 B10%
B15%
19.7
B20%
19.6
B25%
19.5
19.4 B30%
19.3
0 9 18 27 36
Load in kg
Load Vs HC in ppm:
46
and human health. Hydrocarbons are toxic with the potential to respiratory tract
irritation and can cause cancer. Hence it is desirable to have very low HC emissions.
1
0.9
0.8 B00%
HC in ppm
0.7 B5%
0.6 B10%
B15%
0.5
B20%
0.4
B25%
0.3
B30%
0.2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.1 Load in kg
0
Graph 6.11 Load Vs HC
The above data of graph 5.11 indicates zero HC emissions for all blends at all
loads. This is not totally acceptable result however it does confirms that HC emissions
of diesel and biodiesel is much smaller which is a good news. The HC emission of
Diesel engine is smaller than the threshold limit of exhaust gas analyser which made all
results to be indicated as zero. This in particular indicates advantage of using diesel and
biodiesel as fuel over gasoline which has significantly higher HC emissions.
47
CHAPTER 7
COSTING
Cost analysis of the research is tried to be presented in two formats. First format
estimates about reduction in diesel import of the country and hence the cost saving.
Second format presents an approximate cost for production of cottonseed biodiesel
blend if India sets up a PSU in this sector. Costing is done for best blend which from
analysis is selected as B25.
India consumes 6.6 million tonnes of diesel per month = 6,600,000,000 litre
for a month (source : Data petroleum ministry of India. https:www.petroleum.nic.in)
From online survey it is found that monthly consumption of diesel for India is 6.6
million tonnes of diesel per month
Using below pie chart it is found that India uses about 73.58% of all its diesel in
transport sector which uses a four stroke diesel engine .
48
Therefore,
Diesel consumption per month in transport sector = 0.7358×6.6 million tonnes per
month that is equal to 4.85628 million tonnes per month.
From results and conclusions it was found that B25 is the best blend in terms of emission
and performance parameters. Hence all further calculations has been done considering
this blend only.
When using B25 blend for transport sector, we use three parts of diesel and one part of
cottonseed biodiesel.
= 1.214 MTPM/0.832Kg/L
= 1459.1346 MLPM
Now 1 Barrel (159liters) of crude oil yields about 45.42 litres of diesel, for that purpose
basic calculations would give the quantity of crude oil which would be equal to =
5128.258 MLPM
Which directly gives yearly savings of 1535400.524 Crores Rs. per Year
49
b) Operating costs:
from online survey of various sites such as indiamart, it is found that ,capital costs
of the setup would be around 250/unit, with production capacity= 50 tonnes per day.
The daily requirement of biodiesel as per B25 blend is 0.433 lakh tonnes per day
No. such units required all over india = 0.4033 lakh per day / 50 tonnes per day
= 806.6 units
=2020 crores.
Operating costs:-
=474 L Kg. PD
=26566.4 LPD
512.864 LLitre PD
50
From oil we obtain 85% of biodiesel with 15% of glycerol.
=2307.88 LPD
Miscellaneous = 2% of feedstock
= 27977.816 LPD
Total Savings:
o About 1535400.524 Crores of revenue is saved of the country on yearly
basis that is 4206.5767 crores per day.
o The production cost of cottonseed Biodiesel is estimated to be around
64.178 Rs. Per Litre which is fairly economical.
51
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
The experimental investigation of cottonseed biodiesel and its blends have been
carried out successfully. Depending on the experiments various observation and results
have been recorded. Based on the results obtained following are the conclusions which
can be derived.
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS:
Brake thermal efficiency of all blends except B10 has suffered a slight
decrement as compared to pure diesel. B10 has shown slight increment of
efficiency over diesel fuel. However B20 performed better compared to other
blends on higher loads. Best blend for this characteristic is obtained for B10
Brake specific fuel consumption is found to increase for all blends except for
B15 as compared to diesel. Increase in BSFC can be explained by the fact that
biodiesel in general has lower calorific value. However B15 has shown lower
BSFC compared to diesel which can be explained by comparatively higher
calorific value of B15. Best blend for this characteristic is obtained for B15.
Friction power is found to decrease when using biodiesel blends as compared to
diesel. A maximum of 43.27% decrease in friction power was found by B25
blend. Reduction in friction power may be explained by lower pumping losses
for pumping diesel. B20 is the only blend which has showed higher friction
power than diesel which may be explained by its high viscosity. However it can
be said that as percentage of biodiesel in blends has increased a more reduction
in friction power is obtained.
Heat supplied is found to increase at higher loads. Heat supplied for all blends
has increased as compared to diesel at all loads. This attribute can be explained
may be because of better atomization of fuel. B5 blend has shown the highest
average value of heat supplied however at higher loads B25 has shown better
heat release rate. Hence it was concluded that B5 and B25 are best blend.
Mechanical efficiency is found to increase for all blends as compared to diesel.
At higher loads even higher mechanical efficiencies are obtained. However in
general the values of mechanical efficiencies are low. The best blend for this
characteristic is found for B25 blend which has shown about 45.47% higher
efficiency than diesel.
EMISSION PARAMETERS:
It was found that CO emission for all blends was lower as compared to diesel.
A significant decrease in CO emission can be explained due to better
combustion of fuel. Maximum of 18.75% decrease as compared to diesel is
observed for B25 blend. Hence B25 is the best blend concluded for this
characteristic.
52
CO2 emission was found to increase when compared to diesel. This attribute
can also be explained by better combustion of fuel. Out of all blends B15 was
found to perform optimally in this characteristic.
Nox formation is found to increase when compared to diesel. This can be
explained because of presence of more organic matter in biodiesel which makes
biodiesel a more oxygenated fuel. However lowest value of NOx was shown by
B20 blend amongst all which was same as pure diesel. Hence B20 is selected as
best blend for this characteristic. Also B25 is the second best blend in this
characteristic.
HC emissions for all blends at all loads were below the threshold limit of exhaust
gas analyser. This made HC emission reading to be obtained as zero for all
blends. This proves diesel in particular biodiesel as a better option over gasoline
fuel.
BEST BLEND:
The performance tests and emission tests of various blends have revealed that
particularly B25 blend is found to be the best blend. When considering performance
parameters lowest friction power is obtained in case of B25 blend as compared to other
blends. Heat release rate at higher loads is also obtained for B25 blend. B25 blend has
shown highest mechanical efficiency of about 48% at 75% load which is highest
amongst all. When considering emission parameters CO emission of B25 blend was
found to be decreased by 18.75% which is highest amongst all. In case of NOx
formation B25 blend is found to be the second best because it produced slightly higher
amount of NOx compared to diesel.
FUTURE SCOPE:
Due to above mentioned obtained traits of B25 blend it was concluded that B25
has performed optimally in performance as well as emission characteristics. However a
more detailed study of best blend can be done using gas spectrometry test and
combustion analysis with the aid of computer software. Also effect of additives in B25
blend can be studied to obtain more favourable results. This can be taken as the future
scope of study on the topic. From one of the literature survey it was found that B20
blend is found to be best blend. However the test results of this research gave idea that
B25 is best blend. This conflict can be resolved by stating that test conditions of both
the study were different. It is agreed that difference of 5% addition of biofuel can make
a significant difference on large scale but this difference can be rectified and a more
solid result can be obtained by testing B20 and B25 blends under gas spectrometry and
other similar tests.
53
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54