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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Need Of Project:


The rapid industrialization and growing market of automobiles has given rise to large
pollution problems pertaining to environment and social life of humans. Also it gives rise to
another problem that is scarcity of fossil fuels in the long run. To tackle this problem it is
essential that world starts to relive on biofuel for its need of power. India must promote
biofuels for reducing its crude import bill. It is noteworthy that India meets more than 80 per
cent of its oil needs through imports. The domestic crude oil production is able to meet only
about 17.9% of the demand, while the rest is met from imported crude. India is the largest
consumer of vegetable oil and has a potential to recover 220 crorelitre of Used Cooking Oil
(UCO) for the production of biodiesel by the year 2022 through coordinated action. If all
efforts are made to substitute diesel fuel, India could replace over 40% of the projected
demand for diesel by 2020. The energy generated from biofuels is equivalent to 340 million
barrels of oil or over $22 billion. Considering that in the first quarter India had a current
account deficit of $14.3 billion, we could wipe out almost a third of our current account
deficit.
1.2 Scope Of Project:
Biodiesel is a safe alternative fuel to replace traditional petroleum diesel. It has high-
lubricity, is a clean burning fuel and can be a fuel component for use in existing, unmodified
diesel engines. It is the only alternative fuel that offers such convenience. Biodiesel acts like
petroleum diesel, but produces less air pollution, comes from renewable resources are
biodegradable and safer for environment. The scope of the following project lies in
estimating the potential of cottonseed oil to produce biodiesel and use it for the diesel engine
application. The research project discusses about the preparation, testing and analysis of
cottonseed biodiesel as potential fuel. The research study also presents approximate cost
saving of the country if cottonseed biodiesel replaces all the diesel needs of India.

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1.3 Objectives Of The Project:

▪ To investigate properties of linseed biodiesel as fuel:

For this the prepared biodiesel will be taken under test to determine physical properties of
blends. This will be then compared with standard diesel fuel and a conclusion will be derived.

▪ To determine best blend for linseed and pure diesel:

Above tests when conducted will eventually reveal some of the best blends which can be
used as biodiesel.

▪ To compare the results with already available study:

Some study regarding the topic is already available which can be used to further clarify the
conclusions.

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1.4 About Diesel

Diesel fuel in general is any liquid fuel used in diesel engines, whose fuel ignition takes
place, without any spark, as a result of compression of the inlet air mixture and then injection
of fuel. (Glow plugs, grid heaters and block heaters help achieve high temperatures for
combustion during engine startup in cold weather.) Diesel engines have found broad use as a
result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and thus fuel efficiency. This is particularly noted
where diesel engines are run at part-load; as their air supply is not throttled as in a petrol
engine, their efficiency still remains very high.

The most common type of diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil,
but alternatives that are not derived from petroleum, such as biodiesel, biomass to liquid
(BTL) or gas to liquid (GTL) diesel, are increasingly being developed and adopted. To
distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petro diesel. Ultra-
low-sulphur diesel (ULSD) is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered
sulphur contents.

Diesel fuel is a mixture of hydrocarbons obtained by distillation of crude oil. The important
properties which are used to characterize diesel fuel include cetane number (or cetane index),
fuel volatility, density, viscosity, cold behaviour, and sulphur content. Diesel fuel
specifications differ for various fuel grades and in different countries.

Diesel fuel is used in the diesel engines found in most freight trucks, trains, buses, boats, and
farm and construction vehicles, and in some cars and small trucks. Diesel fuel is also used in
diesel engine generators to generate electricity, such as in some remote villages and towns
around the world. Many industrial facilities, large buildings, institutional facilities, hospitals,
and electric utilities have diesel generators for backup and emergency power supply.

The downside to diesel is that when compared to other fuels, it induces a much bigger risk to
the environment. Also, another major downside is that it is in the process of depletion.
However, the 2nd incomplete combustion of diesel is responsible for the harmful release of
carbon, sulphurous and nitrogenous oxides into the atmosphere. These are the main
compounds/gases responsible for most of the problems regarding earth‘s atmosphere and the
weakening of ozone layer. Presence of such impurities in the atmosphere can lead to what is
known as acid rain and other climate disturbancesthat damage the natural order; the
ecosystem. Inhalation can cause headaches, nausea and prolonged exposure may lead to
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permanent brain-damage or even death. Diesel, being a non-renewable source of energy is
now available in fewer quantities as earth‘s natural resources are nearly depleted as scientists
are trying to find newer and better alternatives.

1.5 About Biomass


Biomass is a term used to describe all organic matter produced by photosynthesis, existing on
the earth‘s surface. They include all water- and land-based vegetation and trees, and all waste
biomass such as municipal solid waste (MSW), municipal bio solids (sewage), and animal
wastes (manures), forestry and agricultural residues, and certain types of industrial wastes.
Biomass is the only other naturally occurring energy-containing carbon resource that is large
enough in quantity to be used as a substitute for fossil fuels [1]. When the carbohydrates are
burned, they turn back into carbon dioxide and water and release the sun's energy they
contain. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy.
Unlike fossil fuels, biomass is renewable in the sense that only a short period of time is
needed to replace what is used as an energy resource. Figure 1.1[] shows a biomass energy
cycle and the way biomass is utilized for energy generation in an environmentally friendly
sche

Fig 1.1: Biomass Energy cycle

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1.6 About Biofuel
One of the useful forms of biomass is biofuel. Bio fuel because one of the primary uses of it
is that it can be used in vehicle, more interestingly, without any modification in engines.
Biofuel, Also known as agro fuel, these fuels are mainly derived from biomass or bio waste.
The main use for which they have to be brought is in the automobile sector.
A biofuel is a fuel that is produced through contemporary biological processes, such as
agriculture and anaerobic digestion, rather than a fuel produced by geological processes such
as those involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as coal and petroleum. A proper
biofuel is recognized as something which provides qualities and characteristics as our
petroleum based fuels. Figure 1.2 shows percentage use of various raw materials in
production of bio fuel.

Fig 1.2 Bio fuel Production from Raw Materials

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Chatpalliwarl, Deshpande, Modak and Thakur (2011) described the brief overview of the

Biodiesel production plant. Various issues- sources, opportunities, challenges, plant design,

and evaluation etc. are discussed related to the Biodiesel production. Important contribution

of the presented work is- it discusses the important issues concerned with the Biodiesel

production plant design, it provides the fundamental details required for the formulation of

Biodiesel plant design problem, also it presents possible approach for the mathematical

model to evaluate the Biodiesel plant design .

Gulab N. Jham et al.(2009) research on wild mustard (Brassica juncea L.) oil is evaluated as a

feedstock for biodiesel production. Biodiesel was obtained in 94 wt.% yield by a standard

transesterification procedure with methanol and sodium methoxide catalyst. Wild mustard oil

had a high content of erucic(13(Z)-docosenoic; 45.7 wt.%) acid, with linoleic (9(Z), 12(Z)-

octadecadienoic; 14.2 wt.%) and linolenic (9(Z), 12(Z),15(Z)-octadecatrienoic; 13.0 wt.%)

acids comprising most of the remaining fatty acid profile. The cetane number, kinematic

viscosity, and oxidative stability (Rancimat method) of the methyl esters was 61.1, 5.33 mm2

s-1 (40 _C) and 4.8 h (110 _C), respectively. The cloud, pour and cold filter plugging points

were 4, -21 and -3 _C, respectively. Other properties such as acid value, lubricity, free and

total glycerol content, iodine value, Gardner color, specific gravity, as well as sulfur and

phosphorous contents were also determined and are discussed in light of biodiesel standards

ASTM D6751 and EN 14214. In summary, wild mustard oil appears to be an acceptable

feedstock for biodiesel production.

Hamed M. El-Mashad et al. (2008) investigated on Salmon oil, a by-product of salmon

processing, was used as a feedstock for biodiesel production via transesterification in a two-

step process. Two different types of salmon oil were tested: salmon oil extracted from

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acidified salmon hydrolysate and salmon oil extracted from salmon by-products. Optimal

amounts of chemicals required to give the highest biodiesel yield from each oil were

determined using batch production procedures. It was found that due to the high acid value of

salmon oil, alkalinecatalysedtransesterification was not an effective method for producing

biodiesel from the salmon oil. Therefore a two-step process was applied, in which a sulphuric

acid-catalysed pretreatment was used in the first step to reduce the acid value from 12.0 to

3mg [KOH] g [oil]_1 and then, in the second step, KOH-catalysed transesterification was

applied. All experiments were performed at a temperature of 5272 1C with a mixing intensity

of 600 rpm. Based on the total weight of salmon oil used, the maximum biodiesel yield of

99% was achieved using a total methanol/molar ratio of 9.2% and 0.5% (w/w) KOH. Ester

loss due to the formation of emulsion during the washing and drying steps was 15%

maximum. This loss could be reduced in practical applications by better design of washing

and drying techniques. A preliminary economic analysis showed that the cost of biodiesel

production from salmon oil was almost twice that produced from soybean oil.

