Computer System

Computer System
We all know that human body is made up of many different systems and all these systems work together to
form a human body. Similarly, different parts of computer form computer system. A computer system is a
combination of different computer hardware and software that work together to achieve the purpose of the
instruction or program. In other words, a computer system is a set of hardware and software which process
data in a meaningful way. Computer system can be described by the help of following figure.

ALU

Input Unit CU Output Unit

Primary Memory
------ Control Flow
______________
Data flow

Secondary Memory

Fig: - Computer System

The above figure describes the Computer System. Here, Input or Output unit can't function until they
receive the signal from the CPU. Similarly the storage unit or CPU alone is of no use. So the usefulness of each
units depends on the other units and can be realized only when all units are put together.
In a computer system when user gives input through the input devices if first goes to the Primary
memory and then send to the ALU for the further processing and then processed data again send to primary
memory if needed then to output units. These all happens in the direction of Control Unit.
Input Unit, Output Unit, storage and CPU can be described separately as follows:
1. Input Unit: -Input Units are the media through which user communicate with the computer. An input
unit perform the following operation sequentially:
a. It accepts or reads the list of instruction and data from the user.
b. It converts the received data into the computer understandable form.
c. It supplies the converted data into computer system.
Some of the input devices are Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone etc.

2. CPU: - It is the only part of computer where all processing takes place. It works with Operating system
and executes the set of instruction, control different peripherals devices by sending and receiving the
control signals. The CPU is made up of 3 major units. They are as follows:-
a. Arithmetic and Logical Unit: - All the arithmetic and logical operation are performed in this unit
under the direction of control unit. The data needed to be processed are transferred from the
memory unit to ALU when required as well as data will be transferred from ALU to primary
memory after completion of processing. ALU performs the following tasks:
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i. It performs the arithmetic operation on data i.e. it operates on data according to the
instruction.
ii. It performs the logical operation or comparisons such as less than, equal to, greater
than etc.
b. Control Unit: - Under the consideration of O.S., the control unit control and coordinates the
entire computer system. The control unit receives instruction from the program decodes them
and generates signals to inform the ALU as to what operation has been requested. It sends
signal to input and output devices to perform task as instruction. The control unit determines
the sequence in which computer's programs and instruction are executed.
So, we can say that control unit co-ordinate the flow of data in and out of the ALU, the
primary memory, the secondary memory, and various input and output devices.
The Jobs of Control unit can be listed as follows:
i. Send the input from input devices to the memory unit.
ii. Gets the instruction from memory unit.
iii. Decodes the instruction or determine the instruction.
iv. Gets the data required by the instruction.
v. Activates the right circuit for the instruction to be obeyed.
c. Memory Unit: - The memory unit or primary memory is the section where instruction and data
to be used by the computer are stored. The data read from an input unit are transmitted to the
computer's primary memory where they are available for processing. So the primary memory is
the working space where unprocessed data (data to be processed), instruction or program
currently running and processed data (information) are temporarily stored. The function of
memory unit are as follows:
i. It holds all data to be processed and the instruction required for processing.
ii. It stores intermediate result of processing.
iii. It stores the final result of processing before these results are released to output
devices.
3. Output Units: - The output devices show the result of processing and other information from the
computer to the user in the human understandable form. The output unit performs the following
functions:
i. It accepts the result produced by the computer, which are in binary form.
ii. It converts the binary form result to human understandable form.
iii. It supplies the converted result to the user.
Some of the O/P devices are Monitor, Printer, Speaker etc.

Layer of Computer Architecture

The style of construction and organization of the many parts of a computer system are its architecture. The
whole computer system can be considered as a many layered machine consisting of several layer of software
on the top of several layer of hardware. Different layer of the computer architecture can be presented in
figure as follows:

Application Program
System software
Machine Level
Micro Programmed Level

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Digital Logic Level
Electrical and Electronic component level
or Physical Device Level
Fig: - Layers of Computer Architecture

1. Electrical and Electronic Component Level or Physical Device Level:- Almost all modern computer
devices are built from simple electronic components such as transistors, capacitors, registers and these
components rely on suitable power supplies and operating environments. The basic thing that we got
know is that transistor can act as an electronic switch that is either ON or OFF.

