Tudor Revision Notes

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Tudor notes- summary


Section I: Introduction
A: England in 1485. The political elite had been convulsed by civil war since 1455.
The Houses of York and Lancaster battled each other for the throne of England,
with the vast majority of the aristocracy supporting either one or the other. In
1483, Richard of Gloucester (of the House of York) overthrew (and, in all
probability, murdered) his nephew, the uncrowned boy-king, Edward V. In 1485
Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond returned from exile and took advantage of the
discord to defeat Richard III at the battle of Bosworth and was proclaimed King
Henry VII.
B: Medieval Monarchy. Medieval monarchy was personal in nature- the king ruled
with the assistance of the aristocracy. Kings were, of course, elevated above the
aristocrats- but the leading nobles expected open access to him, to be listened to
and to play a role in government. Because the whole system depended on the
ability of any given king, government often broke down if the king was incapable
(as it had under Henry VI) or incompetent (Richard II and Edward II). Medieval
Kings were expected to dispense justice (like Henry II), and to lead the nobility into
war (like Henry V), to promote learning (setting up university colleges, like Henry
VI), to promote religion and to build (as Edward III did at Windsor Castle). By the
1460s it was obvious that the role was already changing. Some historians have
suggested that a ‘new monarchy’ developed under Edward IV (1461-1483), whereby
the king was expected to perform a more bureaucratic role in actually running the
country, promoting trade, etc.
Section II: Henry VII.
A: Consolidating the Regime.
(i) The insecurity of Henry’s position: Because Henry VII had seized the throne
from Richard III, his position was extremely insecure. He became the Lancastrian
claimant only when the rest of the line had died out. The Tudors were descended
from John of Gaunt (the third son of Edward III) via an illegitimate line. On entry to
London, though, Henry was warmly welcomed- largely because Richard III had
been so unpopular.
(ii) The consolidation of power: Henry was shrewd, intelligent and calculating.
He had spent much of his youth, during the Yorkist monarchy, as a fugitive. He
showed these qualities in the way he established Tudor rule: he dated his reign
from the day before the battle of Bosworth (this immediately made any Yorkist
participants traitors), he rewarded his supporters (creating 11 knighthoods), he
detained Elizabeth of York and the Earl of Warwick (two Yorkist heirs) he quickly
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organised his Council and household, he arranged Parliament (7 November) to fall


after his coronation (30 October), he secured royal income through forfeited Yorkist
lands (which reverted to the crown) and Parliament’s grant of tonnage and
poundage for life. Henry then married Elizabeth of York (the Yorkist heir) in January
1486, their son, Arthur was born in September 1489.
(iii) Challenges to the Tudor Dynasty: Yorkist-supporting nobles did not all
accept Tudor rule. There was a series of challenges to Henry.
a) In 1486, Viscount Lovell and the Staffords attempted to raise revolt in
Yorkist ‘strongholds’ in Yorkshire and the Midlands. Both uprisings failed.
Lovell escaped, Humphrey Stafford was captured, Thomas Stafford was
pardoned.
b) Lambert Simnell was a pretender who claimed he was the Earl of Warwick
(the eldest living male Yorkist claimant to the throne). John de la Pole, Earl of
Lincoln (and another Yorkist claimant) was at the centre of the conspiracy. 1
Simnell was crowned (as King Edward VI) in Ireland, but Henry produced the
real Warwick (who had been imprisoned in the Tower) and the plot collapsed.
Lincoln and Simnell fled to Margaret of Burgundy’s court in the Netherlands. 2
Henry strengthened his control of the north by reinstating the shifty Earl of
Northumberland (who had fought for Richard III at Bosworth), this worked
and effectively neutralised the North, he also reinforced coastal defences. As a
result he was extremely well-prepared when the Yorkist forces invaded.
Henry’s army met the invaders at Stoke Field (in Nottinghamshire), and won a
significant victory. His position was far more secure after the battle: the Earl
of Lincoln was killed in battle, his key supporters remained steadfastly loyal,
he’d organised well prior to invasion, the Yorkist failed to rally support, Henry
was lenient with the rebels (to win them over) and he first used bonds of
good behaviour to ensure loyalty in those he suspected.
c) Perkin Warbeck was another imposter who kept his conspiracy going for
eight years. He first appeared on the political scene, where he claimed he was
Richard, Duke of York.3 He appeared at the French court and then washed up
in Burgundy with his aunt Margaret. Here, he was ‘trained’ as a Yorkist prince
and became the centre of anti-Tudor conspiracy. An attempted invasion in
1495, ended in fiasco and Warbeck fled to James IV of Scotland. Worryingly
for Henry, evidence was unearthed that his Lord Chancellor (and step-uncle),
Sir William Stanley was embroiled in the plot. In 1496, Warbeck again invaded

