Copyright © 2023 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS UPNM

P UBLISHED FOR UPNM

C ENTRE FOR D EFENCE S TUDIES UPNM

First publishing in 2012

 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1 CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.1 Introduction 7
1.2 Parametric Equations 7
1.2.1 Parametric Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Convertion between Cartesian Function and Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Polar Coordinates 17
1.3.1 Converting Points between Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.2 Transforming Equations between Polar and Cartesian Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3.3 Points in the Polar Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.3.4 Polar Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
FOCUS Chapter 1 6

2 CONIC SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1 Introduction 41
2.2 Circles 41
2.2.1 Equation of Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.2 Equation of circle passing through three points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2.3 The equation of a circle passing through two points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.4 Determine the centre and radius of a circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3 Ellipses 54
2.3.1 Equation of Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4 Parabola 62
2.4.1 Equation of Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.5 Hyperbola 68
2.5.1 Equation of Hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
 FOCUS Chapter 2 41

3 VECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1 Introduction 81
3.2 Vectors in Three Dimensions 81
3.2.1 Types of Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.2 Operation of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.3 Scalar Product 86
3.4 Applications of Vectors in Geometry 91
3.4.1 Equation of Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.2 Angle Between Two Straight Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4.3 Equation of a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.4.4 Angle Between Line and Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.4.5 Points of Intersection Between a Line and a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
FOCUS Chapter 3 81

4 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.1 Introduction 101
4.2 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 101
4.3 Integration of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 108
FOCUS Chapter 4 100

5 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 Hyperbolic Identities 123
5.2.1 Differentiation of Hyperbolic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.2.2 Integration of Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.2.3 Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
FOCUS Chapter 5 120
 5

PREFACE

In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful

Welcome to FMA 0134 MATHEMATICS III, a journey through the fascinating world of mathematics!

Mathematics is a language that speaks across cultures, time, and space. Its beauty lies not only in its
precision but also in its ability to unlock doors to understanding the universe. Therefore, this module is
designed to serve as the guide, unveiling the wonders and intricacies of mathematical concepts in a structured
and engaging manner especially for foundation students in Engineering and Science programme.

Besides, this module aims to cater your needs and knowledges which may be useful in your future
undergraduate studies. Therefore, five important topics such as curves and polar coordinats, conic section,
vectors, inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions were carefully curated presents a blend of theory,
definition, practical applications, and problem-solving strategies, offering a comprehensive approach to
learning mathematics.

Throughout these pages, you will embark on a journey that traverses the knowledge of algebra, geometry,
calculus, and beyond. Each chapter is crafted with several examples, exercises and FOCUS chapter that
gradually unveils the layers of mathematical understanding.

Moreover, as you dive into the depths of this module, embrace the challenges, relish the "aha" moments,
and appreciate the elegance inherent in mathematical concepts. Let your curiosity be your compass, guiding
you through the complexities and beauties of this discipline.

Lastly, a special gratitude to all lecturers of Department of Mathematics who contribute directly or
indirectly through out the journey of this module. Hope the knowledge in this module may enlighten the
students’ understanding in mathematics.

Let’s embark on this mathematical expedition together and discover the endless possibilities that numbers,
shapes, and patterns hold.
Happy exploring!

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this chapter, students will be able to:
1. define a parameter as a third variable that is used to generate values of x and y.
2. converting between Cartesian and parametric equations by eliminating or adding a parameter.
3. develop a basic understanding of the polar coordinate system and locate points given in polar
form..
4. understand how Cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates are related
5. plot a curve described by parametric equations and polar coordinates.

1.1 Introduction
Coordinate systems are tools that use algebraic methods to understand geometry. Cartesian coordinates are
the most common, some problems are easier to analyze in alternate coordinate systems. In this chapter,
parametric equations and polar coordinates are introduce.
Parametric equations are mathematics statements that describe a relationship between 2 items via a
common third item. Parametric equations are especially useful in graphing curves. In particular, they are
useful in graphing curves that are not functions: circles, ellipses, hyperbolas, surfaces, projectile motions etc.
Parametric equations give us more information about position and direction with respect to time.
Polar coordiante is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a plane has a unique
distance from a reference point and a specific angle from a reference direction. Polar coordinates are best
used when periodic functions are considered.

1.2 Parametric Equations

A Cartesian equation for a curve is an equation in terms of x and y only.

f (x, y) = 0 (1.1)
Sometimes Equation 1.1 is referred as Cartesian equation or rectangular equation. An alternative approach
is describing x and y separately in terms of a third parameter,usually t.
x = f (t), y = g(t) (1.2)
 8 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

A parametric equation, Equation 1.2 is a form of the equation that has an independent variable called a
parameter, and other variables are dependent on it.

It is important to note that parametric equation representations are not unique; hence, the same quantities
can be expressed in several ways. The method of forming parametric equations is known as parameterization.

“If x and y are continuous functions of t in any given interval, then the equations
x = x(t)
(1.3)
y = y(t)

are called parametric equations, and t is called an independent parameter.”

1.2.1 Parametric Curve

Let f and g be continuous functions on an interval a ≤ t ≤ b. The graph of the parametric equations x = f (t)
and y = g(t) is the set of all points (x, y) = ( f (t), g(t)) in the Cartesian plane, as the parameter t varies over
the interval. A parametric curve is a graph along with the parametric equations that define it.

■Example 1.1 Make a table of values and sketch the parametric curve for the following set of parametric
equations and indicating the direction of your graph.
x = 2t − 1 y = t2 + 1

for t in [-2,2]. ■

Solution 1.1

3
y

t -2 -1 0 1 2 −4 −2 0 2
x -5 -3 -1 1 3 x
y 5 2 1 2 5

■ Example 1.2 Consider the parametric equations,

x = 1 − 3t y = t 2 + 4.

Sketch the graph. Use the arrows to show the orientation of the curve corresponding to the increasing values
of t. ■
1.2 Parametric Equations 9

Solution 1.2

12

10

y
8

t -2 -1 0 1 2 3 −5 0 5
x 7 4 1 -2 -5 -8 x
y 8 5 4 5 8 13

■ Example 1.3 Sketch the parametric curve for the following set of parametric equations. Clearly indicate
the direction of motion.
x = 5 cost y = 2 sint 0 ≤ t < 2π

Solution 1.3

0
y

−1
π π π 2π 5π
t 0
6 3 2 3 6 −2
x 5 4.3 2.5 0 -2.5 -4.3
y 0 1 1.7 2 1.7 1 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
x
7π 4π 3π 5π 11π
t π
6 3 2 3 6
x -5 -4.3 -2.5 0 2.5 4.3
y 0 -1 -1.7 -2 -1.7 -1
 10 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

Exercise 1.1
1. Make a sketch of the curve parametrized by
x(t) = t 2 y(t) = t + 1.