2. Digital Logic Level: - All most basic operations of the machine are provided at this level. The basic
elements at this level can store, manipulate and transmit data in the form of simple binary
representations. These digital logic elements are called gates. A gate is normally constricted from small
number of transistors and other electronic components. Many gates may be combined into a single
chip. The standard digital logic devices are combined together to form computer processor or
computer memories.

3. Micro programmed Level: - This program interprets the machine language instruction from the
machine layer and directly causes the digital logic elements to perform the required operations.

4. Machine Level: - Several hardware levels are presented in machine level. These are the basic elements
of the computer system. They are processor, input/output devices, primary memory, secondary
memory etc.

5. System Software Level: - These programs direct the internal operations of a computer system such as
controlling input and output devices managing storage areas within the computer system. It also hides
the complexity of the hardware form other software by providing its own facilities which enables
software to use the hardware more simply.

6. Application Level: - These programs direct a computer to solve a user oriented problems. Such as
preparing bills, calculating mathematics problem etc. This level is the language of the computer as seen
by the end- user.

The Bus
The Bus is a combination of path that interconnects different computer components. Actually, the bus
is a group of parallel wires. The number of wires in the bus affects the speed at which data can be travel
between hardware components because each wire can transfer 1 bit at a time. So, a bus is a parallel electrical
conductor called lines onto which a number of components are connected. There are two basic types of bus.
They are as follows:
1. Internal Bus: - These buses are used within the processor and in integral part of its construction such as
diode, transistors, registers etc.
2. External Bus: - These buses are used to connect separate hardware elements together, e.g. connecting
the processor to main memory etc.
Some different types of bus are as follows
1. Data Bus: - The data bus is a group of wires or lines used for data flow. These lines are bi-directional, data
flow in both directions between the microprocessor and memory and peripheral devices. The

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microprocessor uses the data bus to transfer the data from one location to another. 1-wire bus can
transfer 1 bit at a time, an 8-wire bus can transfer 1 byte at a time, a 16-wire bus can transfer 2 byte at a
time a 32-wire bus can transfer 4 byte at a time, and newer model computer have 64-wire bus which can
transfer 8 byte at a time.
2. Address Bus: - The address bus is a group of lines used to identify a peripheral or a memory location. The
address bus is unidirectional, bits flow in one direction form the microprocessor to peripheral devices or
memory. The microprocessor uses the address bus to identify the peripheral or memory location. The
address bus can be 16- bit, 20-bit or 32-bit.
3. Control Bus: - The control bus carries the timing and control signals necessary to coordinate the activities
of the entire system. It carries the synchronization signals. It is not a group of lines or wire, but it is
individual lines that provide a signal; for read or wire operation.
The block diagram of a microcomputer showing memory, input devices, output devices and memory
along with bus connecting microprocessor with other component is shown below:

Primary Memory
Memory is the workspace for the computer's processor. The fast semiconductor memories used directly with
the microprocessor are referred to as the primary memory. The computer memory that holds data,
instruction, and program temporarily is Primary memory or Main Memory. A computer can have two types of
primary memories RAM and ROM.
RAM
RAM stands for the Random Access Memory. It is the temporary memory of the computer system. RAM chips
are inserted on the motherboard on a particular memory slots. The purpose of the RAM is to hold the
programs and data while they are in use. This type of memory storage is considered as temporary because the
data and programs will remain there only as long as the computer has electrical power or it is not reset. So, we
call it as volatile memory. It is called Random Access Memory because we can randomly and quickly access any
location in memory.
Types of RAM
1. DRAM: - DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. DRAM is the type of memory in a modern
computer. The main advantages of this type of RAM are that it can hold a lot of bits into a very small
chip and it is very inexpensive, which makes it affordable for large amount of memory.
The memory cells in a DRAM chip are tiny capacitors that retain a charge to indicate a bit. The
problem with DRAM is that it is dynamic, and because of the design must be constantly refreshed.