HanifaTaher, et al.(2011) evaluated the microalgae oil extraction is a major step in the overall

biodiesel production process. Recently, supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) has been

proposed to replace conventional solvent extraction techniques because it is nontoxic,

nonhazardous, chemically stable, and inexpensive. It uses environmentally acceptable

solvent, which can easily be separated from the products. In addition, the use of SC-CO2 as a

reaction media has also been proposed to eliminate the inhibition limitations that encounter

biodiesel production reaction using immobilized enzyme as a catalyst. Furthermore, using

SC-CO2 allows easy separation of the product. In this paper, conventional biodiesel

production with first generation feedstock, using chemical catalysts and solvent-extraction, is

compared to new technologies with an emphasis on using microalgae, immobilized lipase,

and SC-CO2 as an extraction solvent and reaction media.

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Md. Imran Kais, FarsadImtiazChowdhury, KazyFayeenShahriar (2011) research in

Bangladesh and focuses on algae cultivation in Bangladesh. A lab scale production of

Chlorella and Botroyococcusbraunii was executed in open pond and bioreactor system. Then

diesel was produced by transesterification from collected algae oil. Later data was collected

from this experiment. Cost analysis was prepared to get a clear concept of the actual scenario

of algae fuel probability. This study indicates high potentiality of algae based fuel to be used

in Bangladesh replacing diesel for energy production. It can be a model for any third world

country to mitigate the energy crisis with a greener solution.

Matt Johnston1 et al. (2011) examined both the magnitude and spatial variation of new

agricultural production potential from closing of ‗yield gaps‗ for 20 ethanol and biodiesel

feedstock crops. With biofuels coming under increasing pressure to slow or eliminate indirect

land-use conversion, the use of targeted intensification via established agricultural practices

might offer an alternative for continued growth. We find that by closing the 50th percentile

production gap essentially improving global yields to median levels—the 20 crops in this

study could provide approximately 112.5 billion liters of new ethanol and 8.5 billion liters of

new biodiesel production. This study is intended to be an important new resource for

scientists and policymakers alike—helping to more accurately understand spatial variation of

yield and agricultural intensification potential, as well as employing these data to better

utilize existing infrastructure and optimize the distribution of development and aid capital.

PiyanuchNakpong and SasiwimolWootthikanokkhan (2009) was investigated the production

of biodiesel from three mixtures of vegetable oil and used cooking oil by

alkalicatalyzedtransesterification. Three kinds of vegetable oils, including jatropha, roselle

and coconut oils were tested. The effect of used cooking oil content in oil feedstock (used

cooking oil/vegetable oil ratios of 0.03-0.2 v/v) on methyl ester formation was investigated

and optimized. The methyl ester content from each reaction condition was determined by gas
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chromatography (GC). The optimum used cooking oil/vegetable oil ratio was 0.03 v/v for all

three kinds of oil feedstock. At this ratio, the methyl ester content of three kinds of biodiesel

were higher than the minimum limit set for Thai biodiesel (B100) specification. The

measured properties of three biodiesel products were within the limit prescribed by Thai

standards, except for the lower viscosity of biodiesel produced from coconut-used cooking oil

mixture. However, it was very close to that of Thai petroleum diesel.

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CHAPTER 3
LINSEED OIL
Linseed oil production is extensive practiced throughout the world. Linseed oil is a yellow
coloured compound extracted by pressing dried flax plant seeds. It is an edible oil widely
used as a nutritional supplement and also for cooking purposes in some European regions.
Linseed oil is used as a major painting compound that binds paint material, contains it and
makes it extra glossy and shiny. It brought about a transformation in painting industry, used
by people as putty that works as a sealant for glass windows when mixed with chalk powder.
Its natural characteristic of drying upon application comes in handy for efficient wood finish.
Linseed oil has an incredible history of over 5000 years being used as food supplement and
an effective medicine. This oil is also world‘s seventh largest and China country‘s largest oil
crop. Rampant production of linseed has been found in many countries globally, including
the United States, Canada, Argentina, China, and other south Asian countries. Approximately
2.4 million tons of linseed is produced throughout the world.
Linseed is composed of 30 to 40 per cent protein and same amount of oil. It also has
important amino acids and is packed with dietary fiber, essential vitamins, minerals, lecithin
and flavonoids, making it perfect for consumption and holding great medicinal value as well.
3.1 Linseed Oil Prodution Technologies

3.1.1 Linseed Oil Hot Pressing Production Process


The new linseed oil hot pressing production process is a recently introduced technology that
relies on conventional cooked pressing of flaxseed. It uses advanced manufacturing
technology and an overall fabrication experience of that famous peanut oil with strong
flavour, sesame oil and a number of other strong-flavour oils. Seeds used as raw material are
high-quality and fresh, which are then pressed, added to flavoured oils under extremely high
temperatures and dried. After they are dried, a mechanical pressing process takes places
wherein these hot seeds are exposed to lower temperature and prepared for direct
consumption.
These dried and cooled up seeds are then taken through the process of stone and impurity
removal, separation of hollow, low-quality seeds if any is done. When all the iron and other
impurities are removed from the seeds, they are placed into large hoppers and bifurcated into
two pieces by small road feeding valves. The next step involves sending these separated and
refined seeds into rotary drum roasting machines that provide an added aroma to these seeds
at high temperatures.
Selected linseeds are placed in flaking machines for further treatment and quality
enhancement. All the seeds are then sent into huge frying pan-like containers after which they
are sent into the lin seed oil pressing machine. The completion of pressing process will
produce strong flavoured crude oil which will be stored in huge tanks separately. Residues
remained after the pressing process are re sent to go through the production process all over
again for greater results.
Crude Oil extracted is sent into cooling pots through pumps. When the temperature drops
down to about 30 to 35 degrees, it is poured out into filter plates where impurities and
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obsolete cake powder is refined out. The oil is then sent into heat exchangers and lastly
drawn into large sedimentation tanks, where temperature generally drops to 15 degrees. After
the production process is complete, extracted oil is stored in low temperature conditions ideal
for them.
 Linseed oil hot pressing process features
1. It can increase the oil yield, improve the taste of the oil, and the fragrance is
rich.
2. It is easy to cause high temperature oxidative polymerization, decomposition
and production of peroxides and some harmful substances, damage the
nutrients in oil.
3. High temperature causes protein denaturation, greatly reducing the content of
polyunsaturated fatty acids in flaxseed oil, and even producing trans fatty
acids.
4. More impurities, such as flaxseed dander, phospholipids, free fatty acids and
so on, affect the appearance and color of oil and the inherent quality of oil.

 Advantages:
Linseed oil is rich in flavor and high in oil yield.

 Disadvantages:
High temperature frying seeds will reduce the content of active ingredients in oils and
fats, resulting in protein denaturation.

3.1.2 Linseed Oil Cold Pressing Production Process


It refers to the vegetable oil extracted under great physical and mechanical pressure at low
temperature, so it is called cold pressing. In this method, linseeds have not undergone the
traditional high-temperature stir-frying or steaming process, so the oil is still distributed in the
undeformed protein cells and contains abundant inherent components of flaxseed (linolenic
acid and other nutrients).
 Cold pressing process features:
1. Avoid harmful substances caused by degradation of oils and sugars in high-
temperature oil pressing and denaturation of proteins.
2. Avoid the linseed oil color becomes darker and burnt smell caused by high
temperature.
3. After multiple filtrations, the direct contact and secondary pollution of chemical
substances caused by sulfuric acid degumming, caustic deacidification and activated
white earth decolorization process in the hot pressing process are avoided.
4. Avoid high-temperature distillation and deodorization, effectively prevent the
destruction of polyunsaturated fatty acid-α-linolenic acid in linseed oil at high
temperature, effectively retain the natural complete nutrients, and make it easier for
human body absorption and nutritional supplement.
 Advantages:
It retains almost all the nutrients in flaxseed, and its taste is refreshing and non-
greasy, and it is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids.
 Disadvantages:
Lower oil yield and relatively high cost.

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3.1.3 Linseed Oil Extraction And Refining Process

The linseed oil extraction process means the linseed is extracted by organic solvents (such as
gasoline, ethanol, etc.) to get oil. The extraction method uses solvent oil (No. 6 light gasoline)
to soak the oil raw material linseed and extract the oil at high temperature. The oil first
extracted is a mixture of organic solvents and oils, which cannot be eaten directly and can
only be eaten after a series of oil refining processes (dewaxing, degumming, dehydration,
deodorization, deacidification, decolorization and other chemical treatments). After extracted,
the oil is generally lighter in color, which remains light original natural odor in the seeds or
has no obvious odor. The extraction process can extract almost all the oil from linseed, and
the economic benefit is very high. It is the most popular processing method in the modern oil
industry.
 Advantages:
Very high oil yield, low cost and higher economic efficiency. The most popular
processing method in the modern oil industry.
 Disadvantages:
Destroy almost all nutrients and there remain traces of organic solvents.

