1.

WHAT is POPULATION & SAMPLING

Chapter-3
2. WHY SAMPLING?
3. PURPOSE OF SAMPLING
4. The Sampling Process
5. Classification of Sampling Methods
6. Probability Sampling

1.Simple random sampling

2.Stratified sampling

3.Systematic sampling

4.Cluster sampling
7. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
2. VOLUNTEER SAMPLING
3. QUOTA SAMPLING
4. SNOWBALL SAMPLING
8.SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION
9. Sampling Errors
 WHAT is POPULATION & SAMPLING
WHAT is POPULATION
All items in any field of investigation start a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’ A
complete Details of all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
WHAT is SAMPLING ( Sampling is Subset of Population)
Sampling is the process that a researcher uses to select people, places, things,
signals or any other item of interest to study.
Researchers often use sample survey methodology to obtain information about a
larger population by selecting and measuring a sample from that population.
Researchers are not interested in the sample itself, but in what can be learned
from the sample and how this information can be applied to the entire population.
Since population is too large, we rely on the information collected from
the sample.
 Sampling and representativeness

Sampling
Sample
Population

Target Population

Target Population ➔ Sampling Population ➔ Sample

 WHY SAMPLING?
o Get information about large populations

 Less costs

 Less field time and labour

 More accuracy

 When it’s impossible to study the whole population

 It is the only option in some specialized area.

 PURPOSE OF SAMPLING

To gather data about the population in order to make an inference that can be
generalized to the population

POPULATION

INFERENCE

SAMPLE
The Sampling Process
Define the Population

Develop Sampling Frame

Select a Sampling Method

Determine the Sample Size

Execute the Sampling Process

Classification of Sampling Methods
 A. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’.
Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample.
Methods of selecting random sample:
1. Lottery Method 2. Tables of Random Numbers
Advantages of Probability Sampling
• Probability sampling avoids conscious or unconscious biases in the
selection of sampling units.
• Probability sampling permits estimates of sampling error.
 Methods Used in Probability Sampling

1.Simple random sampling

2.Stratified sampling
3.Systematic sampling
4.Cluster sampling
 1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

Random sampling is the purest form of probability

sampling.
• Each member of the population has an equal and known
chance of being selected.
• When there are very large populations, it is often ‘difficult’
to identify every member of the population, so the pool of
available subjects becomes biased.
 There is no need to make separate estimates for subdivisions

of the population.
 Cont…
Steps in Selecting a Simple Random Sample
 Define population(N)

 Determine the sample size(n)

 List the population
 Assign a unique number(id number) to each element in the frame.
 Find Random numbers
 Select your sample
 2. STRATIFIED SAMPLING
What is STRATIFIED SAMPLING :
If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous
group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain a
representative sample. Under stratified sampling the population is divided into
several sub-populations that are individually more homogeneous than the total
population (the different sub-populations are called ‘strata’) and then we select items
from each stratum to constitute a sample.
• Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to
random sampling because it reduces sampling error.
• A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic;
such as males and females.
• Identify relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population.
• Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each
stratum.
 Cont…
Example: Age, socioeconomic divisions, nationality, religion, educational
achievements and other such classifications fall under stratified random
sampling.
Let’s consider a situation where a research team is seeking opinions about
religion amongst various age groups.
Instead of collecting feedback from 326,044,985 U.S citizens, random
samples of around 10000 can be selected for research.
These 10000 citizens can be divided into strata according to age,i.e, groups
of 18-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-59, and 60 and above. Each stratum will have
distinct members and number of members.
 Types of Stratified Random Sampling:
1. Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling
2. Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling

Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling:

• In this approach, each stratum sample size is directly proportional to the population
size of the entire population of strata. That means each strata sample has the same
sampling fraction.
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling Formula: nh = ( Nh / N ) * n
Where
N = Size of entire population
n = Size of entire sample
nh= Sample size for hth stratum
Nh= Population size for hth stratum
 Cont…
If you have 4 strata with 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 respective sizes and the
research organization selects ½ as sampling fraction. A researcher has to
then select 250, 500, 750, 1000 members from the respective stratum.
Stratum A B C D
Population Size 500 1000 1500 2000
Sampling Fraction 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

Final Sampling Size Results 250 500 750 1000

Irrespective of the sample size of the population, the

sampling fraction will remain uniform across all the
strata.
 Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling:
Sampling fraction is the primary differentiating factor between the proportionate
and disproportionate stratified random sampling.
In disproportionate sampling, each stratum will have a different sampling
fraction.
The success of this sampling method depends on the researcher’s precision at
fraction allocation. If the allotted fractions aren’t accurate, the results may be
biased due to the over-represented or underrepresented strata.
Stratum A B C D
Population Size 500 1000 1500 2000
Sampling Fraction 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5