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2. SRAM: - It stands for Static Random Access memory, which is so named because it does not need the
periodic refresh rates like DRAM. Due to the design of SRAM, not only are refresh rates unnecessary,
but SRAM is much faster than DRAM but lower in density means that SRAM chips are both physically
larger and store many less bits overall and more expensive and is fully able to keep pace with modern
processors. Transistors are used instead of capacitor in SRAM. Transistors do not loose their charges so
refreshing is not necessary like for capacitors in DRAM. As long as there is power, SRAM will remember
what is stored.
ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory is a type of memory that can permanently or semi- permanently hold
data. It is called read only because it is either impossible or needs a special device to write to. ROM is also
called non-volatile memory because any data stored in ROM will remain even if power is turned off. As such,
ROM is an ideal place to put the computer's start up instruction.
Types of ROM
1 Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
This type of ROM is blank when new and must be programmed with what ever data is necessary. A
blank PROM can then be programmed using a special machine called ROM programmer or ROM burner. Most
chops run on 5 volt, but when we program a PROM, we place a higher voltage (normally 12 volt). This type of
chips are also know as OTP i.e. One Time Programmable. They can be programmed once and never erased.
2. Erasable PROM (EPROM)
It is a PROM that is erasable. It is erased by the exposure to intense Ultra violet light. The ultra violet
light erases the chip by causing a chemical reaction that essentially melts the fuse back together.
3. Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM)
It can be erased with the electrical signals instead of Ultra violet light. EEPROM is also called flash
ROMs, and are characterized by their capability to be erased and reprogrammed directly in the circuit board in
which they are installed, with no special equipment required. It is possible to erase and reprogram the ROM in
the computer without removing the chip from the system.

Cache Memory
The cache (pronounced as cash) memory is placed in between CPU and main memory. It is
semiconductor memory. It consists of SRAM. It is special and very high speed memory called cache is used to
increase the speed of processing by making current program and data available to the CPU at the rapid rate.
The memory matching with high speed microcomputer must be very fast, but very fast memory is very
expensive. If a fast microprocessor operates with conventional main memory or the slow memory then it has
to operate with several wait states. This will reduce the speed of the computer. So a high speed cache
memory is used to supply currently needed instruction and data to CPU.
The technique of accessing a cache memory differs from that of the main memory. To access main
memory the CPU sends an address to it. In response of this, the main memory sends data contained at the
specified memory address. On the other hand, cache memory uses parallel searching of the required data. It
first compares the incoming address to the address present in the cache. If the address match then hit has
occurred otherwise miss has occurred. When a miss has occurred then the data is read from the main
memory.
Thus, we can say that the cache memory is placed in computer system to compensate for the speed
difference between the main memory access time and processor logic. CPU logic is usually faster than main
memory access time.

Virtual Memory

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Most computers today have something like 64 or 128 megabytes of RAM available for the CPU to use.
Unfortunately, that amount of RAM is not enough to run all of the programs that most users expect to run at
once.
For example if we load the operating system, an e-mail program, a web browser, movie player and
word processor into RAM simultaneously, 128 MB is not enough to hold it all. If there were no such thing as
virtual memory then once we filled up the available RAM, out computer would have to say, “Sorry you can not
load an more applications please close another application to load a new one”.
Whenever the system needs more memory to load a program, it may not find enough space in the
memory to load a programs, it may not find enough space in the memory. At such scenario, it uses various
methods like ‘Least frequently used algorithm’ i.e. little space is separated in hard disk. The identified least
uses pages are then swapped (kept) at those places of hard disk. This part of hard disk is known as virtual
memory. Virtual because it acts like extension of RAM but it isn’t.