The domain of the parameter is −3 ≤ t ≤ 3.  

3π
2. Sketch the curve parametrized by the equations below on the interval I = 0, . Indicate the
2
orientation of the parametrization with arrows.
x(t) = 2 cost y(t) = 3 sint.

3. Sketch the graph of parametric equations

x = t 2, y = 2, −2 ≤ t ≤ 2.

Be sure to indicate the orientation of the graph.

■

Answer

4 y 4 y 3 y

2 2 2
x x
−2 2 1
5 10
−2 −2 x
1.
2. −4 3. 2 4

1.2.2 Convertion between Cartesian Function and Parametric Equations

Parameterize a Cartesion Function

Given a Cartesian function or equation, we might want to write down a set of parametric equations for
it. This process (convertion from Cartesion function to parametric equations) is known as parameterize
function . 3 steps can be implemented for the convertion.

1. Solve the Cartesian equation for one variable, if needed.

2. Assign another variable equal to t or other choice.
3. Subtitute your choice (Step 2) into your solved equation (Step 1).

■ Example 1.4 Find the parametric equations for 3y + 2x = 10. ■

Solution 1.4
1. Solve the Cartesian equation for one variable, if needed.
y = 13 (10 − 2x)
2. Assign another variable equal to t or other choice.
x=t
3. Subtitute your choice (Step 2) into your solved equation (Step 1).
x = t into y = 31 (10 − 2x).
y = 31 (10 − 2t).

A set of parametric equations is

1
x=t y = (10 − 2t)
3

■ Example 1.5 Find another set of parametric equations for the equation 3y + 2x = 10. ■
1.2 Parametric Equations 11

Solution 1.5

1. We can solve the equation for x. i.e. x = 12 (10 − 3y).

2. Let y = t
3. Substitute (2.) into (1.). We have x = 12 (10 − 3t) Therefore, a set of parametric equations is
1
y=t x = (10 − 3t)
2

■ Example 1.6 Find a set of parametric equations for the equation y = x3 − 3x + 2. ■

Solution 1.6
1. Assign x = t
2. So, y = x3 − 3x + 2 becomes y = t 3 − 3t + 2
Therefore, a set of parametric equations is
x=t y = t 3 − 3t + 2

You can write other sets of parametric equations for y = t 3 − 3t + 2 by starting with a different
parametric equation for x. Here are two more sets of parametric equations for y = t 3 − 3t + 2.

(a)
1. Assign x = −t
2. So, y = x3 − 3x + 2 becomes y = 3t − t 3 + 2
Therefore, a set of parametric equations is
x = −t y = 3t − t 3 + 2 + 2

(b)
1. Assign x = t − 1
2. So, y = x3 − 3x + 2 becomes y = (t − 1)3 − 3(t − 1) + 2 = t 3 − 3t 2 + 2
Therefore, a set of parametric equations is
x = t −1 y = t 3 − 3t 2 + 2

Example 1.6 shows that parametric equations are not unique.

■ Example 1.7 Find two different sets of parametric equations for y = x − 1. ■

Solution 1.7
Two different choice of x
(a)
1. Assign x = sint
2. So, y = x − 1 becomes y = sint − 1
Therefore, a set of parametric equations is
x = sint y = sint − 1

(b)
1. Assign x = t − 1
2. So, y = x − 1 becomes y = t
Therefore, a set of parametric equations is
x = t −1 y=t

■ Example 1.8 Obtain the parametric equations from the following Cartesian eqautions.
(a) yx2 = 3
(b) x2 + y2 = 9
(c) (x + 5)2 + y − 1 = 0
■
12 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

Solution 1.8

(a) yx2 = 3
3
1. y =
x2
2. x = t
3
3. y = 2
t
Therefore,
3
x=t y=
t2
(b) x2 + y2 = 9
1. y2 = 9 − x2
2. x = 3 sint
3. y2 = 9 − (3 sint)2 = 9(1 − sin2 t) = (3 cost)2
∴ y = 3 cost
Therefore,
x = sint y = 3 cost

(c) (x + 5)2 + y − 1 = 0
1. y = 1 − (x + 5)2
2. x = t − 5
3. y = 1 − t 2

Therefore,
x = t −5 y = 1 − t2

Exercise 1.2
1. Find a parameterization for the curve:

a. y = 9 − 4x 9)2 − (y − 4)2 = 1
c. (x +√
b. x2 − 5y = 9 d. y = x − 1

2. Use the parameter to write the Cartesian equation y = 1 − x2 as a pair of parametric equations.

√
a. t = 1 − x b. t = ex c. t = ln x d. t = x

Answer
p
1. a. x = t y = 9 − 4t c. x = t − 9 y = 4+ (x + 9)2 − 1
1
√
x2 − 9


b. x = t y= 5 d. x = t + 1 y= t

2. a. x = 1 − t y = 1 − (1 − t)2 = 2t − t 2 c. x = et y = 1 − (et )2 = e2t

b. x = lnt y = 1 − (lnt)2 d. x = t 2 y = 1 − 4t 4
1.2 Parametric Equations 13

Eliminating Parameter

It is sometimes necessary to convert given parametric equations into Cartesian form. For a set of parametric
equation x = f (t) and y = g(t) , here are the ways the parameter can be eliminated:
1. Begin with the parametric equations.
2. Solve for t in one of the equations. Sometimes, some algebraic manupulations are needed.
3. Substitute the expression for t in the remaining parametric equation.
■ Example 1.9 Eliminate the parameter and find the corresponding Cartesian equation.
x = t +5 y = t2
■

Solution 1.9
1. Solve for t in one of the equations.
t = x−5
2. Substitute the expression for t in the other parametric equation.
replace t by (x − 5) in the equation y = t 2 → y = (x − 5)2
Therefore, the corresponding rectangular equation is y = (x − 5)2 .