3.2 TEST FUEL CHARACTERISTICS


The important chemical and physical properties of pure linseed oil were determined and
compared with diesel. The results are represented in Table 1.[3] A close look over the
properties of linseed oils reveals that they possess some of the characteristics better than
diesel while some other characteristics poorer than diesel.
Property Linseed Oil Diesel(D)
(LS)
Density(gm/cc)at400C 0.929 0.86
Kinematic 35.6 2.96
Viscosity(cst)
Flash point(0C) 241 76
Fire point(0C) 260 65
Calorific 39307 42500
values(KJ/Kg)
Cetane number 34.6 50
Cetane number 177.3 38.3
TABLE 3.1 FUEL PROPERTIES
The comparative evaluation of the properties is done as follows; The density of linseed oil is
slightly higher than that of the diesel. The higher density means higher mass consumption of
the fuel for the same amount of volume injected. Thus fuel consumption rate for linseed oil is
expected to be higher than that of diesel. Viscosity is an important property of any fuel it is
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an indication of the ability of fuel of flow. In an engine, it is desirable to have a fuel that
flows well. The viscosity is determined at a specific temperature since the viscosity of liquid
is dependent upon temperature. At 38 C, kinetic viscosity of linseed oil is 34.6 cSt while that
of diesel is 2.96 cSt. The high viscosity is the major disadvantage of vegetable oil based fuel.
This is due to their large molecular mass and chemical structure. The flash point of linseed oil
was observed to be much higher than diesel; hence they are less feasible to produces
explosive air/fuels vapors. Therefore, they are safer in handling and storage. The calorific
value of fuel is an important measure, since it is the heat produce by the fuel within engine
that enables the engine to do work. The calorific value of linseed oil is 39.25 MJ/kg, as
compared to diesel (about 42 MJ/kg).The presence of chemically bound oxygen in SVOs
lowers its calorific value. The cetane number indicates the lag time of the fuel's self-ignition.
The lower the cetane number, the greater the lag time of ignition and, hence the greater
amount of non-burning fuel in the combustion chamber before the beginning of combustion,
leading to an abrupt increase in pressure without work being done. This phenomenon is
known as knocking. The cetane number of linseed oil is 34.6 as compared 50 for diesel. Thus,
the propensity is higher for diesel knock in case of linseed oil operation. Iodine value is a
measure of the degree of unsaturation of the oil .Unsaturation can be lead to deposits
formation and storage stability problem. An iodine value of the linseed oil is 177.3 cg I/g oil,
while the value for diesel is 38.3 cg I/g oil. Thus, the iodine value of iodine value of linseed
oil is quite high as compared to diesel. This shows that linseed oil have higher deposit
formation tendency than diesel are less stable from storage point of view.

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CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND TEST PROCEDURE

Diesel Engine:
In the 1890s, Rudolf Diesel invented an efficient, compression
ignition, internal combustion engine that bears his name. Early diesel
engines were large and operated at low speeds due to the limitations of
their compressed air-assisted fuel injection systems. In its early years, the
diesel engine was competing with another heavy fuel oil engine
concept—the hot-bulb engine invented by Akroyd-Stuart. High-speed
diesel engines were introduced in the 1920s for commercial vehicle
applications and in the 1930s for passenger cars.

Four Stroke Cycle Engines


A four-stroke cycle engine is an internal combustion engine that
utilizes four distinct piston strokes (intake, compression, power, and
exhaust) to complete one operating cycle. The piston makes two complete
passes in the cylinder to complete one operating cycle. An operating cycle
requires two revolutions (720°) of the crankshaft. The four- stroke cycle
engine is the most common type of small engine. A four-stroke cycle
engine completes five Strokes in one operating cycle, including intake,
compression, ignition, power, and exhaust Strokes.

 Intake Stroke:
The intake event is when the air-fuel mixture is introduced to fill the
combustion chamber. The intake event occurs when the piston moves
from TDC to BDC and the intake valve is open. The movement of the
piston toward BDC creates a low pressure in the cylinder. Ambient
atmospheric pressure forces the air-fuel mixture through the open intake
valve into the cylinder to fill the low pressure area created by the piston

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movement. The cylinder continues to fill slightly past BDC as the air-fuel mixture
continues to flow by its own inertia while the piston begins to change direction. The
intake valve remains open a few degrees of crankshaft rotation after BDC. Depending
on engine design. The intake valve then closes and the air-fuel mixture is sealed inside
the cylinder.

 Compression Stroke
The compression stroke is when the trapped air-fuel mixture is compressed
inside the cylinder. The combustion chamber is sealed to form the charge. The charge is
the volume of compressed air-fuel mixture trapped inside the combustion chamber
ready for ignition. Compressing the air-fuel mixture allows more energy to be released
when the charge is ignited. Intake and exhaust valves must be closed to ensure that the
cylinder is sealed to provide compression. Compression is the process of reducing or
squeezing a charge from a large volume to a smaller volume in the combustion chamber.
The flywheel helps to maintain the momentum necessary to compress the charge.

When the piston of an engine compresses the charge, an increase in compressive


force supplied by work being done by the piston causes heat to be generated. The
compression and heating of the air-fuel vapour in the charge results in an increase in
charge temperature and an increase in fuel vaporization. The increase in charge
temperature occurs uniformly throughout the combustion chamber to produce faster
combustion (fuel oxidation) after ignition.

The increase in fuel vaporization occurs as small droplets of fuel become


vaporized more completely from the heat generated. The increased droplet surface area
exposed to the ignition flame allows more complete burning of the charge in the
combustion chamber. Only gasoline vapour ignites. An increase in droplet surface area
allows gasoline to release more vapour rather than remaining a liquid.

The more the charge vapour molecules are compressed, the more energy
obtained from the combustion process. The energy needed to compress the charge is
substantially less than the gain in force produced during the combustion process. For
example, in a typical small engine, energy required to compress the charge is only one-
fourth the amount of energy produced during combustion.

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The compression ratio of an engine is a comparison of the volume of the combustion
chamber with the piston at BDC to the volume of the combustion chamber with the
piston at TDC. This area, combined with the design and style of combustion chamber,
determines the compression ratio. Gasoline engines commonly have a compression
ratio ranging from 6:1 - 10:1. Higher the compression ratio, the more fuel-efficient the
engine. A higher compression ratio normally provides a substantial gain in combustion
pressure or force on the piston. However, higher compression ratios increase operator
effort required to start the engine. Some small engines feature a system to relieve
pressure during the compression stroke to reduce operator effort required when starting
the engine.

 Ignition Event
The ignition (combustion) event occurs when the charge is ignited and rapidly
oxidized through a chemical reaction to release heat energy. Combustion is the rapid,
oxidizing chemical reaction in which a fuel chemically combines with oxygen in the
atmosphere and releases energy in the form of heat.

Proper combustion involves a short but finite time to spread a flame throughout the
combustion chamber. The spark at the spark plug initiates combustion at approximately
20° of crankshaft rotation before TDC (BTDC). The atmospheric oxygen and fuel
vapour are consumed by a progressing flame front. A flame front is the boundary wall
that separates the charge from the combustion by-products. The flame front progresses
across the combustion chamber until the entire charge has burned.

 Power Stroke
The power stroke is an engine operation Stroke in which hot expanding gases force
the piston head away from the cylinder head. Piston force and subsequent motion are
transferred through the connecting rod to apply torque to the crankshaft. The torque
applied initiates crankshaft rotation. The amount of torque produced is determined by
the pressure on the piston, the size of the piston, and the throw of the engine. During
the power Stroke, both valves are closed.

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 Exhaust Stroke
The exhaust stroke occurs when spent gases are expelled from the combustion
chamber and released to the atmosphere. The exhaust stroke is the final stroke and
occurs when the exhaust valve is open and the intake valve is closed. Piston movement
evacuates exhaust gases to the atmosphere.

As the piston reaches BDC during the power stroke combustion is complete and the
cylinder is filled with exhaust gases. The exhaust valve opens, and inertia of the
flywheel and other moving parts push the piston back to TDC, forcing the exhaust gases
out through the open exhaust valve. At the end of the exhaust stroke, the piston is at
TDC and one operating cycle has been completed. Fig 3.3 explains diesel cycle.