1
See Yorkist family tree, to help you understand, the base of the claims of Warwick and Lincoln.
2
Margaret was the sister of Edward IV- see Yorkist family tree for her relationship with Simnell and Lincoln.
3
Richard, Duke of York was the younger of Edward IV two sons. He disappeared in 1485 when his uncle, Richard III seized the
throne from his elder brother, the uncrowned Edward V. The princes were last seen in the Tower of London, practising archery.
It is highly likely they were murdered at some point in 1485. See Yorkist family tree for details of their relationships.
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from Scotland, but James IV was ‘bought off’ when Henry promised him
marriage to his daughter, Margaret Tudor. Warbeck fled again. He then tried
to take advantage of the 1497 Cornish rebellion, but his forces were crushed
and he surrendered to Henry VII.
d) The Earl of Warwick had been imprisoned since the age of 10 when his
uncle, Richard III, was defeated at Bosworth. In 1499 he was accused of
plotting with Perkin Warbeck and both of them were executed.
e) The ‘de la Poles’: were both potential Yorkist claimants to the throne.
Edmund de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk fled abroad in 1498, he was persuaded to
return, but fled again in 1501. He took refuge with the Emperor Maximillian.
With the Treaty of Windsor (in 1506), Maximilian agreed to hand Suffolk over
to Henry VII, who imprisoned him for the remainder of his reign. Richard de la
Pole (nicknamed the ‘White Rose’ had also fled abroad) and was killed fighting
for the French forces in the battle of Pavia (in 1525).
(iv) How successfully did Henry VII consolidate his position? Henry
certainly dealt effectively with conspiracy as they arose. Henry, himself, never felt
entirely secure. He wanted to create a position where Tudor rule was accepted
rather than challenged and for the widespread acceptance of the legitimate
succession of his dynasty. For the most part, Henry achieved this- he was also
opposed by a demoralised and dwindling Yorkist faction, and ‘sensible’ opinion
largely backed the Tudors.
B: Henry VII’s government
Under Henry VII there is a continued movement from ‘medieval’ aspects of
government- based on the person of the king and the involvement of the great
nobles towards a more ‘modern’ bureaucratic type of monarchy where government
bodies were charged with administering to specific tasks, worked under a set of
rules, and were audited to check everything functioned correctly. This process did
not begin with Henry VII (these is ample evidence that Edward IV had already
moved government in this direction), but this ‘New Monarchy’ certainly accelerated
under the Tudors.
(i) The Council: had three main functions- to advise the king, to administer the
realm on the King’s behalf, to make legal judgements. Henry did include members
of the nobility, but tended to exclude the great magnates; he promoted excellent
Church administrators (like John Morton and Richard Fox) and lawyers (such as
Reginald Bray and Edmund Dudley). These man clearly saw themselves as
administrators rather than courtiers. The Council, though, only moved so far down
the ‘modernisation’ path: there were no set rules, members often met separately (in
smaller groups) and advise was also sought by Henry VII beyond the council (from,
for example, his mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort).
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(ii) The Council Learned: this was a new development under Henry VII. Its
function was to secure revenue for the King. It was run by Bray and Richard
Empson. The council learned made the system of bonds and recognizes work to
maximum effect. On Bray’s death (in 1503) Empson was joined by Edmund Dudley.
Both achieved notoriety based on the underhand methods they employed to extract
money from the king’s subjects. The Council Learned earned a reputation for
rapaciousness and the fall of Dudley and Empson (shortly after Henry VII’s death)
brought about rejoicing on the streets.
(iii) Court and household: the royal court was the very centre of government. It
was designed to impress visiting dignitaries- it was sumptuous and magnificent. This
was the focus of the ‘medieval’ notion of a personal monarchy. Courtiers attended
to the king- as both companions and advisors. There were different levels to the
court:
a) The household, which looked after the needs of the king and his courtiers
b) The Chamber- was made up of the ‘private’ areas of the court and was
presided over by the Lord Chamberlain- who organised royal ceremonies and
was able to speak for the king.
c) The Privy Chamber- which was another of Henry VII’s innovations. Here
access to the king was limited to his most intimate servants. Through this
Henry cut himself off from the traditional contacts at court (the great nobles).
(iv) Parliament: had existed since the thirteenth century, but it was very different
from our concept of an administrative and legislative body. It met only occasionally
(when called by the king) and had just two functions: to pass laws, and to grant
taxation to the king. Its MPs also drew issues and grievances together for the king’s
consideration.
Henry called seven parliaments during his reign- most of them in his first ten years.
His first parliaments were used to pass Acts of Attainder- dealing with traitors and
seizing their property; later Parliaments focused on raising extraordinary revenue.
Although little evidence exists for Henry’s parliaments, it seems as though the royal
government and parliament co-operated well, the king accepted parliament’s will
(when it conflicted with his own) and made little attempt to ‘manage’ parliament.
(v) Justice: the maintenance of law and order was one of the prime responsibilities
of medieval kingship. Much of this was usually devolved to the great nobles who
administered the regions on his behalf. However, many noble houses had been
wiped out during the Wars of the Roses. The north-west was controlled by his
relatives, the Stanleys, and the north-east by the Earl of Northumberland. After
Northumberland’s murder (in 1489) Henry took the high-risk decision to release the
Yorkist Earl of Surrey to replace him. Like many of Henry VII’s decisions, it proved
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to be right and Surrey loyally administered the north for the next 10 years. When
Henry had to rely on those he did not trust at all (like the Marquis of Dorset) he
imposed bonds and recognizes to ensure their loyalty.
Henry also developed the role of JP (Justices of the Peace), he gave them wider
ranging powers- assessing taxes, regulating alehouses, investigating complaints
against local officials and maintaining law and order.
The whole justice system under the Tudors is detailed in the table on p15 of the
textbook.
(vi) Finance: traditionally the crown drew money from a number of sources: crown
lands (rents, etc); profits from feudal dues and the exercise of the royal prerogative,
customs revenue, pensions from foreign rulers (normally negotiated after an
‘invasion’), profits from justice, ‘extraordinary revenue’ raised by Parliament in a
time of crisis/war. Henry developed many of these money-raising techniques:
a) Crown lands- the King was the largest landowner. At the start of his reign, this
brought Henry £12,000 per year. Henry switched responsibility for the
managing of the states from the Court of the Exchequer to the Chamber. The
treasurers of the Chamber, Sir Thomas Lovell and Sir John Heron took
effective action and increased income to £42,000 per year
b) Henry’s advisers scoured the medieval records to maximise income from
feudal dues and the exercise of the royal prerogative. The king increased
revenue from wardships, in 1504 Parliament granted feudal aid and the
Statute of Uses (1489) ensured that heirs paid an ‘obligation’ when inheriting
on the death of a tenant-in-chief.
c) Customs revenues increased from £34,000 to £38,000 over the course of the
reign.
d) Profits from ‘justice’- court fines and revenue from bonds. Between 1504 and
1507 a total of £200,000 was ‘promised’ in bonds (this was only to be
collected if the noble concerned expressed disloyalty)
e) Henry received over £400,000 from extraordinary taxation, this burden helped
to provoke rebellions in 1489 and 1497. In 1504 Henry promised Parliament
he would not seek to raise any more money under this method.
On his death, Henry left £300,000 in plate, jewels and cash and left the crown in a
very healthy financial position. Henry’s methods, though, were highly contentious
and his treatment of the leading nobles (especially over bonds and recognizes) was
potentially extremely dangerous.
(vii) Judgement on Henry VII’s government.
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In 1874 the historian Richard Green posited the theory that Edward IV and Henry
VII represented a ‘new monarchy’ in their development of more modern forms of
government. Stanley Crimes challenged this interpretation, claiming Henry just
made the medieval monarchy work more efficiently, with little in terms of
innovation. In turn David Starkey challenged Chrimes and pointed out that the Privy
Chamber was a considerable development. Steven Gunn praises Henry’s successful
re-establishment of monarchical authority. John Watt’s countered Gunn’s assertion
that Henry was highly involved in the government of the realm and suggested he
left it to bureaucrats such as Morton, Bray and Empson. Christine Carpenter
believed that Henry was a ruler of modest ability who achieved little.
C: Foreign Policy
Henry had no ambitious plans for foreign policy- he aimed to maintain positive
relations with foreign powers in order to secure recognition for his new dynasty, to
defend trading interests and to achieve national security
(i) Brittany and France: France sought to bring Brittany under the direct control
of the king.4 Henry’s first foreign policy foray attempted to prevent this. It ended in
disappointment. In 1487 France invaded Brittany. Henry called a parliament in 1489
to raise revenue for an army to support the Bretons. In the same year Henry and
Anne, the Duchess of Brittany drew up the Treaty of Redon. Anne agreed to pay for
a small English army to defend Brittany from the French threat. Anne had
contracted a marriage-by-proxy with Emperor Maximillian, Henry also tried to draw
Maximillian into an anti-French alliance. Anne, however, capitulated to French
pressure and married King Charles VIII and Brittany was annexed into France,
Maximillian lost interest, the English army was marooned in Brittany.
Henry recovered well from this set back. In 1492, he launched an invasion of
France. He knew Charles VIII was more interested in invading Italy than fighting the
English. His gamble paid off and the two kings signed the Treaty of Etaples. Charles
agreed to pay Henry a pension and drop his support for Perkin Warbeck. France and
England maintained cordial relations for the rest of Henry’s reign.
(ii) Burgundy, the Netherlands and the Holy Roman Empire: the Netherlands
was a vital trading centre for English exports. It was controlled by the Hapsburgs-
Maximillian (until 1493) and then his son Philip. 5 Maximilian was the stepson-in-law
of Margaret of York, the widowed Duchess of Burgundy. Margaret convinced
Maximilian and Philip to support the claims of her ‘nephew’ Perkin Warbeck (see
notes above). Henry responded with a trade embargo that hit merchants in the
south and east of England. Once Warbeck left Burgundy, the embargo came to an