Auxiliary or Secondary Memory

A computer System requires long-term storage and data. As we know that the internal memory is small
and temporary in nature. But every program must be loaded in RAM, before it executes. So, Auxiliary memory
is required.
The operating speed of secondary memory is slower than that of the primary memory. The required
data and programs are transferred to the main memory from the secondary memory when requires.
The most widely used secondary storage devices are magnetic tapes, magnetic disk and Optical disk.
These mass storage are also called backing storage devices. Some of the Auxiliary memories are as follows:

1. Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic tape is a serial access type storage device. It is suitable for backup storage. Magnetic tapes
are used for backup in servers, workstations and large computers. A magnetic tape is low cost device and it
has large storage capacity. It can also be used as the offline secondary storage. When a large volume of
information is to be processed sequentially, it can be stored on a magnetic tape.
The main drawback is that it stores information sequentially. A file or particular information stored on
a magnetic tape cannot be accessed directly on random basis as it is done in the case of hard disk or floppy
disk.
One side of tape is coated with magnetic materials (iron oxide) that stores data permanently. The
magnetic tape drive is a machine that can either read data from a tape into the CPU or it can write the
information being produced by the computer onto a tape. It is similar to the cassette of a tape recorder. Data
is recorded on the tape in the form of tiny invisible magnetized and non magnetized spots (representing 1’s or
0’s) on the iron oxide side of the tape in sequential tracks along the length of the tape.
It has high storage capacity and can be reused and 100% reliable. Through it large volume of data can
be transferred from one computer to another which is not linked together. But the main disadvantages of this
type of storage device are it is sequential storage so the data access is slow. To access the data of 10 th, it has to
processed 99th data.
2. Magnetic Disk
Magnetic disks are direct storage devices i.e. Data can be accessed from anywhere on the disk directly
without accessing the data stored previous to that. A magnetic disk is a round platter made of metal or plastic
and coated with magnetic materials. Different types of magnetic disks are as follows:

2.1 Hard disk: - A hard disk drive contains rigid, disk shaped platters, usually constructed of aluminum or glass.
Unlike floppy disk, the platters cannot be bent hence the termed as hard disk. In most hard disk drive the
platters can not be removed so they are sometimes called fixed disk drives.
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The basic physical construction of a hard disk consists of spinning disks with heads that move over the
disk and store data in tracks and sectors. The heads read and write data is concentric rings called tracks, which
are divided up into segments called sectors. Hard disk drive usually have multiple disks, called platters, they
are stacked on top of each other and spine at same speed, each with two side on which the drive stores data.
The identically positioned tracks on each side of every platter together make up a cylinder. Actuator moves
the arms to right track on the platter to read data.

2.2 Floppy Disk: -Floppy disks are made of a plastic material coated with the iron oxide. It is also a direct access
storage media. Floppy disk is a soft magnetic disk, rather it is a very thin piece of flexible plastic, and it is called
floppy disk because its disk can be bent unlike hard disk. Floppy disks are also called diskette. They are
removable disk. A floppy disk is inserted into a computer system when needed. The floppy or flexible disk s
kept within a plastic jacket. A metallic shutter protects the media access hole. The drive manipulates the
shutters, leaving it closed whenever the disk is not in the drive. So, the media is completely insulated from the
environment and from the user’s fingers.

3. Optical Disk
An optical disk system consists of a rotating disk that is coated with a thin metal or other material that is highly
reflective. Data recording is done by focusing a laser beam on the surface of the spinning disk. Optical disks are
also direct access storage devices. Different types of optical disks are as follows:

3.1 Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD- ROM):- CD- ROM disks are made of rigid plastic coated with a very
thin layer of aluminum that reflects light. Data is written to the CD- ROM by burning the microscopic pits (tiny
holes) into the reflective surface of the disk with a powerful laser. The data is in digital form, with pits
represents a value of 1 and flat spots, called land, representing a value of 0. Once data is written to the CD-
ROM, it can’t be erased or changed and this is the reason it is termed as read only memory.
Data is read from a CD- ROM with a low power laser contained in the drive that emits infrared light on
the reflective surface of the disk. The pits in the reflective layer of the disk scatter light, while the land portions
of the disk reflect the laser light efficiently.
CD- ROM has very high storage density, low storage cost, and fast access time. It is portable, more
reliable and easy to use. But the data access rate is less that hard disk.