Processes in Diesel Cycle:

Diesel cycle has four processes. They are:

1 Process 1-2: Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic) Compression


3 Process 2-3: Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Heat Addition
4 Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion
5 Process 4-1: Constant Volume (Isochoric) Heat Rejection

Fig 4.1 P-V and T-S diagram of Diesel Engine

In this process, the piston moves from Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) to Top Dead
Centre (TDC) position. Air is compressed isentropically inside the cylinder. Pressure of

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air increases from p1 to p2, temperature increases from T1 to T2, and volume decreases
from V1 to V2. Entropy remains constant (i.e., s1 = s2). Work is done on the system in
this process (denoted by Win in the diagrams above).
Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition
In this process, heat is added at constant pressure from an external heat source. Volume
increases from V2 to V3, temperature increases from T2 to T3 and entropy increases from
s2 to s3.
Heat added in process 2-3 is given by

Qin = mCp(T3 − T2) kJ..................... (i)


where,
m → Mass of air in kg
Cp → Specific heat at constant pressure in kJ/kgK
T2 → Temperature at point 2 in K
T3 → Temperature at point 3 in K
Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion
Here the compressed and heated air is expanded isentropically inside the
cylinder. The piston is forced from TDC to BDC in the cylinder. Pressure of air
decreases from p3 to p4, temperature decreases from T3 to T4, and volume increases
from V3 to V4. Entropy remains constant (i.e., s3 = s4). Work is done by the system in
this process (denoted by Wout in the p-V and T-s diagrams above).
Process 4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection
In this process, heat is rejected at constant volume (V4 = V1). Pressure decreases from
P4 to P1, temperature decreases from T4 to T1 and entropy decreases from s4 to s1.
Heat rejected in process 4-1 is given by

Qout = mCv(T4 − T1) kJ .................... (ii)


where,
m → Mass of air in kg
Cv → Specific heat at constant volume in kJ/kgK
T2 → Temperature at point 2 in K
T3 → Temperature at point 3 in K

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Fig 4.2 Engine Schematic

Engine Analytics
Engine specifications
The test engine which was used for testing of blends of biodiesel was Field Marshall‘s
FM-II 4 cylinder CI engine with direct injection. The engine has max power of
5.90kW@ 850 RPM with maximum torque of 66.28 Nm @850 RPM. Field marshal is
Gujarat based company which is famous for manufacturing slow speed engines for
agricultural and small domestic purposes. Some engine specifications Of FM-II are
discussed below.

 Stroke and Stroke length:

Stroke in IC engine is the part of reciprocatory motion performed by piston in which


one of four processes of thermodynamic cycle is completed. The stroke length is
how far the piston travels in the cylinder, which is determined by the cranks on
the crankshaft. The stroke length of test engine used was 139.77mm.

 Bore:


Bore in general is the measure of cross-section of the cylinder in which piston
reciprocates. It is expressed either in diameter of cylinder or directly in the area of
cylinder. The bore diameter of test engine used was 114.30mm.

19
 Displacement:

It is the volume traced by the moving piston inside the cylinder. Engine
displacement is calculated by multiplying the cross-section area of the cylinder
(determined by the bore) by the stroke length. This number is multiplied by the number
of cylinders in the engine, to determine the total displacement. Number of cylinders in
engine was 4. The total displacement of the test engine used was1432cm3.

 Power or rated power:

Every engine built has capacity to provide torque when it is rotating. However this
torque providing capacity is different at different speeds. The rated power of engine is
therefore defined as the maximum power (torque at rated speed multiplied by rated
speed) which it can produce. The speed at which this power is obtained is called as rated
speed. The rated power of the test engine used was 5.90kW at 850 RPM (rated speed)
with a torque value of 66.28 Nm.

 Engine cooling method :

Engine cooling is the process of removing waste heat out of the engine which if not
removed can increase the temperature of engine to critical values. Internal combustion
engine cooling uses either air or liquid to remove the waste heat from an internal
combustion engine. The test engine that was used had water cooling method.

 Oil sump and Oil:

It is the storage place of lubricating oil which is circulated through the engine
manifold for lubrication at various moving parts. Oil sump also performs cooling of
engine oil. The capacity of oil sump of test engine used was 4.5 litres. Lubricating oil
used was of SAE 30 grade.

 Length and Width of engine:

It is the space dimensions of engine measured from one end to other end along
cylinders for length and perpendicular to it in the same plane for width. Length and
width of test engine used was 914mm and 600mm.

 Compression ratio (CR):

The numerical value of the cylinder volume divided by the numerical value of
clearance volume is called as the compression ratio. It gives measure of extent to which

20
the air inside the cylinder can be compressed. The compression ratio of test engine used
was 16:1.

Fig 4.3 Test Engine

All the engine specifications are summarized in the table below.

Table 4.1 Engine Parameters

Parameters Value
Stroke length 139.77 mm
Model FM-II
Brand Field Marshal
Bore 114.30 mm
Power 8.00 /5.90 H.P/Kw
Engine Cooling method Water cooling
Oil sump 4.50 liters
Oil SAE 30
Length 914 mm
Width 600mm
Displacement 1432 cm3
Number of cylinders 4
Compression Ratio 16:1
Rated RPM 850

21
Injection Method ID
Fuel consumption Gm/kw hr
Maximum torque 66.28 Nm
Method of starting Handle start

Engine Performance Parameters:

 Indicated Power
It is the power generated inside the engine cylinder during the expansion of gases
after combustion. Indicated power is considered as the theoretical power which is
obtained experimentally using the indicator diagram or by using the following formula
if indicated pressure is known.
Indicated power = PLANk kW
60

P = Mean effective pressure in kPa.

L = Length of the stroke, m,

A = Area of the piston, m2,

N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and

k = Number of cylinders.

 Mean Effective Pressure


Mean effective pressure is defined as a hypothetical/average pressure which is
assumed to be acting on the piston throughout the power stroke. Mean effective pressure
gives idea about torque producing capacity of engine.

𝐼𝑝∗60
Mean Effective pressure =
LANK

𝐼𝑝 = Indicated power, kiloWatt,

 Brake power
The power which is available at the shaft to drive the external load is called as the
brake power. It is also called the shaft power. Brake power gives an idea about how
22
well the engine does is capable of using its generated (indicated) power. It is calculated
by running the engine at specific speed for various loads (torque) using dynamometer
and using the following formula.

Brake power = 2πNT


60

T = Torque in Nm.
N = Rotational speed of the engine

 Friction Power
The power which is lost in overcoming the friction of the engine moving parts
is called as the friction power. The more is the friction between moving parts the
more will be the friction power loss. Friction power can be obtained mathematically
by using below given equation if indicated power of engine is known.
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

It can also be calculated experimentally using Morse test or Willan‘s line method.
For this testing Willan‘s line method was used for calculating friction power.

 Indicated Thermal Efficiency:


Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of indicated power to the heat supplied.
It gives the idea about how well the engine is able to extract energy from the fuel.
 Brake Thermal Efficiency:
A measure of overall efficiency of the engine is given by the brake thermal
efficiency. Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power to the
fuel energy.

brake power
Brake thermal efficiency =
fuel flow∗calorific value

 Mechanical Efficiency :
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake power to the indicated power

brake power
Mechanical efficiency =
indicated power

23
 Volumetric Efficiency :
The engine output is limited by the maximum amount of air that can be taken
in during the suction stroke, because only a certain amount of fuel can be
burned effectively with a given quantity of air. Volumetric efficiency is an
indication of the ‗breathing‘ ability of the engine and is defined as the ratio of
the air actually induced at ambient conditions to the swept volume of the engine.
In practice the engine does not induce a complete cylinder full of air on each
stroke, and it is convenient to define volumetric efficiency as:

Volumetric efficiency

= Mass of air consumed


mass of flow of air to fill swept volume at atmospheric conditions

 Fuel-Air (F/A) Or Air-Fuel (A/F) Ratio:


The relative proportions of the fuel and air in the engine are very
important from standpoint of combustion and efficiency of the engine. This is
expressed either as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to that of the air or vice versa.

 Specific Output:
Specific output of an engine is defined as the brake power (output) per
unit of piston displacement and is given by,

brake power
Specific output =
A∗L

 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption:


Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel consumed for
each unit of brake power developed per hour. It is a clear indication of the
efficiency with which the engine develops power from fuel.

Actual A/F ratio


Brake Specific Fuel Consumption = Stoichiometric A/F ratio

 Friction Power :
This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation method. In this
method a graph of fuel consumption (vertical axis) versus brake power
(horizontal axis) is drawn and it is extrapolated on the negative axis of brake
24
power. The intercept of the negative axis is taken as the friction power of the
engine at the speed. As shown in figure, in most of the power range the relation
between the fuel consumption and brake power is linear when speed of the
engine is held constant and thus permits extrapolation. Further when the engine
does not develop power, i.e brake power= 0, it consumes a certain amount of
fuel. This energy in the fuel would have been spent in overcoming the friction.
Hence the extrapolated negative intercept of the horizontal axis will be the work
representing the combined losses due to friction, pumping and as a whole is
termed as the frictional loss of the engine. This method of measuring friction
power will hold good only for a particular speed and is applicable mainly for
compression ignition engines. Fig 3.6 shows Willan line.