4
Brittany was a fiefdom of the Kingdom of France but the Duke enjoyed autonomous powers
5
Maximillian was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1493, so he handed over the rule of the Netherlands to his son.
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end in 1496 with the commercial treaty, Intercursus Magnus. In 1504, Henry
followed this with the Treaty of Windsor. Philip and Maximillian agreed to hand over
another Yorkist fugitive, the Earl of Suffolk (see earlier notes) and assented to a
trade deal (The Intercursus Malus) that potentially advantaged English traders
(although it was never fully enacted).
(iii) Spain: newly-unified Spain was an emerging power. Henry quickly drew up a
treaty with the joint rulers, Ferdinand and Isabelle. Under the Treaty of Medina del
Campo, the two monarchies agreed to offer each other mutual protection, agreed
not to harbour fugitives and to arrange a marriage between Catherine, princess of
Aragon and Prince Arthur. Ferdinand and Henry grappled over the details:
Ferdinand was reluctant to allow the marriage to proceed until Perkin Warbeck had
been dealt with and they both bickered over the size of the dowry. The marriage
eventually went ahead in 1501.
The death of Prince Arthur further complicated the diplomacy between Henry and
Ferdinand. Henry immediately suggested Catherine marry Prince Henry, but
Ferdinand stalled and insisted a papal dispensation was needed. In 1504, it was
Henry’s turn to stall, after Isabella’s death it was not certain that Spain would
remain united. Juana, Ferdinand and Isabella’s daughter, claimed the throne of
Castile. She and her husband, Philip of Burgundy, were shipwrecked and took
refuge in England. Henry decided to support Juana’s claim and they drew up the
Treaty of Windsor (1506) which confirmed Henry’s support for Juana and Philip,
secured the return of the Earl of Suffolk, proposed the Intercursus Malus and
planned a marriage (that never took place) between the widowed Henry and Philip’s
sister, the Archduchess Margaret. Once again, fortune swung Ferdinand’s way when
Philip unexpectedly dies shortly after he and Juana arrived in Spain. Juana was
confined- Ferdinand claimed she had gone mad with grief- and Ferdinand retained
control of the whole of Spain.6 Ferdinand prevented the marriage of Prince Henry
and Princess Catherine for the rest of Henry VII’s reign.
(iv) Scotland: In 1495 James IV offered refuge to Perkin Warbeck, giving him a
pension and marriage to the king’s cousin, Lady Catherine Gordon. In 1496,
Warbeck invaded England with a small army, but soon retreated. Henry began to
raise money to invade Scotland but this, in part, triggered the Cornish rebellion
(1497). This convinced Henry to secure a truce with the Scots (at Ayton), James
withdrew support for Warbeck. In 1502 the Treaty of Perpetual Peace arranged the
marriage of James IV and Princess Margaret. There was no further conflict between
the two nations for the rest of Henry’s reign.

6
She’s known to history as ‘Juana the Mad’; her husband, ‘Philip the Fair’
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(v) Ireland: English control over Ireland was limited. The Earl of Kildare was the
chief power-broker (as the Lord Deputy of Ireland). He held Yorkist sympathies and
provided support for Perkin Warbeck after 1491. Henry attempted to undercut
Kildare’s power by appointed the infant Prince Henry as Lieutenant of Ireland and
appointed Sir Edward Poynings as his deputy. Poynings attempted to implement
English law in Ireland, used threats and bribery to establish royal authority and, in
1495, convinced the Irish Parliament to pass ‘Poynings’ Law’ which stopped the Irish
Parliament passing laws without the prior approval of the English crown. This all
proved to be expensive. When Warbeck returned to Ireland in 1495, besieging
Waterford, it all looked ineffective too. Henry recalled Poynings and took the risk of
appointing Kildare in his place. Kildare dropped Warbeck, and supported Henry
loyally, secure peaceable (and cheap) authority over Ireland.
(vi) Securing the succession and marriage alliances: securing appropriate
marriage alliances, would indicate that foreign rulers accepted Henry VII’s right to
the throne and would ensure the succession at home. Henry successfully secured
Catherine of Aragon for Prince Arthur, although this didn’t probe to be without
problems (see above); James IV of Scotland for his eldest daughter, Margaret,
which secured relations with Scotland and saw off Perkin Warbeck (see above). On
his death his son, Henry was unmarried as was his youngest daughter, Mary. After
the death of Elizabeth of York, Henry attempts to arrange a remarriage (with
princesses from Span, France and the Holy Roman Empire) all came to nought.
(viii) Judgement on Foreign Policy: Henry was very successful in securing his
own hold on power- foreign rulers were quick to accept the Tudor dynasty. Henry
successfully avoided expensive foreign wars and, on the whole, skilfully manoeuvred
diplomacy. He used this to ‘hoover up’ the fugitive Yorkists and the pretender,
Perkin Warbeck. After 1503, thoughts turned to the succession. After the deaths of
Prince Arthur, Queen Elizabeth of York and Isabella of Spain, some of Henry’s
diplomacy began to unravel. On his death, his eldest surviving son remained
unmarried and the succession was not as secure as it could have been had Henry
VII secured the marriage with Catherine of Aragon.
D: English society.
English society in 1500 had developed from the ‘classic’ middle-ages pyramid (king-
lords-knights-peasants), although much remained unchanged. Notably, the
preceding centuries had seen the growth of a professional and mercantile
bourgeoisie (particularly in London). Remnants of the feudal system were still
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apparent, but economic pressures (kicked off by the population slump after the
Black Death) had resulted in more modern term of exchange. 7
(i) The nobility: despite these changes, the 50 or 60 men that made up the
peerage still dominated landownership. The crown relied on these nobles to
maintain law and order throughout the realm. Henry distrusted the peers (other
than key Lancastrian military commanders- like the Earl of Oxford) and kept them at
arm’s length and sought to control them through bonds and recognizances; also
tried to limit noble power by clamping down on ‘bastard feudalism’.8 In 1486 peers
and MPs were forced to take an oath against ‘illegal’ retaining and Parliament
passed Acts in 1487 and 1504 limiting retaining.
(ii) The Gentry: formed the next strata in society. The Gentry held a knighthood,
or held a valid coat of arms, or a considerable income, or an imposing country
residence, or had courtly connections. They also played a role in the administration
of their locality. The ‘mere gentry’ and ‘esquires’ were somewhat lower status: the
eldest sons of knights. ‘Gentlemen’ were harder to define, anyone recognised as
such by his neighbours could claim the title.
(iii) Churchmen: Bishops were entitled to sit in the House of Lords and often lived
a life of luxury. Henry VII appointed bishops that were more renowned for their
legal training and competence rather than their spirituality (e.g.: Richard Fox). He
also tended to appoint men from outside the nobility. The lower clergy lived
modestly, often no better off than their parishioners.
(iv) Commoners: in the towns, the bourgeoisie (known as the ‘middling sort’ were
educated professionals (e.g.: lawyers) and merchants. Shop keepers and tradesmen
were also considered respectable and tended to play an important role in town life,
dominating the town councils, guilds and confraternities.
In the countryside, yeoman farmers constituted the ‘middling sort’, the farmed
substantial lands and grew for the market. Husbandmen kept smaller farms and
supplemented income working for the yeomen or gentry. Labourers worked for
others (both in the countryside and the town), their position were very insecure.
(v) Regional divisions: in the North and West pastoral farming (sheep, cattle,
horses) predominated, in the South and East it was more mixed. Southerners
considered northerners to be savages, northerners envied southern wealth.