■ Example 1.10 Obtain the Cartesian equation by eliminating the parameter t from the following parameter
equations.

(a) x = 4 sint, y = 2 cost t +1 t −1

(c) x = , y=
t −1 t +1
(b) x = et , y = e−t
(d) x = 3 cos 2t, y = 1 + cos2 t

Solution 1.10
(a) x = 4 sint, y = 2 cost
Based on sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 ,

x y
1. sint = 4 and cost = 2

2. Substitute (1.) into sin2 t + cos2 t = 1

 x 2  y 2
+ =1
4 2
x2 y2
+ = 1 or x2 + 4y2 = 16
16 4
(b) x = et , y = e−t

1. t = ln x
1
2. y = e− ln x =
x
Alternatively, we can start with function y.
1
1. y = e−t = t
e

2. Substitute et = x into (1)

1
y=
x
t +1 t −1
(c) x = , y=
t −1 t +1
14 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

t +1 t −1
We aware that × =1
t −1 t +1
t +1 t −1
So, xy = × =1
t −1 t +1
(d) x = 3 cos 2t, y = 1 + cos2 t
Based on cos 2t = 2 cos2 t − 1, rewrite the parametric equations into
x
cos 2t = and cos2 t = y − 1
3
Substitute into cos 2t = 2 cos2 t − 1,
x
= 2(y − 1) − 1
3
6y − x + 3 = 0

■ Example 1.11 Given the parametric equations

x = 2t + 1 y = t −1

.
a. Find the values of x and y for t = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
b. Sketch the graph.
c. By eliminating t, find the Cartesian equation.
■

Solution 1.11

t -2 -1 0 1 2
a. x -3 -1 1 3 5
y -3 -2 -1 0 1
2 y
1
x
−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1
−2
−3
b.
c.
y = t −1 → t = y+1
x = 2(y + 1) + 1 → x = 2y + 3

■ Example 1.12 Given the following parametric equation

x = 2 cos θ y = 3 sin θ .

π π 3π 5π 3π 7π
a. Find the values of x and y when θ = 0, , , , π, , , , 2π.
4 2 4 4 2 4
b. Plot all the points and join them up to get the curve defined by x = 2 cos θ and y = 3 sin θ .
c. By using the trigonometry identity, elimate θ to obtain the Cartesian equation.
■
1.2 Parametric Equations 15

Solution 1.12

π π 3π 5π 3π 7π
θ 0 π 2π
a. 4 2 4 4 2 4
x 2 1.41 0 -1.41 -2 -1.41 0 1.41 2
y 0 2.12 3 2.12 0 -2.12 -3 -2.12 0
y
3
2
1
x
−3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3
−2
−3
b.
c.
x
cos θ =
2
y
sin θ =
3
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
 y 2  x 2
+ =1
3 2

■ Example 1.13 Consider the parametric equations,

1 1
x=t+ , y=t− ,
t t
where t ̸= 0,t ∈ R.

a. Find the values of x and y when t = ±0.1, ±0.2, ±, ±0.5, ±1, ±2, ±5, ±10
b. Sketch the graph based on (a.)
c. By eliminating t, find the Cartesian equation.
■

Solution 1.13

t -10 -5 -2 -1 -0.2 -0.1 0.1 0.2 1 2 5 10

a. x -10.1 -5.2 -2.5 -2 -5.2 -10.1 10.1 5.2 2 2.5 5.2 10.1
y -9.9 -4.8 -1.5 0 4.8 9.9 -9.9 -4.8 0 1.5 4.8 9.9
b.
12 y
8
4
x
−8 −4 4 8
−4
−8
−12
c.
1 1
x=t+ , y=t− ,
t t
16 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

x + y = 2t
2
x−y =
t
2
(x + y)(x − y) = 2t ×
t
x2 − y2 = 4

Exercise 1.3
1. By eliminating the parameter t, find the relationship between x and y from the following parametric
equations.

√
a. x = 6 − ω, y = 3ω − 4. c. x = 4 + 2 cos θ , y = 4 sin θ − 1.
b. x = 5 sin θ , y = 5 cos θ . 1 t
d. x = , y= .
2t − 1 2t − 1

2. Given the parametric

p equations,
2
x = t + 1, y = 2t − 1.

a. Fill in the table and sketch the parametric equation for t = [−2, 6].
t -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
y
b. By elminating t, find the Cartesian equation.
3. Given the parametric equations,
x = sin2 t, y = cost.

a. Find the values of x and y for 0 ≤ t ≤ π.

b. Sketch the graph.
c. By eliminating t, find the Cartesian equation.
 1.3 Polar Coordinates 17

Answer

a. y2 + 3x = 14
2 2
1.
 
x−4 y+1
c. + =1
2 5
b. x2 + y2 = 25. .
d. 2y − x = 1.

2. a.
t -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x 2.2 1.4 1.0 1.4 2.2 3.2 4.1 5.1 6.1
y -5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11
y
10

x
2 4 6

−5
b. y2 + 4x2 + 2y + 3 = 0
π π π 2π 5π
θ 0 π
3. a. x 6 3 2 3 6
0 0.3 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.3 0
y 1.0 0.9 0.5 0 -0.5 -0.9 -1.0
y

x
−0.5 0.5 1 1.5

−1

b.
c. x + y2 = 1

1.3 Polar Coordinates

Coordinate systems define a point in space. Cartesian system denotes a point by the coordinates (x,y) and we
use this to define the point by starting at the origin and then moving x units horizontally followed by y units
vertically. This is shown in Figure 1.1(a). Polar coordinates use the distance of the point from the origin and
the amount we needed to rotate from the positive x-axis as the coordinates of the point. This is shown in
Figure 1.1(b).