Fig 4.4 Willian’s Method

25
Description of Apparatus:

Fig 4.5 Schematic of Test Rig

An engine test stand is a facility used to develop, characterize and test engines. The
facility, often offered as a product to automotive OEMs, allows engine operation in
different operating regimes and offers measurement of several physical variables
associated with the engine operation. Fig 3.7 shows schematic of test rig used. A
sophisticated engine test stand houses several sensors (or transducers), data
acquisition features and actuators to control the engine state. The sensors would
measure several physical variables of interest which typically include:

 Crankshaft torque and angular velocity


 Intake air and fuel consumption rates, often detected using volumetric and/or
gravimetric measurement methods
 Air-fuel ratio for the intake mixture, often detected using an exhaust gas oxygen
sensor
 Environment pollutant concentrations in the exhaust gas such as carbon monoxide,
different configurations of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide,
and particulate matter
 Temperatures and gas pressures at several locations on the engine body such
as engine oil temperature, spark plug temperature, exhaust gas temperature, intake
manifold pressure
 Atmospheric conditions such as temperature, pressure, and humidity

26
Information gathered through the sensors is often processed and logged through data
acquisition systems. Actuators allow for attaining a desired engine state (often
characterized as a unique combination of engine torque and speed). For gasoline
engines, the actuators may include an intake throttle actuator, a loading device for the
engine such as an induction motor. The engine test stands are often custom-packaged
considering requirements of the OEM customer. They often include microcontroller-
based feedback control systems with following features:

 Closed-loop desired speed operation (useful towards characterization of steady-


state or transient engine performance)
 Closed-loop desired torque operation (useful towards emulation of in-vehicle, on-
road scenarios, thereby enabling an alternate way of characterization of steady-state
or transient engine performance)

27
CHAPTER 5

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

Performance Parameters Formulae:


Below is the description of the obtained values from the test and calculation of
other parameters involved in the test. For calculation purpose following standard engine
formulae has been used.
2π∗speed∗Torque
A. Brake power =
60
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙∗𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
B. Fuel consumption =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 10 𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
C. Brake specific fuel consumption =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

D. Heat supplied = 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ∗ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

brake power
E. Brake thermal efficiency =
fuel flow∗calorific value

indicated power
F. Indicated power =
fuel flow∗calorific value

brake power
G. Mechanical efficiency =
indicated power

H. Friction power is found by using Willian‘s line method.

For description purpose calculations for blend B25 on 25 % (9 kg) load on the basis of
above given formulae is shown along with the observation table for all other blends
and loads.

Notation used for calculations

𝑑1 = Diameter of drum in m

𝑑2 = Diameter of rope in m

𝑟 = Radial distance in m 𝑊 = Load in kg𝑇 = Torque in N-m

28
N = Speed in rpm Ρ = Density of fuel in gm/ cc

V = Volume of fuel in ml or cc g = Acceleration due to gravity in m/s2

t = time in second 𝑚= mass flow rate in gm/s

ℎ = heat supplied in Kw 𝑛𝑏𝑡𝑒 = brake thermal efficiency

𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = mechanical efficiency

Calculations:

 Torque (T)

T = W*g*r ………(1)
𝑑1+𝑑2
But, r=
2 𝑑1 = 0.36 m , 𝑑2 =0.015

0.36+0.015
r=
2

r = 0.1875 m

T = 9*9.81*0.1875 ........................................... from (1)

= 16.5543 N-m

 Brake power (B.P)


2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐵. 𝑃 = ………….(2)
60

= 2𝜋∗850∗16.5543
60

= 1.472kW

𝜌∗𝑉
 Mass flow rate of fuel ( 𝑚) = 
𝑡

29
0.843∗10
=
80∗1000

= 0.0010407 kg/s

 Brake specific fuel consumption(BSFC):


ρ∗V
𝐵𝑆𝐹=
P∗t

0.843∗10
= 1.474∗0.025

= 0.254167 kg/kW hr

 Heat supplied ( )
= 𝐶. V ∗ m

= 41890 ∗ 0.00010407

= 4.3594 kW

 Friction power
It is found out from the Willan‘s line method by plotting graph of mass flow
rate vs BSFC. For B25 and at 25% load friction power is found to be 4.655
kW.

Graph No 5.1: Willian‘s line Graph


30
 Brake thermal efficiency (𝑛𝑏𝑡𝑒)

𝑛𝑏𝑡𝑒 = 𝐵.𝑃.

1.472
= * 100
4.3594

= 33.76 %

 Mechanical efficiency (𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ)

𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝐵.𝑃 ∗ 100


𝐼.𝑃

1.472
= *100
6.127

= 24.024 %

31
Observation Table:
Observation table is presented in two ways. First table includes observed
values freom actual test. These set of observations were used to calculate
indirect quantities such as fuel consumption and various powers.

Observation Table 5.1


Mass flow
load Density Volume Mass Time rate
Blends (kG) gm/cc cc gm sec gm/sec C.V(kJ/gm)

B00 0 0.832 10 8.32 92 0.0904 42.5


9 0.832 10 8.32 83 0.1002 42.5
18 0.832 10 8.32 73 0.1140 42.5
27 0.832 10 8.32 65 0.1280 42.5

B05 0 0.834 10 8.34 83 0.1005 42.41


9 0.834 10 8.34 78 0.1069 42.41
18 0.834 10 8.34 70 0.1191 42.41
27 0.834 10 8.34 62 0.1345 42.41

B10 0 0.836 10 8.36 89 0.0939 41.32


9 0.836 10 8.36 80 0.1045 41.32
18 0.836 10 8.36 72 0.1161 41.32
27 0.836 10 8.36 64 0.1306 41.32

B15 0 0.839 10 8.39 89 0.0943 42.19


9 0.839 10 8.39 80 0.1049 42.19
18 0.839 10 8.39 73 0.1149 42.19
27 0.839 10 8.39 66 0.1271 42.19

B20 0 0.84 10 8.4 91 0.0923 42.02


9 0.84 10 8.4 81 0.1037 42.02
18 0.84 10 8.4 73 0.1151 42.02
27 0.84 10 8.4 66 0.1273 42.02

B25 0 0.843 10 8.43 92 0.0916 41.89


9 0.843 10 8.43 81 0.1041 41.89
18 0.843 10 8.43 72 0.1171 41.89
27 0.843 10 8.43 61 0.1382 41.89

B30 0 0.844 10 8.44 98 0.0861 41.65


9 0.844 10 8.44 78 0.1082 41.65
18 0.844 10 8.44 71 0.1189 41.65
27 0.844 10 8.44 65 0.1298 41.65

32
Observation Table 5.2

Heat brake
Brake friction Indicated supplied thermal mechanical
Blends power(kW) power power kJ/sec efficiency efficiency

B00 0.0000 8.2080 8.2080 3.8435 0.0000 0.0000


1.4741 8.2080 9.6821 4.2602 34.6020 15.2252
2.9483 8.2080 11.1563 4.8438 60.8661 26.4269
4.4224 8.2080 12.6304 5.4400 81.2938 35.0138

B05 0.0000 7.6483 7.6483 4.2614 0.0000 0.0000


1.4741 7.6483 9.1224 4.5346 32.5084 16.1594
2.9483 7.6483 10.5965 5.0528 58.3484 27.8229
4.4224 7.6483 12.0707 5.7048 77.5200 36.6375

B10 0.0000 8.0225 8.0225 3.8813 0.0000 0.0000


1.4741 8.0225 9.4966 4.3179 34.1396 15.5226
2.9483 8.0225 10.9708 4.7977 61.4513 26.8737
4.4224 8.0225 12.4449 5.3974 81.9351 35.5357

B15 0.0000 7.0793 7.0793 3.9772 0.0000 0.0000


1.4741 7.0793 8.5534 4.4247 33.3161 17.2344
2.9483 7.0793 10.0275 4.8490 60.8018 29.4017
4.4224 7.0793 11.5016 5.3632 82.4572 38.4500

B20 0.0000 9.9785 9.9785 3.8788 0.0000 0.0000


1.4741 9.9785 11.4526 4.3576 33.8287 12.8716
2.9483 9.9785 12.9267 4.8352 60.9751 22.8075
4.4224 9.9785 14.4008 5.3480 82.6923 30.7092

B25 0.0000 4.6558 4.6558 3.8384 0.0000 0.0000


1.4741 4.6558 6.1300 4.3597 33.8129 24.0479
2.9483 4.6558 7.6041 4.9046 60.1118 38.7720
4.4224 4.6558 9.0782 5.7891 76.3921 48.7142

B30 0.0000 5.7431 5.7431 3.5870 0.0000 0.0000


1.4741 5.7431 7.2172 4.5067 32.7094 20.4252
2.9483 5.7431 8.6913 4.9511 59.5478 33.9217
4.4224 5.7431 10.1655 5.4081 81.7734 43.5040

33
CHAPTER 6
RESULTS

 Load Vs Brake Power (BP )


Load versus Brake power parameter indicates the total power which is available
at shaft for use. As load increases the BP also increases. Brake power is directly
proportional to brake torque and engine speed.