Final Sampling Size Results 250 333 375 400

 Stratified Random Sampling Examples:
Researchers and statisticians use stratified
random sampling to analyze relationships
between two or more strata.
As the stratified random sampling involves
multiple layers or strata, it’s crucial to
calculate the strata before calculating the
sample value.
 Following is a classic stratified random sampling example:
• Let’s say, 100 (Nh) students of a school having 1000 (N) students were asked
questions about their favorite subject. It’s a fact that the students of the 8th
grade will have different subject preferences than the students of the 9th
grade. For the survey to deliver precise results, the ideal manner is to divide
each grade into various strata.
• Here’s a table of the number of students in each grade:
Grade Number of students (n)
5 150
6 250
7 300
8 200
9 100
Calculate the sample of each grade using the stratified random sampling formula
Stratified Random Sampling Formula: nh = ( Nh / N ) * n

Where
N = Size of entire population
n = Size of entire sample
nh= Sample size for hth stratum
Nh= Population size for hth stratum

Stratified Sample (n5) = 100 / 1000 * 150 = 15

Stratified Sample (n6) = 100 / 1000 * 250 = 25
Stratified Sample (n7) = 100 / 1000 * 300 = 30
Stratified Sample (n8) = 100 / 1000 * 200 = 20
Stratified Sample (n9) = 100 / 1000 * 100 = 10
 Why do we need to create strata?
•To reduce sampling error.
•When there is separate estimates are required at
the stratum level..
•Stratified sampling is administratively convenient
•Sometimes, different parts of the population may
call for different sampling procedures.
 3. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

• Systematic sampling is often used instead of random

sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection
technique.
• After the required sample size has been calculated,
every Nth record is selected from a list of population
members.
• As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this
sampling method is as good as the random sampling
method.
• Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is
simplicity (and possibly cost effectiveness).
23
 STEPS IN SELECTING A SYSTEMATIC SAMPLE
Define the target population.
Determine the desired sample size (n).
 Identify an existing sampling frame or develop a
sampling frame of the target population.
 Determine the number of elements in the sampling
frame (N).
Calculate the sampling interval (k)
Systematic sampling interval (k) = N/n
Let
N=population size and
n=sample size 24
 Cont…
Randomly select any number between 1 and k. Suppose it is
“j”.
Then select for the sample, The jth unit is selected at first
and then (j+k)th, (j+2k)th, (j+3k)th ,…etc until the required
sample size is reached.
Example:
 Let , N=150 and n=10 then k=N/n=150/10=15,then select one of the first 10
elements at random. If 2 is the selected number, since 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 15
then the list of all the selected elements are:
• 2,17,32,47,62,77,92,107,122,137
What are observations if 15 is selected?

25
 When to use systematic sampling?
Let’s take an example where you want to form a sample of 500 individuals out of
a population of 5000; you’d have to number every person in the population.
Once the numbering is done, the researcher can select a number randomly, for
instance, 5. The 5th individual will be the first to be a part of the systematic
sample. After that, the 10th member will be added into the sample, so on and
so forth (15th, 25th, 35, 45th, and members till 4995).
 4. CLUSTER SAMPLING
What is cluster sampling?
Cluster sampling is a probability sampling technique where researchers divide the
population into multiple groups (clusters) for research. Researchers then select
random groups with a simple random or systematic random sampling technique for
data collection and data analysis.
Example: A researcher wants to conduct a study to judge the performance of
sophomore’s in business education across the U.S. It is impossible to conduct a research
study that involves a student in every university.
Instead, by using cluster sampling, the researcher can club the universities from each
city into one cluster.
These clusters then define all the sophomore student population in the U.S.
Next, either using simple random sampling or systematic random sampling and
randomly pick clusters for the research study. Subsequently, by using simple or
systematic sampling, the sophomore’s from each of these selected clusters can be
chosen on whom to conduct the research study.
 Steps to conduct cluster sampling
Here are the steps to perform cluster sampling:
1.Sample: Decide the target audience and also the sample size.
2.Create and evaluate sampling frames: Create a sampling frame by using
either an existing framework or creating a new one for the target audience.
Evaluate frameworks based on coverage and clustering and make adjustments
accordingly. These groups will be varied, considering the population, which
can be exclusive and comprehensive. Members of a sample are selected
individually.
3.Determine groups: Determine the number of groups by including the same
average members in each group. Make sure each of these groups are distinct
from one another.
4.Select clusters: Choose clusters by applying a random selection.
5.Create sub-types: It is bifurcated into two-stage and multi-stage subtypes
based on the number of steps followed by researchers to form clusters.
 Cluster sampling advantages