1.3.1 Converting Points between Coordinate Systems

Figure 1.2 shows that P has Cartesian coordinates (x, y). The line segment connecting the origin to the point
P measures the distance from the origin to P and has length r. The angle between the positive x−axis and
the line segment has measure θ .
18 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

(x, y) (r, θ )

0 θ
x
pole polar axis
(a) Cartesian Coordinates (b) Polar Coordinates

Figure 1.1: Coordinates System

y P(r, θ )
x
P

r
y

0 θ
x
pole polar axis

Figure 1.2: Cartesian and Polar Coordinates

Using right-triangle trigonometry, the following equations are true for the point P:
x
cos θ = ⇒ x = r cos θ
r
y
sin θ = ⇒ y = r sin θ
r
y
∴ r2 = x2 + y2 and tan θ =
x

y
Note that the equation tan θ = has an infinite number of solutions for any ordered pair (x, y). However, if
x
we restrict the solutions to values between 0 and 2π then we can assign a unique solution to thepquadrant in
which the original point (x, y) is located. Then the corresponding value of r is positive, so r = x2 + y2 .
All polar coordinates of the form (0, θ ) represent the pole regardless of the value of θ .

■ Example 1.14 Convert each of the following points into polar coordinates, r > 0, 0 ≤ θ < 360◦ .

√
(a) (1, 1) (b) (0, −2) (c) (−5 3, −5) (d) (2, −3)

Solution 1.14
p y
r = x2 + y2 and θ = tan−1
x
1.3 Polar Coordinates 19

(a) (1, 1) is located

p in Quadrant I
r = x2 + y2
q √
= (1)2 + (1)2 = 2
y
θ = tan−1
x 
1
= tan−1
1
◦ π
= 45 = Quadrant I
4
√
(1, 1) in Polar coordinates is ( 2, 45◦ )

(b) (0, −2) is located

p on negative y-axis.
r = x2 + y2
q
= (0)2 + (−2)2 = 2
y
θ = tan−1
x 
1
= tan−1
0
= undefine.

So we need to check the location (0, −2) on Cartesian Coordiantes which give us that is on
negative y-axis. i.e. θ = 270◦
(0, −2) in Polar coordinates is (2, 270◦ )
√
(c) (−5 3, −5)
pis located in Quadrant III
r = x2 + y2
q √
= (−5 3)2 + (−5)2 = 10
y
θ = tan−1
x 
−1 −5
= tan √
−5 3
= 30◦ reference angle
= 210◦ Quadrant III
√
(−5 3, −5) in Polar coordinates is (10, 210◦ )

(d) (2, −3) is located

p in Quadrant IV
r = x2 + y2
q √
= (2)2 + (−3)2 = 13
y
θ = tan−1
x 
−3
= tan−1
2
= −56.3◦ Quadrant IV
◦
= 303.7 θ 0 ≤ θ < 360◦
√
(2, −3) in Polar coordinates is ( 13, 303.7◦ )
20 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

■ Example 1.15 Convert the Cartesian coordinates (3, −3) into polar coordinates with r > 0 and 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
■

Solution 1.15

(3, −3) is located

p in Quadrant IV
r = x + y2
2
q √
= (3)2 + (3)2 = 3 2
y
θ = tan−1
x 
−1 −3
= tan
3
π
=− Quadrant IV
4
7π
= 0 ≤ θ < 2π
4
√ 7π
(3, −3) in Polar coordinates is (3 2, )
4

■ Example 1.16 Convert each of the following points into Cartesian coordinates.

(a) (2, π3 ) (b) (1, 20◦ ) (c) (6, − 5π

6 ) (d) (−3, 240◦ )

Solution 1.16
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
(a) (2, π3 )

x = r cos θ
π 
= 2 cos =1
3
y = r sin θ
π  √
= 2 sin = 3
3
√
(2, π3 ) in Cartesian coordinates is (1, 3)

(b) (1, 20◦ )

x = r cos θ
= 1 cos (20◦ ) = 0.94
y = r sin θ
= 1 sin (20◦ ) = 0.342
(1, 20◦ ) in Cartesian coordinates is (0.94, 0.34)

(c) (6, − 5π
6 )
1.3 Polar Coordinates 21

x = r cos θ
√
 
5π
= 6 cos − = −3 3
6
y = r sin θ
 
5π
= 6 sin − =3
6
√
(6, − 5π
6 ) in Cartesian coordinates is (−3 3, 3)

(d) (−3, 240◦ )

x = r cos θ
= −3 cos (240◦ ) = 1.5
y = r sin θ
√
◦ 3 3
= −3 sin (240 ) =
2
√
(−3, 240◦ ) in Cartesian coordinates is (1.5, 3 2 3 )

■ Example 1.17 Two points P and Q have polar coordinates (3, − π6 ) and (−2, −120◦ ) respectively. Find
their equivalent Cartesian coordinates. ■

Solution 1.17

P(3, − π6 )
x = r cos θ
 π  3√3
= 3 cos − =
6 2
y = r sin θ
 π
= 3 sin − = −1.5
6
√
(3, − π6 ) in Cartesian coordinates is ( 3 2 3 , −1.5)

Q(−2, −120◦ )

x = r cos θ
= −2 cos (−120◦ ) = 1
y = r sin θ
√
= −2 sin (−120◦ ) = 3
√
(−2, −120◦ ) in Cartesian coordinates is (1, 3)

Exercise 1.4
1. Find the polar coordinates for each of the given Cartesian coordinates, r > 0 and 0◦ ≤ θ < 360◦ .

a. (1, 5) b. (5, −1) c. (−3, 3) d. (−5, −5)

2. Find the Cartesian coordinates for each of the given polar coordinates.
 22 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES
√
a. (2, −300◦ ) c. (−2, −30◦ ) e. (5, 270◦ ) g. ( 3, 150◦ )
7π π 3π π
b. (1, ) d. (−1, ) f. (2, − ) h. (−2, − )
4 4 4 4
■

Answer

√ √
1. a. (√26, 78.69◦ ) c. (3√2, 135◦ )
b. ( 26, 348.69◦ ) d. (5 2, 225◦ )
√
2. a. (1, 3) e. (0, −5)
√ √ √ √
2 2 f. (− 2, 2)
b. ( ,− )
2 2 √
√ 3 1
c. (− 3, 1) g. (− , )
2 2
√ √ √ √
2 2 h. ( 2, 2)
d. (− ,− )
2 2

1.3.2 Transforming Equations between Polar and Cartesian Forms

We can now convert coordinates between polar and rectangular form. Converting equations can be more
difficult, but it can be benefical to be able to convert between the two forms. Since there are a number of
polar equations that cannot be expressed clearly in Cartesian form, and vice versa, we can use the same
procedures we used to convert points between the coordinate systems.