3.2 Compact Disk- Recordable (CD-R): - This type of disk is blank when new and data can be written with what
ever data is necessary. Data can be written once and never erased. So, we also call WORM (Write Once Read
Many) medium.

3.3 Compact Disk- Rewritable (CD-RW): - CD-RW disks are also like CD- ROM disks but one can write data many
times on CD-RW disk. The CD-RW drive is used to write data on CD-RW disk. Once the data is written in CD-RW
disk, normal CD-Drive can read it.

3.4 Digital Versatile Disk Read Only Memory (DVD-ROM): - DVD is a new high capacity, universally applicable
optical disk. It is silvery platter, 4.75 inches in diameter and about 0.05 inches thick, with a hole in the center.
The DVD is comprised of two platters cemented together. Data is written and read by the DVD just like on a
CD.

4. Zip Disk: - It is a high capacity removable storage and data can be read and write like floppy disk. Different
storage capacity zip disks are available. The common capacities of zip disks are 100 MB, 250 MB, and 750 MB.
Zip disk is a circular platter coated with much higher quality magnetic material.
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Motherboard
Motherboard is the main core of the computer. It is also known as Printed Circuit Board (PCB) or circuit
board or System Board. It is the main circuit board in which many internal devices such as video card, sound
card, memory, CPU and other devices are attached. None of the other card or devices can work without
motherboard.
Motherboard is a rectangular fiber glass with a printed circuit board on the surface of which connects
one component to another.
Although the system board's physical structure has changed over time, its logical structure has
remained relatively constant. The system board of the personal computer consists of a microprocessor,
supporting circuits, ROM, the system's Primary Memory units, keyboard interface, timing circuit etc.

Input Devices: - Before a computer can do anything, programs ad data must be fed into the computer. The
devices that are used to feed data and instruction into computer system are called input devices. Input devices
convert the input data into electronic signals as required by the processing units. Different types of input
devices used in the computer system are as follows: -
1. Keyboard: -The keyboard is the most common primary input devices for the computer system. It is used to
give the text and numeric instruction to the computer system. It looks like the typewriter Keyboard consists of
the numbers of key and they can be categories in the following category.
 The alphanumeric Key: - These keys contain key for typing letters, numbers and special
characters like punctuation marks. These keys are arranged in the middle of the keyboard,
which is similar to the keys of a typewriter. This arrangement is called the QWERTY layout. It
consists of the letters and number and few additional keys with special functions such as TAB,
Caps Lock, Back space.
 Modifier Key: - These keys are not used alone. Each modifier key is used with another key. A
keyboard’s modifier keys are so named because they are used to modify the input of another
key. Modifier keys are ALT, SHIFT, and CTRL.
 Numeric Key: - These keys are located on the right side of the keyboard. It includes ten digits
(from 0 to 9) and mathematical operators (+,-,* and /). It looks like calculators.
 Function keys: - The function keys (F, F2 …..F12 ) are arranged on the top row of the keyboard.
They are used to give commands to computer. The jobs of the function key depend on the
program.
 Cursor Movement Key: - They are also known as Arrow key. These keys are used to move the
cursor on the screen. It includes the Arrow key, Home/End, Page Up/ Page Down keys.

 Special Purpose Key: - These key performs the specialized functions. They are as follows: Insert,
Delete, Print Screen, Scroll Lock, Pause, Start, Shortcut key.

 Escape Key: - This key is used to cancel the dialog box. Escape key is ESC.