Table 6.1 Load Vs Brake Power


LOAD B00% B05% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

9 1.474128 1.474128 1.474128 1.474128 1.474128 1.474128 1.474128

18 2.948255 2.948255 2.948255 2.948255 2.948255 2.948255 2.948255

27 4.422383 4.422383 4.422383 4.422383 4.422383 4.422383 4.422383


5.000
4.422

4.500

B00%
4.000 2.948
3.000 B05%
BP (KW)

B10%
2.500
3.500 B15%
B20%
1.474
2.000
B25%
B30%
1
1.500
0.500 Series8
000
0.
1.000 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
0.000
Load in kg

Graph No. 6.1 Load Vs Brake power

The graph 6.1 shows variation of Brake power with respect to load which obviously
would follow a straight line graph as shown in graph because power is directly

34
proportional to load. The load of 0 kg, 9kg, 18 kg and 27kg corresponds to 0%, 25%,
50%, and 75% load for the engine.

 Load Vs Brake Thermal Efficiency(BTE)


Load versus brake thermal efficiency graph indicates how much power of fuel
is actually being utilized for shaft work with the increasing amount of load. It is
desirable that graph show increasing trend with respect to load. The blend which has
overall high average value of brake thermal efficiency can be considered as optimum.
Table 6.2 Load Vs BTE
LOAD B00% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
9 34.602 32.508 34.137 33.311 32.829 33.813 32.709
18 60.866 54.348 61.451 60.802 60.975 60.112 59.548
27 81.294 77.591 81.935 82.457 82.693 76.392 81.773
Average 44.190 41.112 44.381 44.143 44.124 42.579 43.508
percent
differenc
wrt B00. 0.000 6.965 -0.432 0.107 0.149 3.645 1.544

Load Vs Brake Thermal Efficiency


90.200

80.200

70.200

60.200 B00%

50.200 B05%
BTE %

Graph No. 5.2 Load Vs BTE


B10%
40.200
B15%
30.200
B20%
20.200
B25%
10.200
B30%
0.200
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
Load in kg

The above graph 6.2 shows variation of load with respect to Brake thermal
efficiency. From graph it is evident that as the load is increasing brake thermal

35
efficiency is also increasing for all blends. However no general trend is being followed
as the percentage of biodiesel is increasing in the blends. When blends are compared to
diesel fuel a slight decrease in efficiency has been observed for all blends except for
B10. The highest decrement of about 7% was seen in B05 blend followed by B25 blend
with decrement of 3.64 % compared to diesel. While other blends does not show any
significant variation. However B10 blend is the only blend that showed quite higher
brake thermal efficiency of 44.381 %. As the load was increased it was found that B20
performed optimally as compared to other blends. From the above discussion it can be
concluded that B10 blend has performed optimally

 Load Vs Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

Brake specific fuel consumption Vs load graph indicates the fuel consumed for
per kWh of energy produced at the shaft with respect to load. For low operating cost
the fuel consumed should be less hence it is desirable that average value of this
characteristic should be low. The blend that shows overall less value will be considered
as optimum.

Table 6.3 Load Vs. BSFC

LOAD B00% B05% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%


0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9.000 0.245 0.261 0.255 0.256 0.253 0.254 0.264
18.000 0.139 0.145 0.142 0.104 0.141 0.143 0.145
27.000 0.104 0.110 0.106 0.103 0.104 0.112 0.106
average 0.122 0.129 0.126 0.116 0.124 0.127 0.129
%
difference
-5.758 -3.138 4.931 -1.919 -4.431 -5.429
wrt to B00

36
0.3

0.25
BSFC (Kg/Kws) B00%

B05%
0.2
B10%

0.1 B15%
0.15 B20%

0.05 B25%

B30%
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Load

Graph No. 6.3 Load Vs. BSFC

The above graph 5.3 shows variation of Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
with respect to load. As can be seen from graph BSFC increases till 25% load and then
rapidly decreases till 50% load and smoothly till 75% load for all of the blends. A
general trend which is observed is that as load has increased over 25% the BSFC has
decreased. No general trend can be observed as percentage of biodiesel in blends has
increased. From the average values of BSFC it can be said that B15 blend has performed
most optimally with average consumption of about 0.116kg/kwh that is 7.823% less
than average BSFC of diesel. The second in the list is pure diesel itself. All other blends
show more consumption than diesel fuel. After diesel B20 performs quite well it
consumes abot 2% more than the diesel. The highest consumption of about 0.129
kg/kwh that is 5.75% more than diesel fuel has been reported by B5 blend. The most
optimum blend for this characteristic is therefore B15.

 Load Vs. Friction Power

Friction power indicates the part of indicated (theoretical) power which is lost
in overcoming friction between moving mechanical components. Friction power has
been calculated using Wilan‘s line method as diesel engine has been used. As Wilan‘s
method is used therefore friction power becomes dependent of the mass flow rate of
fuel which is different for different blends. Lower the frictional loss more is the power
output obtained from the supplied fuel at the shaft. For engine it should be low as
possible.
37
Table 6.4 Load Vs. Friction Power
LOAD B00% B05% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%
0.000 8.208 7.648 8.023 7.079 9.978 4.656 5.743
9.000 8.208 7.648 8.023 7.079 9.978 4.656 5.743
18.000 8.208 7.648 8.023 7.079 9.978 4.656 5.743
27.000 8.208 7.648 8.023 7.079 9.978 4.656 5.743
Average 8.208 7.648 8.023 7.079 9.978 4.656 5.743
%
0.000 6.819 2.260 13.752 -21.570 43.277 30.031
difference

12.000

10.000
B00%
Friction power

B05%
8.000
B10%
B15%
6.000 B20%
B25%

4.000 B30%
0.000
15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000
0.000 5.000 10.000
2.000 Load

Graph No. 6.4 Load Vs Friction Power

The above graph 6.4 shows variation of friction power with respect to load. As
can be seen from graph the variation of friction power is constant with respect to load.
However as different blends follow different mass flow rate there is a change in friction
power as blends is changed. The highest friction power has been recorded for B20 blend
which is about 9.97 kW that is 21.5 % more than the diesel fuel. It is very clear from
the graph that lowest friction power is obtained for B25 blend the lowest friction power
has been obtained for B25 blend which is about 4.656 kW that is 43.27% less than diesel
fuel. Hence B25 blend proves to be optimum blend for this characteristic.

38
 Load Vs. Heat Supplied

Heat supplied is the quantity of heat released per second from burning fuel inside
cylinder. As load is increased it is desired that fuel more readily releases its heat content
for smooth operation at higher loads. The fuel which follows this regime should be
considered as the optimum fuel.

Table 6.5 Load Vs. Heat Supplied

LOAD(kg) B00% B05% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%


0.000 3.843 4.261 3.881 3.977 3.879 3.838 3.587
9.000 4.260 4.535 4.318 4.425 4.358 4.360 4.507
18.000 4.844 5.053 4.798 4.849 4.835 4.905 4.951
27.000 5.440 5.705 5.397 5.363 5.348 5.789 5.408
Average 4.597 4.888 4.599 4.654 4.605 4.723 4.613
%
difference 0.000 -6.340 -0.035 -1.230 -0.172 -2.740 -0.353

6.000

5.500
B00%
B05%
Heat Supplied

5.000 B10%
B15%

4.500 B20%
B25%

4.000 B30%

3.000
3.5000.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000

Load
Graph No. 6.5 Load Vs Heat Supplied

The above graph 6.5 shows variation of heat supplied with respect to load. As can be
seen from graph the heat supplied by the fuel increases with respect to load. A general

39
thing which is observed is that heat release of all biodiesel blend is more than pure
diesel. However no general trend can be observed in blends as content of biodiesel is
increasing. From comparing average values it is evident that B5 blend has the highest
heat release value of 4.88kW that is about 6.3% more than the diesel. The second blend
in this regime is B25. However difference between heat release rate of B5 and B25 is
much. B25 has average value of 4.723kW that is 2.74% more than diesel fuel. A notable
thing about B25 is that it has comparatively higher heat release rate at higher loads.
Because of this the optimum blend for this parameter can be considered for B5 as well
B25.

 Load Vs. Mechanical Efficiency (ME)

Mechanical efficiency VS load graph shows variation of mechanical efficiency with


increase in the load and with different blends. Mechanical efficiency in a way indicates
how efficiently engine converts generated power into useful power. It is desired that
this efficiency should be high as possible. The blend which shows highest average value
will be considered as optimum.