■ Example 1.18 Write the Cartesian equation x2 + y2 = 9 in polar form. ■

Solution 1.18

x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
x 2 + y2 = 9
(r cos θ )2 + (r sin θ )2 = 9
r2 (sin2 θ + cos2 θ ) = 9
r2 = 9

■ Example 1.19 Rewrite the Cartesian equation x2 + y2 = 9y as a polar equation. ■

Solution 1.19

x2 + y2 = 9y
(r cos θ )2 + (r sin θ )2 = 9(r sin θ )
r2 (sin2 θ + cos2 θ ) = 9(r sin θ )
r2 = 9(r sin θ )
r = sin θ

■ Example 1.20 Rewrite the polar equation

3
a. r =
3 sin θ − 2 cos θ
b. r = 2 cos θ
as a Cartesian equation. ■
1.3 Polar Coordinates 23

Solution 1.20
a.
3
r=
3 sin θ − 2 cos θ
r (3 sin θ − 2 cos θ ) = 3
3r sin θ − 2r cos θ = 3
3y − 2x = 3

b.
r = 2 cos θ
r × r = r × 2 cos θ
r2 = 2r cos θ
x2 + y2 = 2x
x2 − 2x + y2 = 0
(x − 1)2 + y2 = 1

■ Example 1.21 Rewrite the polar equation in Cartesian form.

a. r = sin 2θ
b. r = 2 sec θ
■

Solution 1.21
a.
r = sin 2θ
r = 2 sin θ cos θ
r × r = r2 × 2 sin θ cos θ
2

r(x2 + y2 ) = 2xy
 2
2 2xy
r =
x2 + y2
 2
2xy
x2 + y2 =
x2 + y2
(x2 + y2 )3 = 4x2 y2

b.
2
r=
cos θ
r cos θ = 2
x=2

Exercise 1.5
1. Express the following Cartesian equation in polar form.

a. y = x2 c. x = 11 e. y − 5x = 2
b. y = 6 d. y2 − x2 = 4 f. xy = y2 + 1

2. Convert the polar equations to Cartesian form.

 24 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

a. r = 6 sin θ − 2 cos θ c. r = −5θ 1

e. r =
b. r = 5 sec θ d. tan θ = 5 cos θ − 6 sin θ

Answer

1. a. r = tan θ sec θ d. r2 + 4 sec 2θ = 0

b. r = 6 csc θ 2
e. r =
sin θ − 5 cos θ
c. r = 11 sec θ csc θ
f. r2 =
cos θ − sin θ

2. a. x2 + y2 − 6y + 2x = 0
b. x = 5 p ! d. y = 5x
y x2 + y2 e. x − 6y = 1
c. =
x 5

1.3.3 Points in the Polar Plane

The polar coordinates of a point are not unique. The value of r can be positive, negative, or zero. The sign of
r is very important in locating the exact position of the point. The absolute value of r, |r|, is the distance
between the point and the pole.
1. If r is positive (r > 0) then the point lies on the terminal side of θ .(Figure 1.3(a))
2. If r is negative (r < 0) then the point lies on the ray opposite of the terminal side of θ .(Figure 1.3(b))
3. If r is zero (r = 0) then the point lies at the pole regardless of θ .(Figure 1.3(c))

(r, θ ) terminal side

|r|

0 θ pole 0 θ 0 (r, θ )

pole polar axis polar axis pole polar axis

(r, θ )

(a) r > 0 (b) r < 0 (c) r = 0

Figure 1.3: Value of r

As in trigonometry, the angle θ is positive if the angle is measured anti clockwise from polar axis, OX,
while, it is negative if is measured clockwise.
P

θ
|r|

0 polar axis
X
−θ

To plot a point in the polar coordinate system, start with the angle. If the angle is positive, then measure the
angle from the polar axis in a counterclockwise direction. If it is negative, then measure it clockwise. If the
1.3 Polar Coordinates 25

value of r is positive, move that distance along the terminal ray of the angle. If it is negative, move along the
ray that is opposite the terminal ray of the given angle.
■ Example 1.22 Plot the points with the following polar coordinates:

(a) (3, 135◦ ) (c) (5, − π3 )

(b) (−2, 70◦ ) (d) (−1, − π4 )

Solution 1.22

(a) (3, 135◦ )

1. Measure desire angle from pole axis. 2. Draw a line from pole with r unit.

(3, 135◦ )
135◦

3 135◦
polar axis polar axis
X X

(b) (−2, 70◦ )

1. Measure desire angle from pole axis. 2. Draw a line from pole with |r| unit, since
r is negative, move opposite.

70◦ 70◦ polar axis

polar axis X
2
X
(−2, 70◦ )

(c) (5, − π3 )

1. Measure desire angle from pole axis. 2. Draw a line from pole with r unit.
π ◦
3 is 60
−60 means 60◦ clockwise.
◦

polar axis
X
polar axis 60◦
X 5
60◦ (5, π3 )

(d) (−1, − π4 )
26 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

1. Measure desire angle from pole axis. 2. Draw a line from pole with |r| unit, since
r is negative, move opposite.

(−1, − π4 ) 1
polar axis polar axis
X 45◦ X
45◦

■ Example 1.23 Plot the following polar coordinates:

A(−2, 60◦ )
π/2
1.
2. B(3, −135◦ ) 3π/4 π/4

3. C(1, −π)
4. D(−2, − π2 )
5. E(2, 405◦ )
6. F(−2, − π3 ) π
0 1 2 3
0

5π/4 7π/4

3π/2

Solution 1.23

π/2

3π/4 π/4

F
E

π 0
0 1 2 3
C

A
B D

5π/4 7π/4

3π/2
1.3 Polar Coordinates 27

Equivalent Representations of Polar Coordinates

One big difference between polar and rectangular coordinates is that polar coordinates can have multiple
coordinates representing the same point by adjusting the angle θ or the sign of r and the angle θ . In Cartesian
coordinates, each point (x, y) has a unique representation.

a. r is a directed distance the coordinates. (r, θ ) and (−r, θ + π) represent the same point.
b. We can use any coterminal angles to represent the same point. Coterminal angles are angles in
standard position (angles with the initial side on the positive x-axis) that have a common terminal side.
For example,30◦ , −330◦ and 390◦ are all coterminal

Apply one of the following to find a different point that is graphed in the same location.
1. Add 21 circle and go opposite direction:
(r, θ ) = (−r, θ (2n + 1)π)

2. Find coterminal angle by using the concept measured clockwise or anticlockwise.

(r, P)
P
45◦
Q X
315◦
|P| + |Q| = 360◦ → |Q| = 360◦ − |P|
To get the conjugates angle for P◦ ,
45◦ + 315◦ = 360◦ . absolute value of P is used.
P and Q are conjugates angles. Q depands on the direction of angle.