7
Medieval economy was based on land, labour was more frequently paid for in kind (in goods) and many producers were self-
sufficient peasants, growing just a little extra for the ‘market’. The Black Death resulted in a smaller population, and landowners
had to compete with each other in order to ‘fill’ their land- this resulted in an increase in monetary recompense for labour, and
more favourable conditions for peasant producers who retained more of the surplus and were able to develop their
smallholdings and produce far more for the market.
8
See p34 of the textbook- some historians believe that Bastard Feudalism was responsible for the breakdown in law and order
that resulted in the Wars of the Roses.
10

Regional identities were strengthened by the administration of justice from county


towns and the local saints’ cults. The historian Derek Keene argued that, despite
these variations, the English felt a keen sense of national identity.
(vi) Social discontent and rebellions: there was relatively little discontent in
Henry VII’s reign. John Guy gave a key reason for this ‘Tudor England’s greatest
success was its ability to feed itself’. In the 1480 and 1490s, real wages appear to
have increased, although inflation reversed these gains in the later years of Henry’s
reign.
Both rebellions that occurred under Henry VII were largely provoked by increases to
taxation:
a) The Yorkshire Rebellion, 1489: the rebels murdered the Earl of
Northumberland. The Tudor historian claims he was a victim of resentment of
higher taxes that Henry was raising for his expedition to Brittany (see earlier
notes). His retinue abandoned him (some say in revenge for his abandonment
of Richard III at Bosworth).
b) The Cornish Rebellion, 1497: was also triggered by taxes raised to fight
the Scots. Around 15,000 Cornishmen mobilised. Perkin Warbeck attempted to
hijack it and the rebels marched on London, stopping just outside the city at
Blackheath. Christine Carpenter claims this presented a serious threat to
Henry’s rule. Henry withdrew troops from the Scottish border and crushed the
revolt with ease. The leaders were executed but Henry had learnt his lesson
about raising taxes and foreign adventures: further foreign policy was
conducted through diplomacy rather than war (see earlier notes).
(v) Judgement: socially, England was relatively stable and neither the monarchy
of the social order was seriously challenged. Malcontents found it difficult to stir up
trouble, largely because even the bottom strata of society was relatively well off and
definitely well-fed.
E: Economic Development.
The population of England was about 2.2 million, the majority were engaged in
farming. Towns were small and urban-dwellers made up only 10% of the
population. London had a population of about 50,000 but no more than 20 towns
exceeded 3,000. Wool and cloth were the main town industries. Tin, lead and coal
mining, metal working, leatherwork, shipbuilding and papermaking were all smaller
industries.
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(i) The agrarian economy: differed according to region (see notes above). The
open-field system still predominated, although the move to enclosure had already
started.9 This was relatively limited in Henry VII’s reign.
(ii) Trade and industry: was relatively undeveloped, Henry was interested in
increasing his personal wealth but did not have an ‘economic policy’ for increasing
England’s prosperity.
a) The cloth trade: was responsible for 90% of English exports. The historian,
Jack Lander, estimated that the volume of cloth exports increased 60% over
the course of Henry VII’s rule. England also exported less raw wool
(traditionally through the Merchants of the Staple based in Calais) and
more finished cloth, as a domestic weaving ‘industry’ developed. Much of this
was shipped from London to Antwerp through the Merchant Adventurers
(who slowly supplanted the Merchants of the Staple). The Merchant
Adventurers worked closely with the crown and advised the King on trade
deals like the Intercursus Magnus. This reinforced London’s commercial
credentials. However, the Merchant Adventurers ambitions were checked
when Henry granted the Hanseatic League trading privileges in order to
undermine Yorkist pretenders abroad. 10
b) Other industries: weaving, brewing were all small scale; tin, lead, iron and
coal mining were required more outlay but remained on a small-scale. Most
was produced for domestic consumption
c) Trade Laws and Treaties: Henry held customs duties for life, so he had an
interest in maximising trade, but when pretenders and fugitives threatened his
position, Henry prioritised foreign policy and dynastic interests. The embargo
on trade (1493) with the Netherlands disrupted trade (see notes above). The
Intercursus Magnus brought an end to the embargo and helped promote trade
for a decade. The Intercursus Malus was never fully implemented. Parts of the
Treaty of Etaples attempted to promote Anglo-French Trade. Attempts to
break into the Mediterranean markets failed and Henry did nothing to
challenge the dominance of the Hanseatic League, again, for dynastic reasons
(see above). The Navigation Acts of 1485 and 1489 tried, without success, to
limit trade to and from English ports to English shipping.
d) Exploration: John Cabot received authorisation from Henry VII to explore on
behalf of England. 11 In 1497 he ‘discovered’ Newfoundland and reported back

9
Open-field system was used throughout the medieval period. The fields were open and peasants had their own ‘strip’ that they
farmed and shared common pasture for animals. Landowners were, however, starting to ‘enclose’ the fields (with hedges) and
peasants no longer had access to first common land and then the fields themselves. Landowners converted to pastoral (animals)
from arable (crops) because this was more profitable- but this meant that peasants lost their traditional livelihoods.
10
Hanseatic League was a group of free cities in northern Europe that formed a commercial union.
11
The late-fifteenth century was a great era of European exploration. Christopher Columbus was sponsored by Ferdinand and
Isabella. In 1492 he landed in America.
12

the existence of extensive fishing grounds. William Weston’s expedition of


1499 may well have landed on the American mainland. In 1508, Henry also
sponsored Sebastian Cabot (John’s son) to find the ‘north west passage’ to
Asia.12 Unfortunately Henry VIII did not share his father’s interest in
exploration so the newly-discovered fishing grounds became the preserve of
the Portuguese.
(iii) Judgement: the reign of Henry Tudor was one of economic stability: the wool
trade developed and there was no major disruption to agriculture. Although Henry
made some efforts to promote trade, these were dropped when other priorities
emerged.
F: Religion, humanism, arts and learning.
Under Henry VII there were few signs of a weakened Catholic Church. Despite the
(relatively limited) spread of new humanist ideas, the Church dominated arts,
culture and the social life of most Englishmen and women. The Church helped
maintain order- stressing obedience and community and provided opportunities for
talented administrators (like Fox and later, Wolsey). The Pope accepted Henry’s
authority over the Church in England. Senior clergymen, who tended to be
competent and conscientious, participated in the government of the realm.
(i) Religious community, belief and services: the Church was highly
significant- influencing what people thought and how they behaved. The sacraments
of the church (baptism, marriage, Eucharist) marked the major turning points in
people’s lives. The Catholic belief in transubstantiation was unchallenged.
(ii) The social role of the Church: Ordinary people left money to the Church, to
enhance the fabric of the building and to reduce the amount of time the benefactor
spent in purgatory. The wealthy took this a step further, paying for Chantry
Chapels, and a chantry priest who prayed for the whole family.
Confraternities and guilds created community chests (to pay for things like funeral
costs), raised money for charity, some ran schools and almshouses; but generally
they were a forum for the social life of the parish.
Pilgrimage was another popular way to gain relief from purgatory and England was
littered with pilgrimage sites. On Rogation Sunday, the whole congregation walked
the boundaries of the parish to pray for its protection.
(iii) Religious orders: in 1500 there were 900 religious communities scattered
throughout (mostly remote) areas of England. The monks belonged to various