•Consumes less time and cost: Sampling of geographically divided

groups requires less work, time, and cost. It’s a highly economical
method to observe clusters instead of randomly doing it throughout a
particular region by allocating a limited number of resources to those
selected clusters.
•Convenient access: Researchers can choose large samples with this
sampling technique, and that’ll increase accessibility to various clusters.
•Data accuracy: Since there can be large samples in each cluster, loss
of accuracy in information per individual can be compensated.
•Ease of implementation: Cluster sampling facilitates information from
various areas and groups. Researchers can quickly implement it in
practical situations compared to other probability sampling methods
 B. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 The difference between probability and non- probability sampling has to

do with a basic assumption about the nature of the population under
study.
 In probability sampling, every item has a known chance of being
selected.
 In non-probability sampling, since elements are chosen arbitrarily, there
is no way to estimate the probability of any one element being included in
the sample.
 There is no attempt to make a random selection.
 Types of NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
1.CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
2.VOLUNTEER SAMPLING
3.QUOTA SAMPLING
4.SNOWBALL SAMPLING
 1. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
• What is convenience sampling?
Definition: Convenience sampling is defined as a method adopted by researchers where they
collect market research data from a conveniently available pool of respondents. It is the most
commonly used sampling technique as it’s incredibly prompt, uncomplicated, and
economical. In many cases like below
• Researchers use various sampling techniques in situations where there are large
populations. In most cases, testing the entire community is practically impossible because
they are not easy to reach. Researchers use convenience sampling in situations where
additional inputs are not necessary for the principal research. There are no criteria
required to be a part of this sample. Thus, it becomes incredibly simplified to include
elements in this sample. All components of the population are eligible and dependent on
the researcher’s proximity to get involved in the sample.
• The researcher chooses members merely based on proximity and doesn’t consider whether
they represent the entire population or not. Using this technique, they can observe habits,
opinions, and viewpoints in the easiest possible manner.
A good example of convenience sampling is: A new NGO wants to establish itself in 20 cities.
It selects the top 20 cities to serve based on the proximity to where they’re based.
 2. VOLUNTEER SAMPLING

 As the term implies, this type of sampling occurs when people

volunteer to be involved in the study.

for example: In pharmaceutical trials (drug testing), it would be difficult

and unethical to enlist random participants from the general public.

 In these instances, the sample is taken from a group of volunteers.

 Sometimes, the researcher offers payment to attract respondents.

 In exchange, the volunteers accept the possibility of a lengthy,

demanding or sometimes unpleasant process.
 3. QUOTA SAMPLING

 In this method, the decision maker requires the sample to

contain a certain number of items with a given
characteristic.
• Example: Pre-plan number of subjects in specified categories
(e.g. 100 men, 100 women)
How to perform quota sampling:
• Probability sampling techniques involve a significant amount of rules that the
researcher needs to follow to form samples. But, since quota sampling is a
non-probability sampling technique, there are no rules for formally creating
samples. Usually, there are four steps to form a quota sample.
• Here are below the steps followed:
 Perform quota sampling
1.Divide the sample population into subgroups: With stratified sampling, the
researcher bifurcates the entire population into mutually exhaustive subgroups, i.e.,
the elements of each of the subgroups becomes a part of only one of those
subgroups. Here, the researcher applies random selection.
2.Figure out the weightage of subgroups: The researcher evaluates the proportion in
which the subgroups exist in the population. He/she maintains this proportion in the
sample selected using this type of sampling method.
For example, if 58% of the people who are interested in purchasing your Bluetooth
headphones are between the age group of 25-35 years, your subgroups also should
have the same percentages of people belonging to the respective age group.
3.Select an appropriate sample size: In the third step, the researcher should select the
sample size while maintaining the proportion evaluated in the previous step. If the
population size is 500, the researcher can pick a sample of 50 elements.
The sample chosen after following the first three steps should represent the target
population.
4.Conduct surveys according to the quotas defined: Make sure to stick to the
predefined quotas to achieve actual actionable results. Don’t survey quotas that are full
and focus on completing surveys for each quota.
 Advantages of quota sampling
• Here are the top four advantages of quota sampling
1.Saves time: Because of the involvement of a quota for sample creation, this
sampling process is quick and straightforward.
2.Research convenience: By using quota sampling and appropriate research
questions, interpreting information and responses to the survey is a much
convenient process for a researcher.
3.Accurate representation of the population of interest: Researchers
effectively represent a population using this sampling technique. There is no
room for over-representation as this sampling technique helps researchers to
study the population using specific quotas.
4.Saves money: The budget required for executing this sampling method is
minimalistic.
 4. SNOWBALL SAMPLING (NETWORK SAMPLING)

▪ Selecting participants by finding one or two participants and then asking them to refer
you to others.
 Subsequent members of the sample come by recommendation or identification by the first
members.
 This does not guarantee a representative sample, but it can be the best method when the
subject of research is sensitive or relates to a population that is hard to contact.
 For example, if you are studying the level of customer satisfaction among the members of
an elite country club, you will find it extremely difficult to collect primary data sources
unless a member of the club agrees to have a direct conversation with you and provides
the contact details of the other members of the club.
 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

Too large a sample implies a waste of resources, and too

small a sample diminishes the utility of the results.
 Cont…
Sample Size Determination Depends on

▪ Objective of the study

▪ Design of the study

▪ Plan for statistical analysis

▪ Accuracy of the measurement to be made

▪ Degree of precision required for generalization.