■ Example 1.24 By taking −360◦ < θ < 360◦ , obtain three other polar coordinate representations of the
point (2, 45◦ ). ■

Solution 1.24

(2, 45◦ )
45◦
polar axis
P X |45|◦ + |P| = 360◦
|P| = 315◦
Since P is clockwise, P = −315◦
So, (2, 45◦ ) = (2, −315◦ )

P(2, 45◦ ) ∴ (2, 45◦ )

A 45◦
polar axis
X

A = 45◦ + 180◦ = 225◦

A′ A′ is the equivalent angle of A which
P′ (−2, A◦ ) measured clockwise.
A′ = −(180 − 45)◦ = −135◦
(−2, 225◦ ) and (−2, −135◦ )
also represent (2, 45◦ )
28 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

is equivalent with (2, −315◦ ), (−2, 225◦ ) and (−2, −135◦ )

■Example 1.25 By taking −360◦ < θ < 360◦ , obtain three other polar coordinate representations of the
point T (2, −215◦ ). ■

Solution 1.25

P(2, −215◦ )
A′
B′
polar axis
A′ + | − 215|◦ = 360◦
A X
A′ = 145◦
A′ + A = 180◦
−215◦ |A| = −35◦ ;
P′ (−2, A◦ )
(clockwise)A = 35◦
B′ + |A| = 360◦
B′ = 325◦
(2, −215◦ ) = (−2, −35◦ ) =
(−2, 325◦ ) = (2, 145)

■ Example 1.26 Find 3 equivalent polar coordinate for point P(1, 1) (in Cartesian coordinate). ■

Solution 1.26
p √ y
r = x 2 + y2 = 2 θ = tan−1 = 45◦
x
√
( 2, 45◦ )
√
P( 2, 45◦ )
B |B| + |45|◦ = 360◦
45◦
C polar axis |B| = 315◦
X (clockwise)B = −315◦
A |45|◦ + |A| = 180◦
√
P′ (− 2, θ ) |A| = 135◦ ;
(clockwise)A = −135◦
|C| + |A| = 360◦
|C| = 225◦
(anti-clockwise)C = 225◦
√ √
( 2, 45◦ ) = ( 2, −315◦ ) =
√ √
(− 2, 225◦ ) = (− 2, −135)
1.3 Polar Coordinates 29

■ Example 1.27 Plot the polar coordinate D(−1, − π2 ). ■

Solution 1.27

D(−1, − π2 ◦ )

polar axis
X

D’ We can see that,

3pi
D(−1, − π2 ) = (1, π2 ) = (1, 3π
2 ) = (−1, 2 )

Exercise 1.6
1. Plot the following set of points in the same diagram:

a. A(2, 30◦ ) c. C(−1, 330◦ ) e. E(3, −150◦ )

π 3π 7π
b. B(−2, ) d. D(1, ) f. F(−2, )
4 4 4
2. Plot the point (−3, 30◦ ) using a polar coordinate system.
3. Find the polar coordinates for the given Cartesian point, (−8, −5). Hence, plot the point using a
polar coordinate system.
π
4. Find another representation (r, θ ) of the point (−2, ) that satisfies the given conditions. r > 0
6
and −2π < θ < 2π
5. Plot the point (4, 30◦ ) and find other polar coordinates (r, θ ) of the point for which:
(a) r > 0, −360◦ ≤ θ < 0
(b) r < 0, 0 ≤ θ < 360◦
 30 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

Answer

π/2(90◦ )

3π/4(135◦ ) π/4(45◦ )

F
C A
D
◦
π(180 ) 0
0 1 2 3

5π/4(225 ◦ ) 7π/4(270◦ )

◦
3π/2(315 )

30◦

(−3, 30◦ ) X
3
polar axis

2.
1.
212◦

X
(9.43, 212◦ ) polar axis
9.43

3.
7π −5π
4. 2, , (2, )
6 6
210◦

(4, 30◦ )

30◦

−330◦ X
polar axis
4

5.
a. (4, −330)
b. r(−4, 210)

1.3.4 Polar Curves

A polar curve is a shape constructed using the polar coordinate system. Polar curves are defined by points
that are a variable distance from the origin (the pole) depending on the angle measured off the positive x-axis.
Polar curves can describe familiar Cartesian shapes such as ellipses as well as some unfamiliar shapes such
as cardioids and lemniscates.
Graph Sketching of Polar Coordinates
Graphing a polar equation is accomplished in pretty much the same as Cartesian equations are graphed.
They can be graphed by point-plotting, using the trigonometric functions period, and using the equation’s
symmetry (if any). For a polar equation, you would pick angle measurements for θ and then evaluate the
equation to determine its corresponding r value.
1. Create a table with two columns. The first column is for θ , and the second column is for r
2. Create a list of values for θ .
3. Calculate the corresponding r values for each θ .
4. Plot each ordered pair (r, θ ) on the coordinate axes.
5. Connect the points and look for a pattern.
■ Example 1.28 Graph the curve defined by the function r = 2 sin θ . Identify the curve. ■
1.3 Polar Coordinates 31

Solution 1.28

θ 0 30 60 90 120 150
sin θ 0 0.5 0.866 1 0.866 0.5
r = 2 sin θ 0 1 1.732 2 1.732 1

θ 180 210 240 270 300 330

sin θ 0 -0.5 -0.866 -1 -0.866 -0.5
r = 2 sin θ 0 -1 -1.732 -2 -1.732 -1
π/2 π/2

3π/4 π/4 3π/4 π/4

π 0 π 0
0 1 2 0 1 2

5π/4 7π/4 5π/4 7π/4

3π/2 3π/2

The curve is a circle.

■ Example 1.29 Graph the curve defined by the function r = 1 − 2 cos θ . ■

Solution 1.29
π/2

3π/4 π/4

π 0
0 1 2

θ 0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦

5π/4 7π/4
r -1 -0.73 0 1 2 2.73
3π/2

θ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦

r 3 2.73 2 1 0 -0.73

The curve is a limacon with inner looop.