12
The north-west passage winds between many Islands to the north of Canada.
13

orders: Benedictine, Cistercians and Carthusians. Monks came from all backgrounds,
but a larger proportion that average came from the wealthier groups in society.
Friars worked amongst ordinary people and were supported by charitable donations.
There were three great orders: Dominicans, Franciscans and Augustinians. Friars
tended to come from lower down the social scale than monks.
Nunneries were largely populated by women who were deemed to be unsuitable for
marriage. Most were relatively poor and few were well educated.
(iv) Lollards, heresy and anticlericalism: Lollards followed the ideas John
Wycliffe who placed stress on the understanding of the bible and so, wanted it to be
translated into English. They were sceptical on transubstantiation and considered
the Catholic Church to be corrupt. Lollard views were considered to be heretical and
numbers dwindled as the fifteenth century progressed. Anticlericalism seems to
have been relatively limited and the healthy numbers of trainee priests suggests the
Church remained popular.
(v) Humanism: was concerned with the reliability of Greek and Latin translations
of ancient text. The earliest English humanists, William Grocyn and Thomas Linacre
had both studied in Italy. John Colet was a close ally of Erasmus and Thomas More.
He sought to use humanist study to reform the Catholic Church. Although humanist
thought had infiltrated England, its spread was relatively limited under Henry VII
(vi) Developments in Education: ‘song schools’ and ‘reading schools’ provided
education for the very young; 53 new grammar schools were set up between 1460
and 1509. Grammar school and university education was based on a study of Latin,
but humanist approaches took hold in Magdalen College (Oxford) from 1480
onwards. Lady Margaret Beaufort sponsored the foundation of two new Cambridge
colleges: Christ’s College and St John’s.
(v) Drama: plays were put on at the time of church-ale festivals. Troupes of
players toured the country. Guilds performed ‘mystery plays’ at the feast of Corpus
Christi. Most plays set out straightforward moral and religious messages for the
moral improvement of their audiences.
(vi) Music: much of the music of the fifteenth century was church-related. Bagpipe
and wind groups entertained crowds on saints’ days. Carols were popular. Cathedral
choral music became more sophisticated. In the homes of the wealthy, minstrels
played at mealtimes.
(vii) Art and Architecture: there was a huge Church building program in the late
1500s. The Gothic perpendicular style was expensive and indicates the general
‘health’ of the Catholic Church. The new printing presses produced traditional
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medieval works (like Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales), although humanist texts became
increasingly popular towards the end of Henry VII’s reign.
(viii) Judgement: by 1509, the Catholic Church appeared to be in robust health, it
fulfilled spiritual needs and dominated social life. Religious themes permeated
drama, music and literature. Humanism had gained a foothold, but most humanists
did not seek to challenge the Church.
G: The death of Henry VII and the succession.
In early 1509 Henry’s health deteriorated rapidly, he died on 21 April. For several
days, Richard Fox, Lady Margaret Beaufort and Richard Weston kept his death a
secret and manoeuvred into position around Prince Henry. Empson and Dudley were
arrested along with other potential ‘troublemakers’ that could disrupt the
succession. This showed that there were still worries about the security of the Tudor
dynasty- Prince Henry remained unmarried and there were fears that the de la Poles
or the Duke of Buckingham (a descent of Edward III) might take advantage of the
situation and seize the throne. As it transpired, the succession went relatively
smoothly and it was the first successful father-to-son handover since 1425.
Section III- Henry VIII
A: Early rule, 1509-1514.
Henry came to the throne at the age of 17. In his early years he administered the
realm through a council. He was keen to rule and to put ‘space’ between his own
style of kingship and that of his father.
(i) Henry’s character and early aims: he was well-educated. He was also
extrovert and charming- the antithesis of his father. His father had assiduously seen
to the rule of the nation, but Henry found this tedious and he lacked the work ethic
of Henry VII. He saw himself as a medieval-style monarch and preferred pageants,
revelry, sports and hunting. He had very different priorities to his father: he set out
to establish his status amongst European monarchs (by contracting a suitable
marriage), re-establishing the role of the nobility, establish himself as a warrior king.
(ii) Repudiating the rule of Henry VII: Henry abolished the hated Council
Learned and cancelled many of the bonds and recognizes that Henry VII had
extracted. He also acquiesced to the arrest and execution of Dudley and Empson.
Both measures brought him popularity. He soon spent the wealth that Henry VII
had stockpiled- on a more aggressive foreign policy. Richard Fox did keep his place
as a key advisor.
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(iii) Marriage to Catherine of Aragon: Henry very quickly married Catherine of