3. Mouse: - Mouse is a small hand held devices used to position the cursor on the screen. A selection can
be made from a displayed menu by positioning the cursor over the required selection by the
movement of mouse and pressing on the mouse to indicate that this is a selection required. A mouse
consists of a plastic housing or casing with a flat bottom, a ball that projects through its bottom
surface, two or three buttons on the top of the casing, and a cable that connects the mouse to the
computer system. The functions of these buttons are determined by the application program. When
user moves the mouse on mouse pad, a mouse pointer simultaneously moves on the screen. As the

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ball moves, it forces to move two wheels in a way so the sensor in the circuit impulse signals to the
computer system. Different types of mouse are as follows :
a. Mechanical Mouse: - The mouse describe above are known as mechanical mouse.
b. Optical mouse: - The optical mouse is used on a special pad having a grid of alternating light and
dark lines. A LED on the bottom of the mouse directs a beam of light down onto the pad, from
which it is reflected and sensed by the directions of the bottom of the mouse. As the mouse is
moved, the reflective light beam is broken each time a dark line is crossed. The numbers of
pulses are generated, which is equals to the number of lines crossed are used to report mouse
movements to the computer.
4. Track Ball: - It is also a pointing device and contains a ball which can rotate in any direction. It is similar
to mouse device. The user spins the ball in different directions to move the cursor on the screen. It is
used on a laptop computer. It consists of ball at the top.
5. Scanner: - Scanner is such an input device that inputs images, printed text, documents etc., to the
computer. Scanner converts these input images, printed text into digital form as file. Scanner consists
of two components, the first one to illuminate the pages so that the optical image can be captured and
the second one to convert the optical image into digital format for storage by computer. The working
technology of a scanner is little bit similar to photocopy machine. An image is scanned with a light
source and the level of light reflected from the image is applied to a light sensitive receiver and it is
converted into an electronic signal stream that can be manipulated by the computer.
6. Bar-code Reader (BCR): - This device is used to read the bar codes printed on many items in
supermarket. The reader scans the bar-code printed on an item. The bar code is converted to a
number, which is the code for the item. This number is relayed to the computer and is used to look up
the price of the item as well as other information of the item. Bar-code readers are fast and accurate.
7. Optical Mark Reader (OMR): - This device can sense the presence of a pen or pencil mark. It is widely
used in scoring answer to multiple-choice questions. An OMR can be used to read the answers given,
by sensing the marks made. This data is relayed to the computer, which can then check the answer
given and grade the paper.
8. Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR): - MICR is widely used by banks to process large volumes of
cheques and deposit forms written every day. A special ink called magnetic ink is used to write
character on the cheques and deposit forms which are to be processed by an MICR. A cheque is usually
pre-printed with the banks identification number and the customer's account number, using a special
ink. When the cheque is tendered for payment, the amount is written on the cheque using magnetic
ink. The cheque can then be read by a magnetic ink character reader. The data read can be transmitted
directly to the CPU for immediate processing.
9. Optical Character Reader: - OCR is used for reading text from paper and translating the images into a
form that the computer can manipulate. An OCR reader scans to document using the photo electric
device to convert the shape into electric signal. These patterns then compared with the stored can
recognize. If a match is found, the character scanned is identified; otherwise the document may be
rejected by the reader.
10. Joystick: - Like mouse, a joystick is also a pointing device. It is used to move the cursor position on the
screen. A joystick is a stick which has spherical ball at its lower ends as well as upper end. The joystick
can be moved right or left, forwards or backward as of the requirement. Generally it is used to play
games in computer.
11. Microphone: - It is one of the input devices that are used to input sound in a computer. Microphone
just converts the real sound wave into an electrical audio signal. In order to do so, they have a small,
light material in them called the diaphragm, when the sound vibrations through the air reach the