■ Example 1.30 Graph the curve defined by r2 = 9 cos 2θ . Identify the curve. ■

Solution 1.30

θ 0◦ 15◦ 30◦ 45◦ 150◦ 165◦

r2 9 7.79 4.5 0 4.5 7.79
r ±3 ±2.79 ±2.12 0 ±2.12 ±2.79
32 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

π/2

3π/4 π/4

π 0
0 1 2

5π/4 7π/4

3π/2
The curve is a lemniscate.

Exercise 1.7 Sketch the graph of

1. r = 2 cos θ . 3. r = 4 + 2 cos θ 5. r = cos 2θ

2. r = 3 + 3 sin θ 4. r = 1 − 3 sin θ

Answer
π/2
π/2

3π/4
3π/4 π/4 π/4

π 0 π
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
0 1 2

5π/4 7π/4 5π/4 7π/4

1 3π/2 2 3π/2
1.3 Polar Coordinates 33

π/2 π/2

3π/4 π/4 3π/4 π/4

π 0 π 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

5π/4 7π/4 5π/4 7π/4

3 3π/2
4 3π/2

π/2
3π/4 π/4

π 0
0 1

5π/4 7π/4
3π/2

Common Polar Coordinates Graph

A summary of some common curves is given in the tables below. In each equation, a and b are arbitrary
constants.

Name Equation Example

y
a
Horizontal line (HL) r= 2
passes through (0, a) sin θ
2
r=
or or sin θ
r=
1
vertical line (VL) cos θ
a x
passes through (a, 0) r= 1
cos θ
y

π
θ= 3

Line pasing through the

θ =k
pole with slope tan k
34 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

Name Equation Example

y
1.5
r = a cos θ y
or r = 2 cos θ
Circle x
r = a sin θ
x
r ̸= 0 2
r = 32 sin θ

θ
r= 3

Spiral r = aθ
y
r = a cos nθ

or r = sin 2θ
y

Rose r = a sin nθ
x r = 2 cos 3θ

x
r ̸= 0
n is even, 2n pedals
n is odd, n pedals

r2 = a2 cos 2θ
y
or x
Lemniscate
r2 = a2 sin 2θ r2 = 4 cos 2θ
r2 = 4 sin 2θ
x
r ̸= 0
1.3 Polar Coordinates 35

Name Equation Example

y
y a
a 1< b <2
b <1
r = 32 − sin θ
r = 1 − 2 sin θ
x
x

Dimpled Limacon
Limacon with inner loop
with no inner loop
r = a ± b cos θ
Limacon y
or
a
1< b ≥2
r = a ± b sin θ r = 2 − sin θ

r ̸= 0 y
x
r = 2 − 2 sin θ
1 < ab = 1

a
the larger b is
Cardiod
the limacon likes a circle

Intersection of Polar Graphs

Polar equations can be graphed using polar coordinates. Graphing two polar equations on the same set of
axis may result in having point(s) of intersection.

One method to find point(s) of intersection for two polar graphs is by setting the equations equal to each
other. Call the first equation r1 and the second equation r2 . Points of intersection are when r1 = r2 . So set
the equations equal and then solve the resulting trigonometric equation. It may also be necessary to check
the origin, since r = 0 could correspond to any value of θ .

■ Example 1.31 Locate all points of intersection of the limacon, r = 2 − cos θ , and the circle, r = 1 + cos θ

where 0 ≤ θ < 360◦ . ■

36 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

Solution 1.31
y

x r = 2 − cos θ (1) r = 1 + cos θ (2)

2 − cos θ = 1 + cos (1) = (2)
cos θ = 0.5
θ = cos−1 (0.5) = 30◦ (reference angle)
cos θ happens in Quadrant 1 and 4.
θ = 30◦ , 330◦
r = 1 + cos 30θ = 1.5
intersection points are (1.5, 30◦ ), (1.5, 330◦ )

Is the point (0, 0) is one of the intersection?

r = 0 never happen for r = 2 − cos θ .
So (0, 0) is not a intersection point.

■ Example 1.32 Find the intersection of the graphs of r = cos θ and r = 1 − cos θ where 0 ≤ θ < 360◦ . ■

Solution 1.32

r = cos θ (1) r = 1 − cos θ (2)

x cos θ = 1 − cos (1) = (2)
cos θ = 0.5
θ = cos−1 (0.5) = 30◦ (reference angle)
cos θ happens in Quadrant 1 and 4.
θ = 30◦ , 330◦
r = cos 30◦ = 0.5
intersection points are (0.5, 30◦ ), (0.5, 330◦ )

Is the point (0, 0) is one of the intersection?

r = 0 happens when θ = 0◦ for r = cos θ .
r = 0 happens when θ = 90◦ for r = 1 − cos θ .
So (0, 0) is a intersection point.
We have 3 intersection points i.e
(0, 0), (0.5, 30◦ ), (0.5, 330◦ )

Exercise 1.8 √
1. Find the intersection of r = 3 sin θ and r = 3 cos θ
2. Find the intersection of r = sin θ and r = 1 − sin θ
3. Find the intersection of r = 1 + sin θ and r = 1 + cos θ
Answer
√ √
1. (0, 0), (1.5, 30◦ ), (1.5, 210◦ ) 2 2
2. (0, 0), (0.5, 30◦ ), (1.5, 150◦ ) 3. (0, 0), ( , 45◦ ), ( , 225◦ )
2 2

■
1.3 Polar Coordinates 37

FOCUS CHAPTER 1
1. Graph the given parametric equations. Use arrows to show the orientation of the curve corresponding
to increasing values of t.
a. x = − sint, y = − cost, 0 ≤ t < 2π.
√ y = |s − 1|, −2 ≤ s ≤ 2.
b. x = 2s,
c. x = t, y = t 2 − 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 5.
1 t
d. x = , y= , −5 ≤ t < 1.
t −1 t −1
2. Convert the polar equation 4r cos θ + r sin θ = 8 into a Cartesian equation that expresses y in terms of
x.
3. Convert the Cartesian equation x2 + y2 = 100 into a polar equation that expresses r in terms of θ .
4. Convert the rectangular coordinates (3, -3) into polar coordinates with r > θ and 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
5. Convert the polar coordinates (−8, 32 π) into Cartesian coordinates.
6. Find another representation of the ordered pair (3, π4 ) that satisfies the given conditions.r is negative
and 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
7. Find all possible polar coordinates −360 < θ < 360◦ of the points whose polar coordinates are given
as the following: P(1, 45◦ ), Q(2, −60◦ ) and R(−1, 225◦ ).
8. Find the Cartesian coordinates of the points whose polar coordinates are given as A(1, 7π 2π
4 ), B(−4, 3 )
and C(2, −30 ) ◦