▪ Degree of confidence with which to conclude

Sampling Errors
What is a sampling error?
A sampling error occurs when the sample used in the study is not
representative of the whole population. Sampling errors often occur, and thus,
researchers always calculate a margin of error during final results as a statistical
practice. The margin of error is the amount of error allowed for a miscalculation
to represent the difference between the sample and the actual population.
 Cont…
Precision rate depends on objectives of survey, estimated
prevalence, and resources available.
Example,
If a researcher finds that 60% of farmers in the sample
have adopted a recommended practice with a precision rate
or margin of error of ±5%, then he or she can conclude that
between 55% and 65% of farmers in the population have
adopted the practice.

Sampling error is any type of bias that is attributable to mistakes in either

drawing a sample or determining the sample size.

Non-sampling error
A non-sampling error is a statistical term that refers to an error that results during
data collection, causing the data to differ from the true values. ...
A sampling error is limited to any differences between sample values and universe
values that arise because the sample size was limited.
What are the most common sampling errors in market research?
• Here are the top four market research errors while sampling:
Population specification error: A population specification error occurs when researchers don’t know
precisely who to survey. For example, imagine a research study about kid’s apparel. Who is the right
person to survey? It can be both parents, only the mother, or the child. The parents make purchase
decisions, but the kids may influence their choice.
Sample frame error: Sampling frame errors arise when researchers target the sub-population wrongly
while selecting the sample. For example, picking a sampling frame from the telephone white pages
book may have erroneous inclusions because people shift their cities. Erroneous exclusions occur when
people prefer to un-list their numbers. Wealthy households may have more than one connection, thus
leading to multiple inclusions.
Selection error: A selection error occurs when respondents self-select themselves to
participate in the study. Only the interested ones respond. You can control selection errors by
going the extra step to request responses from the entire sample. Pre-survey planning, follow-
ups, and a neat and clean survey design will boost respondents’ participation rate. Also, try
methods like CATI surveys and in-person interviews to maximize responses.
Sampling errors: Sampling errors occur due to a disparity in the representativeness of the
respondents. It majorly happens when the researcher does not plan his sample carefully.
These sampling errors can be controlled and eliminated by creating a careful sample design,
having a large enough sample to reflect the entire population, or using an online sample or
survey audiences to collect responses.
 What are the steps to reduce sampling errors?
• Sampling errors are easy to identify. Here are a few simple steps to
reduce sampling error:
1.Increase sample size: A larger sample size results in a more accurate
result because the study gets closer to the actual population size.
2.Divide the population into groups: Test groups according to their
size in the population instead of a random sample. For example, if
people of a specific demographic make up 20% of the population,
make sure that your study is made up of this variable to reduce
sampling bias.
3.Know your population: Study your population and understand its
demographic mix. Know what demographics use your product and
service and ensure you only target the sample that matters.
What are the types of non-sampling errors?

• Common types of non-sampling error include non-response error,

measurement error, interviewer error, adjustment error, and
processing error.
• Non-response error. ...
• Measurement error. ...
• Interviewer error. ...
• Adjustment error. ...
• Processing error.
 How can we reduce non-sampling error?
Minimizing Sampling Error
1.Increase the sample size. A larger sample size leads to a more precise result
because the study gets closer to the actual population size.
2.Divide the population into groups. ...
3.Know your population. ...
4.Randomize selection to eliminate bias. ...
5.Train your team. ...
6.Perform an external record check.
What is difference between sampling and non-sampling errors?
Sampling error arises because of the variation between the true mean value for the
sample and the population. On the other hand, the non-sampling error arises because
of deficiency and inappropriate analysis of data. Non-sampling error can be random
or non-random whereas sampling error occurs in the random sample only.
 CONCLUSION
From a brief description of the various sample designs presented
above, we can say that normally one should resort to simple random
sampling because under it bias is generally eliminated and the
sampling error can be estimated.
There are situations in real life under which sample designs other than
simple random samples may be considered better (say easier to
obtain, cheaper or more informative) and as such the same may be
used.
In a situation when random sampling is not possible, then we have to
use necessarily a sampling design other than random sampling. At
times, several methods of sampling may well be used in the same
study