Table No. 6.6 Load Vs ME

LOAD B00% B05% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%


0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
9.000 15.225 16.159 15.523 17.234 12.872 24.048 20.425
18.000 26.427 27.823 26.874 29.402 22.807 38.772 33.922
27.000 35.014 36.637 35.536 38.450 30.709 48.714 43.504
average 19.167 20.155 19.483 21.272 16.597 27.884 24.463
%
-5.154 -1.649 -10.980 13.408 -45.477 -27.629
difference 0.000

40
60.000

Mechanical Efficiency
B00%
50.000
B05%
40.000
B10%
30.000 B15%
20.000 B20%

10.000 B25%

0.000 B30%
5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000
0.000
Load

Graph 6.6 Load Vs. ME

From the graph 6.6 it is clear that as the load is increasing the mechanical efficiency
is also increasing. Another thing which is evident is that all the blends except B20 has
higher average value of efficiency compared to diesel. Also it is observed that higher
efficiencies has been achieved by blends with higher amount of biodiesel (like B25 and
B30) at higher loads. The highest average value of efficiency has been achieved by B25
blend which is 27.88% that is 45.4% higher than diesel fuel. The second in the list is
B30 blend which efficiency value of 24.46% that is 27.62% higher than diesel. The
blend that performed most poorly is B25. It showed lower value of 16.59% that is about
13% lesser than diesel. Hence it can be concluded that B25 blend is the most optimum
blend for this characteristic.

 Emission Characteristics:

 Load Vs. CO in percentage:

Carbon Monoxide percentage in emissions describe amount of CO content in


emission. Formation of CO in exhaust gases mainly indicates the incomplete burning
of fuel. CO in emission is dangerous as it reacts with the atmospheric gases to form CO2
which is also responsible for increased greenhouse gas effect and formation of
photochemical smog. It is desirable that CO in emission be low as possible.

41
Table No. 6.7 Load Vs. CO %
LOAD B00% B5% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%
0 0.008 0.013 0.01 0.013 0.008 0.009 0.012
9 0.013 0.008 0.015 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.013
18 0.015 0.016 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.008 0.011
27 0.012 0.01 0.01 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011
Average 0.012 0.011 0.01175 0.01175 0.01025 0.00975 0.01175
%
difference x 8.333333 2.083333 2.083333 14.58333 18.75 2.083333

0.016
B00%
0.015
B5%
0.014
CO in %

B10%
0.013 B15%
0.012 B20%

0.011 B25%

0.01 B30%

0.009 0 9 18 27 36

0.008 Load
0.007
Graph 6.7 Load vs. CO%
0.006
The above graph 6.7 shows variation of emission of carbon monoxide with
respect to load for various blends. The blends show wavy nature for emission. The
maximum emission is shown by diesel i.e B00. It is evident from observation table that
all the blends have lower CO emission values as compared to diesel. It implies that
addition of biodiesel in the blends have significantly reduced the CO. However as can
be seen in the graph in general no trend is observed as percentage of biodiesel or the
load is increasing. The nature of all graphs is wavy. The lowest emission values from
graph can be inferred for B25 blend which is equal to 0.00975% that is about 18.75%
lesser than diesel. Even at lower loads the emission value for B25 blend is much lower
as compared to diesel. B15, B20 and B30 shows near about same values from 25% to

42
75% load. The second in the list is B20 blend which has about 14.58% lesser emission
than diesel fuel. Hence from the discussion it can be concluded that B25 is best blend
for this characteristic.

 Load Vs CO2 Percentage

Carbon Dioxide percentage emission indicates amount of CO2 in exhaust


emission. Presence of CO2 in emission indicates complete combustion of fuel used.
More is the percentage of CO2 in emission it indicates maximum conversion of chemical
energy into heat energy. Hence it is desirable to have CO2 percentage in emission as it
is more stable and less harmful gas than CO.

Table No. 6.8 Load Vs CO2 %


LOAD B00% B5% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%
0 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.5
9 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
18 0.8 1 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6
27 1 0.8 0.8 0.9 1 0.9 0.4
Average 0.7 0.725 0.7 0.725 0.725 0.65 0.475
%
difference x -3.571 0 -3.57143 -3.571 7.142 32.142

1.1 B00%
1 B5%
0.9
B10%
0.8
B15%
CO2 in %

0.7
B20%
0.6

0.5 B25%

0.4 B30%

0.3
0.2
0 9 18 27 36

Load

Graph 6.8 Load vs. CO2%

43
The above graph 5.8 shows variation of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emission with respect
to load for various blends. The nature of graph for some blends is parabolic while for
some it is wavy. A general idea that can be inferred from graph is that with increase in
load there is also increase in the CO2 emission. This trait can be explained because of
the better combustion of fuel at increased loads. From the average values of emission it
is found that blends B5, B15 and B20 shows maximum same average value. However
at low loads (25% load) B15 shows higher values of CO2 emission. Hence it is valid to
say that B15 has performed optimally while B5 and B30 can be placed in second and
third position following the same argument. B15 has shown about 0.725% of CO2
emission value which is 3.57% more than the diesel value.

 Load Vs NOX in PPM

Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) consist of most of NO and in small amount NO2 also traces
of other combinations of nitrogen and oxygen can be found. NOx is very undesirable as
it reacts in atmosphere to form ozone and photochemical smog. Formation of NOx
mainly takes place because of formation of monoatomic nitrogen which generally takes
place at high engine temperatures of around 2000˚C. As NOx is undesirable the blend
which show lowest value of NOx emission can be considered as best blend for this
characteristic.

Table 6.9 Load Vs NOX %

LOAD B00% B5% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%


0 0 1 0 1 1 2 0
9 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
18 0 20 2 0 0 0 3
27 1 4 1 6 0 0 0
Average 0.25 6.25 0.75 2 0.25 0.5 0.75
%
-2400 -200 -700 0 -100 -200
difference

44
25

B00%
20 B5%
NOx in %
B10%

15 B15%
B20%
B25%
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-5 B30%
Load
5

Graph No 6.9 Load Vs NOx


0
The above graph 6.9 shows variation of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) percentage with
respect to load for various blends. The nature of all the graphs is wavy. Also the average
values of this characteristic for all blends are fairly low. At 50% load for all the blends
the values are comparatively high compared to other loads. Blend B5 shows abrupt
value of 20 ppm at 50% load. While other values are confined to maximum of 6 ppm.
The best blend characterisftic is shown by B20 blend that has average value of 0.25
ppm which is lowest amongst all. Diesel fuel also show same value as B20 blend. After
B20, it is B25 that has performed significantly well. At no load it has a reading of 2
ppm that is appreciable. As NOx is very harmful for humans, the lesser the value of it
the better. Hence it can be inferred that B20 blend is optimum for this characteristic also
B25 acquires second best blend for this characteristic.

 Load Vs O2 In Percentage

O2 percentage in emission signifies excess availability of oxygen for combustion.


Depending on the above graph shows variation of Oxygen (O2) percentage emission
with respect to load for various blends. From graph 5.10 it can be inferred that at as the
load was increased the percentage emission for all blends with respect to load was
reduced. The lowest value can be seen for B5 blend. It has on average lower value
compared to other blends. There is not much difference between average values of all
blends. However maximum values can be seen for B30 blend. At maximum load of
36kg the diesel shows lowest value of emission. B15 and B20 shows approximately
similar trend. B25 blend here shows fairly high value at all loading conditions. After
B5, blendB10 performs well in this characteristic. Considering all trends it can be said
45
that B5 blend is optimum blend for this characteristic. While B30 has performed poorly
in this characteristic.

Table 6.10 Load Vs. O2%


LOAD B00% B5% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%
0 20.12 19.97 20.14 20.02 19.88 19.88 20.02
9 19.94 19.8 19.69 19.8 19.86 20.02 20.19
18 19.67 19.46 19.66 19.67 19.71 19.92 19.91
27 19.37 19.57 19.66 19.47 19.42 19.52 20.06
Average 19.775 19.7 19.7875 19.74 19.7175 19.835 20.045
% difference x 0.379 -0.063 0.17699 0.29077 -0.3034 -1.3653

20.3

20.2

20.1

20
B00%
19.9 B5%
O2 in %

19.8 B10%
B15%
19.7
B20%
19.6
B25%
19.5
19.4 B30%

19.3
0 9 18 27 36

Load in kg

Graph No 6.10 Load Vs. O2%

 Load Vs HC in ppm:

Hydrocarbon emissions are composed of unburned fuels as a result of


insufficient temperature which occurs near the cylinder wall. Hydrocarbons consist of
thousands of species, such as alkanes, alkenes and aromatics. Diesel engines normally
emit low levels of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons have harmful effects on environment

46
and human health. Hydrocarbons are toxic with the potential to respiratory tract
irritation and can cause cancer. Hence it is desirable to have very low HC emissions.