9. Find all polar coordinates (−360 < θ < 360◦ )of the points whose Cartesian coordinates are given as
(11, 5) and (0, 2).
10. Given the parametric equations,
x = t 2 , y = 2t − 1.

a. Find the values of x and y for t = −2, −1, − 21 , 0, 1.

b. Sketch the graph. Hence, name the shape of the graph.
c. By eliminating t, find the Cartesian equation.
11. Express the following Cartesian equations in polar equations.
a. y = x2
b. x2 + y2 = 16
c. xy = 1

12. Express the following polar equations in Cartesian equations.

a. r = 2 sin θ
3
b. r =
4 cos θ + 5 sin θ
c. r = 6 sin θ + 8 cos θ
d. r = tan θ sec θ

13. Write two sets of parametric equations for the following Cartesian equations.
p
a. y = (x + 4)2 − 4 b. x = y2 − 3

14. Find the Cartesian for the following pairs of parameter equations.

a. x = 2 sin θ + 3 y = 3 cos ω
y = 2 cos θ − 1 d. x = sint
b. x = T√+ 2 y = cost
4 e. x = 2 + 3 tan p
y=
T y = 4 + 2 sec p
c. x = cos ω + 2

15. Given x = 2 + 2 cos θ and y = −1 + 2 sin θ . Find the Cartesian equation.

16. Graph the curve defined by the following functions.
38 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

a. r = 2 + 3 cos θ c. r = 3 cos 2θ
b. r = 3 − 2 sin θ d. r =

17. Find the points of the following pairs of curves

a. r = 2 sin θ r = 2 cos θ
r = cosecθ e. r = cos 3θ
b. r = 3 cos θ r = sin 3θ
r = 3 sin θ f. r = sin 2θ
c. r = 4(1 + cos θ ) r = 2 sin θ
r=6 g. r = 1√− 2 sin θ
d. r = 2 r = 9 cos θ

18. Plot the following polar coordinates.

a. (3, 335◦ ) 3 4
e. (−3, π) g. (−2, π)
b. (−1, 90◦ ) 4 3
3 4
c. (−2, −60◦ ) f. (3, − π) h. (−2, − π)
d. (2, −120◦ ) 4 3

Answer FOCUS Chapter 1

y 25 y

1
20

15
x
−1 1
10

5
−1

x
1a.
y c. 1 2
1 y
3

2
0.5

1
x
−1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5
x
−4 −2 2 4
b.

d. −0.5
1.3 Polar Coordinates 39

2. 4x + y = 8
3. r2 = 100
√ 7π
4. (3 2, )
√4
5. (4, −4 3)
5π
6. (−3, )
4
r>0 r>0 r<0 r<0
anticlockwise clockwise anticlockwise clockwise
7. P(1, 45◦ ) - (1, −315◦ ) (−1, 225◦ ) (−1, −135◦ )
Q(2, −60 ) ◦ ◦
(2, 300 ) - ◦
(−2, 120 ) (−2, −240◦ )
R(−1, 225 ) ◦ ◦
(1, 135 ) ◦
(1, −225 ) - (−1, −135◦ )
√ √
2 2 √ √
8. A=( ,− ); B = (2, −2 3);C = ( 3, −1)
2 2
9. (11,
√ 5) is ◦ √ √ √
( 146, 24.4 ) = 146, −335.6◦ ) = − 146, 204.4◦ ) = − 146, −155.6◦ )
(0, 2) is (2, 90◦ ) = (2, −270◦ ) = (−2, −90◦ ) = (−2, −270◦ )
t -2 -1 -0.5 0 1
10. a. x 4 1 0.25 0 1
y -5 -3 -2 -1 1
2 y

x
−2 −1 1 2

−2

−4

b.
1
c. x = ( y + 1)2
2
11. a. r = tan θ sec θ
b. r2 = 16
1
c. r2 = csc 2θ
2
12. Express the following polar equations in Cartesian equations.
a. x2 + y2 = 2y
b. 4x + 5y = 3
c. x2 + y2 = 6y + 8x
d. x2 = y
40 Chapter 1. CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

13. a. y = (x + 4)2 − 4 b. Set 1:

√
Set 1: y = √t
x = t −4 x = t −3
y = t2 − 4 Set 2:
Set 2: x = tp
x=t y = (t)2 + 3
y = (t + 4)2 − 4

(x − 3)2 (y + 1)2 c. y = 3(x − 2)

14. a. + =1
4√ 4 d. x2 + y2 = 1
5 (y − 4)2 (x − 2)2
b. y = e. − =1
x−2 9 9
π/2 π/2

3π/4 π/4 3π/4 π/4

π 0 π 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

5π/4 7π/4 5π/4 7π/4

15. (a) 3π/2

(c) 3π/2

π/2 π/2

3π/4 π/4 3π/4 π/4

π 0 π 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

5π/4 7π/4 5π/4 7π/4

(b) 3π/2
(d) 3π/2

√ √
16. a. ( 2, 45◦ ),√( 2, 135 ) √
◦

3 2 3 2
b. (0, 0), ( , 45◦ ), (− , 225◦ )
2 2
c. (2, 0◦ ) √ √ √
2 ◦ 2 ◦ 2
d. (0, 0), ( , 15 ), ( , 75 ), ( , 135◦ )
2 2 2
e. (0,0)
f. (0, 0), (−1.89, 153.44◦ ), (−0.1, 333.44◦ )
π/2(90◦ )

3π/4(135◦ ) π/4(45◦ )

C G

π(180◦ ) 0
0 1 2 3

B
A
D H
F E

5π/4(225 ◦ ) 7π/4(270◦ )

17. ◦
3π/2(315 )