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diaphragm, they cause the diaphragm to vibrate. This in turn somehow causes an electrical current in
the microphone to vary.
12. Touch Pad: - It is small touch sensitive pad used s an input device commonly in laptop computer. By
moving a finger along the pad, we can move the pointer on the display screen. The two button below
or above the pad servers as mouse standard buttons. We can also clock by tapping our finger on the
touchpad.
13. Digital Camera: - It is also a type of input device that captures pictures of any object and transfers
those pictures into the computer as digital images. Digital camera uses chip memory to store photos
and those photos can be transferred easily into the computer.
14. Graphic Digitizer: - It can enter drawing directly into the computer. It consists of flat plastic rectangle
table or pad and a pointing device like a ballpoint pen which is called as stylus or a puck. This device is
used in many engineering and design applications as well as in illustration work. When a pen is moved
on the surface of the tablet, the location of the device is transferred to a specific on-screen cursor
position. Paper is placed on the pad and the user can trace lines or draw pictures using the stylus.
15. Touch Screen: - A touch sensitive screen uses the human hand as the input medium .The effects similar
to that of a light pen on light sensitive screen, except that the pointing device is how a finger.
When a finger touches the screen, it blocks out the light emitted from that portion of the screen.
The screen can then determine which part of the screen is being touched and therefore which
selection is required.
Output Devices
Output devices are those devices, which display output produced by computer into human readable
language. There are generally two types of output devices: Hard copy and Softcopy output devices.
The outputs which can be seen and touched are known as hardcopy output. Output produced by the
printer and platter are known as the hardcopy output and the output which can be hear and see are known as
softcopy output. Output produced by the Monitor and speaker are known as softcopy output devices.
Different types of output devices are as follows:
1. Monitor: - The most common softcopy output device is monitor. It is a television like screen used to
display texts and graphics. Today different types of Monitor exits.
a. CRT Monitor:
Most of the monitors are made up of CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). So, it is also called CRT. CRT is a
glass tube with an electron gun in its neck and a fluorescent- coated surface opposite the
electron gun. The fluorescent- coated CRT’s screen display is made up of small picture elements
known as pixels. When activated, the electron gun emits a stream of electrons that strike the
fluorescent coating on the inside of the screen, causing an illuminated dot to be produced.
These brightening and darkening of pixels form a character or an image on the monitor. The
smaller the pixels the better the image clarity or resolution.
Normally, there are two types of monitors i.e. Monochrome monitor (Black and white monitor)
and Colour monitor.
An electronic circuit known as adapter or display card or video card controls the display
on the monitor. There are different types of adaptors. They are as follows:
i. MDA (Monochrome Display Adapter )
ii. CGA (Colour Graphics Adapter)
iii. HGA ( Hercules Graphics Adapter)
iv. MCGA ( Multicolour Graphics Adapter)
v. EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter)
vi. VGA (Video Graphics Adapter)

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vii. SVGA (Super Video Graphics Adapter)
viii. AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port)
b. LCD Monitor:
LCD displays utilize two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between
them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light
cannot pass through them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to pass
through or blocking the light.
A LCD monitor uses LCD technologies rather than the conventional CRT technologies
used by most desktop monitors. Until recently, LCD panels were used exclusively on notebook
computers and other portable devices. In 1997, however, several manufacturers began offering
full-size LCD monitors as alternatives to CRT monitors. The main advantage of LCD displays is
that they take up less desk space and are lighter. Currently, however, they are also much more
expensive.
Unlike CRT monitors LCD generate their own light through cathode ray incidence on fluorescent
materials, LCD displays have to rely on external lighting as their display is created through
manipulation of light passing through polarized liquid crystals. Most LCD screens used in
notebook computers are backlit, or transmissive, to make them easier to read.

c. LED Monitor:
LED and LCD monitors are based on the same basic technology for image display but differ in
the kind of backlighting used. While LCD monitors use cold cathode fluorescent lamps for
backlighting, LED monitors use light emitting diodes. This is the main difference between the
two display technologies. So LEDs are a type of LCD monitors. LEDs offer much more gradation
in intensity, giving a much truer colour quality. These types of monitors offer a better dynamic
contrast ratio too. So if you compare LED Vs LCD monitor for gaming and other intensive
graphic applications, LED monitors are surely better choices.