Aragon. This suited him advisors; and initially Catherine exercised some influence
over policy.
(iv) Re-establishing the nobility: Henry VII had ‘frozen out’ the nobility, and his
peaceable approach to foreign policy denied them the pursuit of military glory.
Henry VIII brought them back into the fold and spent his time jousting and hunting
with them. He also took them to war. They did not, however, regain political
influence- largely because they were kept at arm’s length by Henry’s two chief
ministers- Thomas Wolsey and Thomas Cromwell.
(v) Government 1509-1514: the conciliar government of this period called two
Parliaments. The first, in 1510, abolished the Council learned. The second, 1512-
1514: provided extraordinary revenue for the invasions of France and Scotland and
produced the first attack on the church: the Anticlerical Act which restricted benefit
of the clergy.
B: Wolsey’s period of dominance (1514-29)
Thomas Wolsey rose from very humble beginnings to be the (second) most
powerful and (second) richest man in England. For 15 years (1514-1529) he
dominated the politics of England, and brought all the great high-born nobles under
his sway. His fall came swift and sudden- he was unable to secure the divorce that
Henry required and died en route to London, where it was intended for him to be
tried and executed.
(i) Wolsey’s Rise: Wolsey originally was patronised by Richard Foxe. Yet, it was
his sharp intellect and organisational skills that first brought him to the attention of
Henry VIII, and that meant (by 1514) Henry referred almost all matters of business
to Wolsey. Wolsey’s rare intellectual and organisational capacities that would have
encouraged Henry to promote him. He was also was ruthless in his willingness to
please to King, claiming that Henry’s preferences take precedence over all other
considerations. The King was expected to be not just a figurehead, but also a
bureaucrat and administrator. Henry did not take to this new aspect of kingship with
the same vigour as his father. Wolsey provided the perfect foil for Henry to continue
his chivalric pursuits.
(ii): Wolsey’s Relationship with Henry VIII: Wolsey was often given great
independence but this could always be overruled by the king. Wolsey made himself
indispensable to Henry- his monumental drive and determination, his intelligence
and his wide net of patronage meant that Wolsey could get things done for Henry
VIII that no-one else could. The relationship has sometimes been described as a
partnership- but as a ‘new man’ Wolsey’s power and influence rested on one thing-
staying in Henry’s good books. Wolsey’s position against that of the nobility
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benefitted Henry- leading subjects were forced to yield pride of place to Wolsey,
and since Wolsey was firmly under the control of the King.
(iii): Wolsey as an administrator: Wolsey was an extreme able minister- almost
all the government of the realm fell under his sway.
a) Privy Chamber: Wolsey battled for influence with members of the Privy
Council (who tended to be young nobles who were friends with Henry)
b) Wolsey as Lord Chancellor: he attempted to use this position to dispense
‘fair’ justice. It is clear however, that Wolsey used his position to further his
own interests.
c) Finance: Wolsey raised additional revenue in the traditional manner- through
Parliament. Although he did change the way taxes were assessed. way these
subsidies (as they were called) were assessed. In 1525 he tried to avoid going
through parliament and raised the ‘Amicable Grant’ but this was resisted on a
widespread scale.
d) Parliament: Wolsey only called two parliaments in his 15-year period as
Henry VIII’s chief minister. Wolsey made no secret of his distaste for
parliament- who just seemed to ‘cause trouble’.
e) Dealing with enemies: Wolsey could be extremely vindictive when crossed
or if anyone went behind his back, directly to the King.
f) Power over the Church: As Archbishop of York and a Cardinal, Wolsey was
extremely influential: he made little use of his sweeping powers- and was
unconcerned about Church ‘abuses’ (probably because he was chief ‘abuser’
himself) or the spread of heresy (he doesn’t seem to have been too bothered
about what people actually believed). He claimed the right to nominate
successors when clerical posts fell vacant. He also claimed the right to make
all legal decision regarding wills and inheritance and instituted what was, in
effect, a 10% inheritance tax for his personal profit.
g) Knowledge is Power: he built up an encyclopaedic knowledge of what was
happening throughout the country and employed a large band of informers
and agent to provide him with evidence and to carry out his instructions.
h) Wolsey’s Wealth: by the end of his career he was the richest person in the
country (in terms of income), other than the King. Less than half of his income
was derived from the posts he held, the rest came from fees raised in the
ecclesiastical courts (‘inheritance tax’) and Wolsey was showered with ‘gifts’
from those who looked to him for preferment. This huge wealth was spent to
bolster Wolsey’s position- he hoped to show himself the equal of the nobility
(and even the King) by the way he lived.
(iv): The ‘King’s Great Matter’: in the mid-1520s, Henry fell madly in love with
Anne Boleyn. Henry asked Wolsey to secure a papal dispensation for the annulment
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of his marriage to Catherine. For two years Wolsey’s diplomacy got nowhere and
the Pope just refused to make a decision.
(v): Wolsey’s Fall: although closely linked to the ‘King’s Great Matter’, Wolsey’s
fall has other causes. He had, over a long period, made many great enemies. In
October 1529, Wolsey was charged with praemunire. On 4 November he was
arrested, on 29 November he died in Leicester, being taken to London to face trial
and probable execution.
C: Return to Conciliar rule, 1529-32
Following the fall of Wolsey, conciliar government continued for 3 years. This
method of government proved no more able to resolve the ‘King’s Great Matter’
than Wolsey was. Thomas Cromwell emerged during this period. He suggested a
new direction: Henry could secure the divorce by denying the Pope’s authority,
breaking with Rome and placing himself as head of the English Church. By 1532 he
was the King’s chief minister. He maintained this position until 1540 when he was
executed having fallen foul of Henry.
D: Cromwell’s ascendancy, 1532-1540.
Cromwell also rose from a humble background. He first emerged as a protégé of
Wolsey, but he was not damaged by his fall. Cromwell cemented his position when
he achieved what Wolsey could not- the annulment of Henry’s first marriage.
Cromwell’s position was, like Wolsey’s, completely dependent on the King’s good
will. He was a target of various factions at court, with the Boleyns and Norfolk both
‘gunning’ for him. He was eventually brought down by the machinations of the
latter.
(i) The Catholic Church, Parliament and the Succession: Cromwell developed
Parliament’s role in government- particularly between 1529 and 1536, when the
‘Reformation Parliament’ was in session. Both the break with Rome and the divorce
from Catherine of Aragon were secured by various Acts of Parliament. This secured
Parliament’s position as the supreme law-making body (a position it never lost).
Once Supremacy over the Church was achieved, Henry was able to marry Anne
Boleyn. On 7 September 1533, Princess Elizabeth was born but her gender meant
that her birth had not completely resolved the issue of the succession.
(ii) The Dissolution of the Monasteries: was completed by 1542. A vast amount
of Church land was confiscated by the Crown. This significantly increased the wealth
and power of the crown.
(iii) Reorganising England's regional government: in Durham and Wales
Cromwell also accrued additional authority to the king. More distant portions of the
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country (often lawless and ill-administered and the loyalty of the regional lords were
suspect) were placed under the control of regional councils.
(iv) Fall of Anne Boleyn: Cromwell played a fundamental role in bringing down
Anne Boleyn. He allied with a conservative faction (Anne was a vocal supporter of
Church reform) to being about her downfall. She was accused of adultery (and
incest with her brother) and was executed on 19 May 1536. Henry quickly remarried
(Jane Seymour) who produced a long-awaited male heir (Prince Edward) but died
from complications soon after child-birth.
(v) Fall of Cromwell: Cromwell’s position was always precarious- far more so than
Wolsey’s. He was always aware that any mistake would be seized upon by his
enemies at court- and factionalism was rife throughout Henry VIII’s reign. Cromwell
arranged Henry’s fourth marriage- to Anne of Cleves, a German princess, but Henry
took an immediate dislike to Anne (they had been married before they even met)
and this (mis-)match destroyed Cromwell’s credibility with the king. Norfolk and
Cromwell’s other enemies used this an opportunity to bring about his downfall.
Norfolk began to push his niece, Catherine Howard, forward as a possible match.
Cromwell was accused of treason and heresy at a council meeting and was
executed on 28 July 1540.
Henry’s marriage to Catherine Howard was short-lived. She was accused (fairly, it
seems) of adultery and she too was executed. Henry came to regret the execution
of Cromwell. He realised he had behaved like a foolish old man, infatuated by a 19-
year old and duped by the Norfolk-faction.
(vi) Judgement on Cromwell: Historians have come to a general agreement that
Cromwell was a remarkably able administrator, who worked Henry’s hazy ideas into
practicable policies and then implemented them, sweeping away considerable
opposition. Some have contended that he was the most effective government
minister of all time.
Although Geoffrey Elton’s thesis (see other booklet) has not convinced everyone,
the 1530s constitute an important place in the evolution of the English state. The
decentralised and ill-defined Medieval Monarchy took on many of the features of the
modernised, bureaucratic state. Most historians now agree that Cromwell wanted to
take England in this direction; but they question the idea that he had a long-term
coherent plan. Most policy was made-up in response to short-term pressures,
working against considerable opposition and an absolute desire to please Henry and
stay in his favour.
(vii) The Elton Thesis: the work of Elton and the historiographical debates that
followed give a valuable insight into how ‘history’ is made. Elton complete revised
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the dominant picture of Cromwell’s character and abilities; parts of his thesis have
been accepted, others rejected and argument still rages over other aspects.
E: Return to Conciliar Government, 1540-47.
Following Cromwell’s fall, the Privy Council became the centre of government.
During this period, though, membership was fixed and a secretary kept formal
records of the proceedings. Conservatives (like the Duke of Norfolk, Stephen
Gardiner and Thomas Wriothesley) held sway.
(i) Another marriage: Norfolk was damaged by, but managed to survive,
Catherine Howard’s fall. The Conservatives were alarmed by Henry’s choice for his
next wife- Katherine Parr. She was well known for her Protestant views and the
conservative Catholic faction tried to embroil her in accusations of heresy.
(ii) Henry’s death and more factionalism: Edward Seymour and Norfolk vied
for prime position as the King’s health deteriorated. Norfolk’s son, the Earl of
Surrey, was executed for treason and Norfolk was arrested. The dying king assented
to Norfolk’s death, but he was spared when the King died on 28 January 1547.
Norfolk remained a prisoner in the Tower of London for the whole of Edward VI’s
reign.
F: Foreign relations.
(i) Foreign Policy, 1509-1514: Just as with his domestic policies, Henry
immediately sought to show that he was different to his father. He wanted to set
out a much more aggressive and ambitious foreign policy. He saw himself as a
warlord.
Henry’s councillors attempted to continue his father’s policies and they negotiated a
renewed Treaty of Etaples with France (see notes above). Henry had no intention of
keeping to the terms. He despatched Christopher Bainbridge, the Archbishop of
York, to Rome. This resulted in the formation of an anti-French alliance comprising
of England, the Papacy, Spain, Venice and the Holy Roman Empire. In 1512 and
1513, Henry invaded northern France (winning the ‘Battle of the Spurs’ and
capturing Therouanne and Tournai).
All did not go well: Ferdinand of Spain took advantage of Henry’s ‘diversionary’
invasion to conquer Navarre from under the noses of the French, the Scots invaded
and Henry was forced to put together a force to defeat them (the actually victory, at
Flodden, was significant- James IV was killed, leaving an infant Scottish king- but
Henry failed to press home this advantage). Henry was forced to liquidate much of
the wealth his father had passed on; Yorkshire came close to revolt in protest at
taxation raised for war; the French pension (negotiated under the Treaty of Etaples)
was lost; Tournai was sold back to the French at a loss.
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(ii) Foreign Policy under Wolsey’s ascendancy (1514-1529): it is hard to