Table 6.11 Load Vs HC

LOAD B00% B5% B10% B15% B20% B25% B30%


0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1
0.9

0.8 B00%
HC in ppm

0.7 B5%

0.6 B10%
B15%
0.5
B20%
0.4
B25%
0.3
B30%
0.2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

0.1 Load in kg
0
Graph 6.11 Load Vs HC

The above data of graph 5.11 indicates zero HC emissions for all blends at all
loads. This is not totally acceptable result however it does confirms that HC emissions
of diesel and biodiesel is much smaller which is a good news. The HC emission of
Diesel engine is smaller than the threshold limit of exhaust gas analyser which made all
results to be indicated as zero. This in particular indicates advantage of using diesel and
biodiesel as fuel over gasoline which has significantly higher HC emissions.

47
CHAPTER 7

COSTING
Cost analysis of the research is tried to be presented in two formats. First format
estimates about reduction in diesel import of the country and hence the cost saving.
Second format presents an approximate cost for production of cottonseed biodiesel
blend if India sets up a PSU in this sector. Costing is done for best blend which from
analysis is selected as B25.

6.1 Reduction In Diesel Consumption:-

India consumes 6.6 million tonnes of diesel per month = 6,600,000,000 litre
for a month (source : Data petroleum ministry of India. https:www.petroleum.nic.in)

From online survey it is found that monthly consumption of diesel for India is 6.6
million tonnes of diesel per month

Considering India shifts to using B25 blend for transport sector

Using below pie chart it is found that India uses about 73.58% of all its diesel in
transport sector which uses a four stroke diesel engine .

Fig: 6.1. Various Sectors of Diesel Consumption


Source: Nielsen India.

48
Therefore,

Diesel consumption per month in transport sector = 0.7358×6.6 million tonnes per
month that is equal to 4.85628 million tonnes per month.

From results and conclusions it was found that B25 is the best blend in terms of emission
and performance parameters. Hence all further calculations has been done considering
this blend only.

When using B25 blend for transport sector, we use three parts of diesel and one part of
cottonseed biodiesel.

It cuts diesel consumption of India by 25%

Reduction in diesel consumption = 0.25×4.85625 MTPM

= 1.214 MTPM/0.832Kg/L

= 1459.1346 MLPM

Now 1 Barrel (159liters) of crude oil yields about 45.42 litres of diesel, for that purpose
basic calculations would give the quantity of crude oil which would be equal to =
5128.258 MLPM

Now the rate of crude oil is 24.95 Rs per litre.

Cost saving = 24.95*5128.258

= 127950 million Rs per month.

That would be equal to 12795 Crores Rs Per Month

Which directly gives yearly savings of 1535400.524 Crores Rs. per Year

6.2 Rate of unit production of cottonseed Biodiesel:

Cost analysis for a biodiesel production plant:

a) Capital costs consists of:


1) machinery
2) Esterification setup
3)Trans esterification setup
4) containers
5) miscellaneous

49
b) Operating costs:

 Buy cottonseed oil and diesel


 electricity and water
 labour
 chemicals
 stationary
 transport
 miscellaneous

from online survey of various sites such as indiamart, it is found that ,capital costs
of the setup would be around 250/unit, with production capacity= 50 tonnes per day.
The daily requirement of biodiesel as per B25 blend is 0.433 lakh tonnes per day

No. such units required all over india = 0.4033 lakh per day / 50 tonnes per day

= 806.6 units

= appox. 808 units.

Capital cost=808*250 lakh

=2020 crores.

Operating costs:-

From oil 85% of biodiesel can be obtained minimally

Oil required: = 0.4033 LTPD/0.85

=474 L Kg. PD

Rate of oil = 56 Rs per litre

Expense of oil buy= 474.4*56

=26566.4 LPD

Volume of oil required = 474.4 LKg.Pd/0.925 Kg. per litre

512.864 LLitre PD

50
From oil we obtain 85% of biodiesel with 15% of glycerol.

Biodiesel obtained = 435.935 lakh LPD

Glycerol obtained = 76.9296 Lakh Lit PD

And this glycerol can be sold at 30 Rs. Per litre

Money obtained = 30* 76.9296

=2307.88 LPD

Electricity and water cost = 1.5 % of feedstock

Esterification and trans-esterification with chemicals = 8% of feedstock

Labour cost = 2.5 % of feedstock

Miscellaneous = 2% of feedstock

Total expenses = 1.14* 26566.4

= 30285.696 L Rs Per Day

Total Earnings (glycerol recovery) = 2307.88 LPD

Net expenses= 30285.696 LPD - 2307.88 LPD

= 27977.816 LPD

Production cost of biodiesel = 27977.816 LPD/435.935 L Lit. PD

= 64.1788 Rs. Per lit.

 Total Savings:
o About 1535400.524 Crores of revenue is saved of the country on yearly
basis that is 4206.5767 crores per day.
o The production cost of cottonseed Biodiesel is estimated to be around
64.178 Rs. Per Litre which is fairly economical.

51
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
The experimental investigation of cottonseed biodiesel and its blends have been
carried out successfully. Depending on the experiments various observation and results
have been recorded. Based on the results obtained following are the conclusions which
can be derived.

 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS:

 Brake thermal efficiency of all blends except B10 has suffered a slight
decrement as compared to pure diesel. B10 has shown slight increment of
efficiency over diesel fuel. However B20 performed better compared to other
blends on higher loads. Best blend for this characteristic is obtained for B10
 Brake specific fuel consumption is found to increase for all blends except for
B15 as compared to diesel. Increase in BSFC can be explained by the fact that
biodiesel in general has lower calorific value. However B15 has shown lower
BSFC compared to diesel which can be explained by comparatively higher
calorific value of B15. Best blend for this characteristic is obtained for B15.
 Friction power is found to decrease when using biodiesel blends as compared to
diesel. A maximum of 43.27% decrease in friction power was found by B25
blend. Reduction in friction power may be explained by lower pumping losses
for pumping diesel. B20 is the only blend which has showed higher friction
power than diesel which may be explained by its high viscosity. However it can
be said that as percentage of biodiesel in blends has increased a more reduction
in friction power is obtained.
 Heat supplied is found to increase at higher loads. Heat supplied for all blends
has increased as compared to diesel at all loads. This attribute can be explained
may be because of better atomization of fuel. B5 blend has shown the highest
average value of heat supplied however at higher loads B25 has shown better
heat release rate. Hence it was concluded that B5 and B25 are best blend.
 Mechanical efficiency is found to increase for all blends as compared to diesel.
At higher loads even higher mechanical efficiencies are obtained. However in
general the values of mechanical efficiencies are low. The best blend for this
characteristic is found for B25 blend which has shown about 45.47% higher
efficiency than diesel.

 EMISSION PARAMETERS:

 It was found that CO emission for all blends was lower as compared to diesel.
A significant decrease in CO emission can be explained due to better
combustion of fuel. Maximum of 18.75% decrease as compared to diesel is
observed for B25 blend. Hence B25 is the best blend concluded for this
characteristic.
52
 CO2 emission was found to increase when compared to diesel. This attribute
can also be explained by better combustion of fuel. Out of all blends B15 was
found to perform optimally in this characteristic.
 Nox formation is found to increase when compared to diesel. This can be
explained because of presence of more organic matter in biodiesel which makes
biodiesel a more oxygenated fuel. However lowest value of NOx was shown by
B20 blend amongst all which was same as pure diesel. Hence B20 is selected as
best blend for this characteristic. Also B25 is the second best blend in this
characteristic.
 HC emissions for all blends at all loads were below the threshold limit of exhaust
gas analyser. This made HC emission reading to be obtained as zero for all
blends. This proves diesel in particular biodiesel as a better option over gasoline
fuel.

 BEST BLEND:

The performance tests and emission tests of various blends have revealed that
particularly B25 blend is found to be the best blend. When considering performance
parameters lowest friction power is obtained in case of B25 blend as compared to other
blends. Heat release rate at higher loads is also obtained for B25 blend. B25 blend has
shown highest mechanical efficiency of about 48% at 75% load which is highest
amongst all. When considering emission parameters CO emission of B25 blend was
found to be decreased by 18.75% which is highest amongst all. In case of NOx
formation B25 blend is found to be the second best because it produced slightly higher
amount of NOx compared to diesel.

 FUTURE SCOPE:

Due to above mentioned obtained traits of B25 blend it was concluded that B25
has performed optimally in performance as well as emission characteristics. However a
more detailed study of best blend can be done using gas spectrometry test and
combustion analysis with the aid of computer software. Also effect of additives in B25
blend can be studied to obtain more favourable results. This can be taken as the future
scope of study on the topic. From one of the literature survey it was found that B20
blend is found to be best blend. However the test results of this research gave idea that
B25 is best blend. This conflict can be resolved by stating that test conditions of both
the study were different. It is agreed that difference of 5% addition of biofuel can make
a significant difference on large scale but this difference can be rectified and a more
solid result can be obtained by testing B20 and B25 blends under gas spectrometry and
other similar tests.

53
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