spot a clear theme in foreign policy during this period. Alliances were made- and
just as quickly broken. Henry was clearly under the impression that England could
compete with France, Spain and the Empire; this was a false assumption and
Wolsey struggled to frame a realistic foreign policy that was acceptable to Henry.
a) Sorting out the mess of 1509-1514: Wolsey acted with skill: he managed
to make peace with France, recover the pension and secured a marriage
between Louis XII and Mary (Henry’s sister). This marriage was short-lived
(less than three months) when the elderly Louis died in 1515.
b) England isolated: in 1517 France, Spain and the Empire allied (in the Treaty
of Cambrai), Francis I (the new king of France) took advantage by stirring up
trouble in Scotland.
c) The Treaty of London (1518): Wolsey’s skilful diplomacy ended English
isolation. Prompted by Pope Leo X, Wolsey went on to put together the ‘treaty
of perpetual peace’. As a result he was appointed Papal Legate.
d) Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520): confirmed improved Anglo-French
relations. Both were concerned at the ‘union’ between Spain and the Empire
following Charles V election as Holy Roman Emperor.
e) The Treaty of Bruges (1521): the détente between France and England
was short-lived. Wolsey negotiated this treaty with Charles V and a result
English armies invaded France in 1522 and 1523. Henry hoped to gain
territory, win favour with the Pope and secure a marriage alliance for his
daughter, Mary. The campaigns gained little but proved costly.
f) Repercussions of the Battle of Pavia (1525): Charles troops crushed the
French at Pavia in Italy. Henry attempted to follow this up with a joint full-
scale invasion of northern France, Charles refused. Henry had to back down,
Charles repudiated the proposed marriage to Princes Mary and Wolsey’s
reputation was tarnished.
g) League of Cognac: was put together by the Pope in response to Charles’
increasing power. England, once again, turned to France as an ally.
h) The King’s Great Matter: Wolsey’s diplomacy utterly failed him. Attempts to
pressurise Charles V through a trade embargo failed. Charles took control of
the Pope and defeated the French again at Landriano. Now the Pope was in
Charles V’s hands, it was extremely unlikely that he’d grant a divorce
(Catherine of Aragon was Charles V’s aunt). This led directly to Wolsey’s fall.
(iii) Foreign Policy under Cromwell’s ascendancy, 1532-1540: this period
also saw ‘confusion’ in foreign policy, criss-crossing (and double-crossing) with
diplomacy; and Ireland once again became a problem for the English crown.
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a) In 1532 Henry turned back to a French alliance, but France was so


weakened it proved fruitless. Francis I focussed on securing the marriage of
his son to the Pope’s niece, Catherine de Medici.
b) Henry’s break with Rome caused ructions throughout Europe, but faced no
immediate consequences because Charles V was busy dealing with the threat
from the Ottoman Turks, Catherine of Aragon’s death and Anne Boleyn’s
execution opened up the possibility of an alliance with Charles V, Francis I and
Charles V were busy fighting each other (again).
c) By 1538, the situation had taken a turn for the worse and Henry was in a
precarious position: Charles and Francis buried their differences with the
Treaty of Nice and both severed connections with England; Pope Paul III
issued a bull ‘deposing’ Henry and sent envoys to Scotland and France hoping
to raise a crusade against England. Henry’s marriage to Anne of Cleves was
contracted in an attempt to find him allies to counter this situation.
d) Just as his father had done, Henry struggled to maintain control over Ireland.
The dismissal of the Earl of Kildare (in 1534) led to a major rebellion. The
attempt to bring Ireland directly under English control was costly and
ineffective. Irish chieftains even invaded the Pale in 1539. The government
then tried to pacify Ireland by imposing English law and recognising the Gaelic
chieftains as English lords. This did little to bring Ireland to heel.
(iv) Later Foreign Policy, 1540-47: after the furore of the ‘King’s Great Matter’
settled down, Henry once again adopted a more aggressive foreign policy.
a) Scotland: the English inflicted a heave defeat on the Scots at Solway Moss
(1542). James V’s death left the week-old, Mary Queen of Scots as monarch.
Henry attempted to marry Prince Edward to Mary and the children were
formally betrothed under the terms of the Treaty of Greenwich (1453), but
the Scots refused to ratify the treaty. In revenge, Henry ordered a punitive
raid into Scotland.
b) France: Henry allied himself with Charles V and launched an invasion of
France in 1544. Rather than marching to Paris (as he had promised Charles)
Henry dallied around Calais, capturing Boulogne. A disappointed Charles made
peace with Francis I. In 1545 Francis sent troops to Scotland and defeated the
English at the battle of Ancrum Moor. French troops landed on the Isle of
Wight. Henry’s flagship, the Mary Rose, sank. By 1546, the cost of war had
brought both sides to peace negotiations. Henry had been forced to sell crown
lands, borrow large sums and debase the coinage, and he had gained nought

G: English Society: Henry’s reign saw the growth in the professional and
commercial bourgeoisie. Some aspects of society remained unchanged- the nobility
22

still wielded considerable influence and remnants of the feudal system remained in
place.
(i) The nobility: Henry VIII increased the size of the peerage (but only by nine!)-
he rewarded those who had served him well. He raised Norfolk and Suffolk to
Dukes. Suffolk was given property in Lincolnshire and charged with keeping order
following rebellion there. After the execution of the Marquess of Exeter, Baron
Russell was charged with strengthening royal authority in Devon. As well as
maintaining order, nobles were expected to raise soldiers for royal armies. The
nobles were increasingly brought under the control of the monarch- any whispers of
treason were dealt with swiftly and harshly.
(ii) The gentry: also increased in size under Henry VIII. The numbers of JPs
increased and the gentry played an increasing role in local administration (largely
replacing clergymen)
(iii) Commoners: social structure remained substantially unchanged. Real incomes
appear to have dropped during the reign and outbreaks of disorder increased-
particularly when impositions like the Amicable Grant were enforced.
(iv) The regions: under Cromwell, the Palatinate of Durham and Wales were
brought under direct English control. The Council of Wales and the Marches saw to
the Anglo-Welsh border (which became increasingly less important), the Anglo-
Scottish border was harder to police and Henry did not trust the local magnates.
The use of local gentry was ineffective as they just did not hold enough influence.
The Council of the North was re-established after the Pilgrimage of Grace and
successfully kept the north quiet in the summer of rebellions in 1549.
(v) Social impact of religious upheaval: the dissolution of the Monasteries led
to more general fears about government attacks on Parish Churches and this helped
to provoke the Lincolnshire Uprising of 1536. Church lands were bought by the
gentry and this increased their numbers and wealth. Monastic schools were lost and
educational provision diminished. Some monasteries had played a vital role in their
communities and their dissolution disrupted the economic wellbeing of such areas.
(v) Rebellion: Henry VIII’s reign saw two large rebellious movements. The second
was the biggest rebellion in a hundred years.
a) Many refused to pay the Amicable Grant of 1525. Resistance was handled
sensitively by the Dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk, the King backed down and
this method of raising money was not attempted again.
b) The Lincolnshire Rebellion and the Pilgrimage of Grace (1536)
comprise the largest single rebellion in the history of Tudor rule: it covered a
huge geographical area and had complex causes. The rebels occupied York,
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Hull and captured Pontefract Castle. The rebels had both religious and socio-
economic motives: they felt the loss of charitable and educational functions
from the Dissolution of the Monasteries and feared further religious change
(confiscation of church plate, ban on pilgrimage, ban on worship of locally-
important saints). Others resented taxation, wanted Princess Mary restored
as heir, opposed the imposition of ‘interlopers’ on their region and were
generally frustrated by their poverty and position in society. Norfolk was sent
to deal with the rebels. Finding himself massively outnumbered he issued a
general pardon and promised a parliament and the restitution of the
monasteries. The rebels dispersed. A renewed outbreak in February 1537
gave Henry the excuse he needed to break Norfolk’s promises. This time
Norfolk quickly suppressed the rebellion, hanging 74 rebels, but thereafter
acted relatively mercifully and followed the due process of the law. Without
Norfolk’s strength and common sense approach, Henry would have been lost-
he had ignored all the warning signs.
H: Economic Development in the reign of Henry VIII.
Many of the developments are mere continuation of the trends that started under
Henry VII- please see earlier notes before reading this section.
(i) Cloth trade: exports continued to increase, particularly for ‘finished’ cloth.
London’s dominance of the trade also continued and this impacted negatively on
other English ports. Antwerp remained the main port receiving English exports.
Cloth continued to be produced under domestic conditions. Some cloth merchants
made a fortune from the increased trade.
(ii) Mining: continued its small but steady growth, the most notably field of growth
was in the smelting of iron ore in Kent and Sussex.
(iii) Exploration: Henry VIII did not share his father’s interest in exploration and
as a result some opportunities for increased trade and the exploitation of new
fishing grounds was lost.
(iv) How prosperous was England? There is evidence to suggest that the
economy was performing well: population grew from 1525 with a matching decline
in the rate of mortality; farming incomes grew, debasement of the coinage created
a short-term boom, 1544-46. There is, however, counter-evidence: the debasement
eventually caused inflation, bad harvests impacted on food prices, real wages
declined for most of the reign, tax assessments show considerable levels of urban
poverty, rural unemployment appears to have increased.
(v) Enclosure: resulted in rural unemployment. Many commentators (like Thomas
More) were appalled at the idea of ‘honest’ workers being turned off the land.
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Legislation attempting to control enclosure was passed in 1489, 1515 and 1534, but
the practice still continued.
(vi) Impact of Population increase: this put a strain on the food supply and the
plentiful supply of labour kept wages low. Wealthier landowners benefitted from
higher agricultural prices, but this was at the expense of peasant distress. There
was a knock-on increase in vagrancy and begging. John Guy argues that this
created a more polarised society where the rich took their duties towards the poor
less seriously.
I: Religion, ideas and reform.
(i) Italian Renaissance ideas: having made a tentative appearance in England
during the reign of Henry VII, began to find more prominent position under his
successor. Once again, please refer back to the position in Henry VII’s reign before
you go through this section.
a) Humanism- St Paul’s school, London and Magdalen College, Corpus Christi
College and Cardinal College (all Oxford) and St John’s College (Cambridge) all
adopted humanist and Platonist principals. Many of the elite of Tudor England
were educated in these establishments. Erasmus was warmly welcomed
(particularly by Thomas More).
b) Renaissance ideas- classical learning increased, renaissance style-sculpture,
painting and architecture became more common. Hans Holbein was employed
as Henry’s court painter, Wolsey’s Hampton Court Palace was built in a wholly
renaissance style. Tapestries and music, though, retained a Flemish influence
and Henry himself preferred the tradition Gothic style for his building projects.
(ii) Reform of the Church: Cromwell and Henry VIII made highly significant
changes to the Church in England. Henry was made supreme head, the monasteries
were dissolved and doctrine and practices were changed.
a) Weaknesses in the Church: there were many examples of corruption- not least
those of Wolsey. Others were also accused of simony, non-residence and
pluralism. Anticlericalism flared up occasionally. Monasticism appears to have
been in decline even before the dissolution of the monasteries- Cardinal
Wolsey had, himself, wound down 20 monastic houses.
b) Evidence of Protestantism: London and the East Coast Ports felt the influence
of early German reformers. Cambridge theologian (like Thomas Cranmer) also
showed an interest in these ideas.
c) Although Protestantism achieved little during Henry’s reign, humanist scholars
John Cheke and Roger Ascham were appointed tutors to Prince Edward and
Princess Elizabeth- both of whom secured England’s conversion to
Protestantism.
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d) Changes to Church structure: Henry became supreme head, Cromwell was


appointed vice-regent and six new diocese were created.
e) Dissolution of the Monasteries: Cromwell survey the monasteries for their
wealth and then set out to unearth evidence of monastic ‘vices’. In 1536
Cromwell passed an Act of Parliament to dissolve the smaller monasteries, in
1539, the larger houses followed.
f) Changes to traditional practices: in 1536 pilgrimages were discouraged and
the number of holy days was restricted. In 1538 veneration of relics and
images was proscribed and each Parish Church was required to acquire an
English bible, although the 1543 law, the Act for the Advancement of True
Religion limited reading of the bible to upper-class males.
g) Changes to doctrine: in 1536 the Ten Articles reduce the number of ‘essential’
sacraments to three, the 1537 Bishops’ book restored the other four. The
1539 Six Articles Act reasserted Catholic Doctrine.
(iii) Judgement: some of the Church remained unchanged- the hierarchy
(bishops, archbishops, etc) and there was no attempt to alter the interior decoration
of churches. Services continued to be held in Latin and after Cromwell’s fall, Hnery
reverted back to traditional Catholicism. The jurisdiction of the Pope had, however,
been destroyed, monasteries dissolved, humanist thought had spread (particularly
amongst the elite).
J: Securing the succession.
Henry’s desire to produce a male heir had huge repercussions. Divorcing his first
wife brought about to the break with Rome and helped cause mass rebellion (The
Pilgrimage of Grace). His subsequent marriage to Anne Boleyn failed to resolve the
issue of the succession- she produced a girl. The Act of Succession (1534) promoted
Princess Elizabeth the heir presumptive and Princess Mary was declared illegitimate.
Following Anne’s execution, Elizabeth was also declared illegitimate and the 1536
Succession Act declared that the king could determine the succession by letter
patent. In 1537, Prince Edward was born to Jane Seymour and Henry had finally
secure a legitimate male heir (he had fathered an older son, Henry Fitzroy) with one
of his mistresses). Anxiety about Henry’s deteriorating health led to the 1543
Succession Act which re-legitimised Mary and Elizabeth and placed them behind
their brother in the order of succession. Henry’s last will (dated 30 December 1546)
set up a regency council to act on the 9-year-old Edward’s behalf and laid down the
right of the heirs of Henry’s sister (Mary Duchess of Suffolk) to succeed if Henry’s
own three children died without issue.
K: Judgement on Henry VIII.
26

Henry VIII had ruled for almost 38 years. The country was irrevocably changed.
Historians’ interpretations vary wildly: on whether the country benefitted from his
rule, or whether his misrule resulted in missed opportunities; on whether the King
himself was a blood-thirsty tyrant or the very emblem of a developing English
national identity.
It is hard to discern consistent aims in government. There was a clear obsession
with the pursuit of glory and the need to secure the succession. He showed little
interest in administering the country and almost always prioritised pleasure over
work. His reign saw the development of Parliament as a law-making body, the
destruction of many traditional religious practices. He often resorted to execution for
treason and behaved in an impulsive manner (in marrying Catherine of Aragon and
executing Cromwell), he could also be naïve (as he was in foreign policy). All of
these negative traits came more and more to the fore as his reign went on, clouding
out the image of the gracious, generous, energetic renaissance Prince who acceded
to throne at the age of 17.

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