2. Speaker: - The speaker is an output device that converts audio data into sound wave. The sound card is
the actual device that converts audio data into audible sound and speaker delivers that sounds to the
user.
3. Printer: - The most common hardcopy output device is printer. When we require a permanent type of
output which we can see and transfer easily when a computer is at off state printer is used, which gives
the permanent type of output. There are different types of printer that are designed for different types
of applications. On the basis of technology used to print the output, printer can be grouped into two:
1. Impact Printer
2. Non- Impact Printer
3.1 Impact Printer: -Impact printer uses hammer like objects or pints to hit on the inked ribbon and
characters are formed on a paper. Impact printers physically strike the paper. The speed of printing of
an impact printer is slow than non-impact printer. Different types of impact printer are as follows:

3.1.1 Daisy Wheel Printer: - It is the letter quality printer. It is also called character printer or serial
printer because it prints one character at a time.
It is developed form of type writer. Each arm of typewriter’s face consists of engraved
character. In the same way the daisy wheel contains an embossed character on tip of each petal or
arm. These petals are arranged in wheel like form. The wheel like structure is called a daisy wheel.

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A motor spins the wheel at a rapid rate. When the desired character spins to the correct
position, a print hammer strikes petal, which strikes the ribbon, which in turn strikes the paper and
output is formed on the paper. An entire character is formed with a single impact. Its speed is normally
ranges from 10-50 characters.
Some of the disadvantages of Daisy Wheel Printer
a. They are slow and noisy.
b. To change the typeface style, the operator must halt the machine and change the print
wheel.
c. They can’t produce graphics.

3.1.2 Dot Matrix Printer: - Dot Matrix printer is the printer that produces characters made up of dots.
The patterns of dots are formed on the paper when the printer head strikes on the inked ribbon, which
in turn, strikes the printing surface (paper). The dot matrix printer head is made up of group of small
print wires that are arranged in a matrix pattern. The quality of this printer depends largely on the
number of dots in the matrix. Dot Matrix printer head consists of 9, 18, 24 pins. The speed of these
printers ranges from 50-400 cps (Character per Second).
Advantages of Dot Matrix printer over Daisy wheel printer
a. They are faster than daisy wheel printer.
b. They are low cost and produce less noise then daisy wheel printer.
c. They can prints many special characters, different size and shape of characters, images and
charts.

3.1.3 High Speed Impact Printer: - These printers are line printer because they print whole line of
characters practically at once. Different types of impact line printer are as follows:

a. Drum Printer
b. Band Printer
c. Chain Printer
Drum printers use a spinning horizontal cylinder that has a complete set of characters
embossed around its circumference for each character position across the page. While the drum is
rotated at a constant speed and the correct character reached at the correct position the hammer
strike the page, which strike the ink ribbon, which strikes the drum characters.
Chain printers place character sets on a revolving chain. In both cases, the type sets are rotated
horizontally, behind the paper, at a high rate of speed. When the desired character is in the proper
position, a hammer corresponding to that position is fired imprinting the character on the paper.
Band printers are just like chain printers. They contain fast rotating metal band where the
characters are embossed.

3.2 Non-impact Printer: - Printer that do not strike characters against ribbon or paper when they print
are non-impact printers. Non impact printer prints fully formed characters. So the qualities of non-
impact printers are higher than impact printer Different types of non-impact printer are as follows:

3.2.1 Laser Printer: - Laser Printer is an electro photographic printer that is based on the technology
used by photocopy machine. The laser printer emits a highly focused laser beam on a rotating drum,
which forms images on the drum. The drum is coated with a photosensitive plastic which is given a
negative electrical charge over its surface. When laser beam hits on the surface of the drum it creates
spots on the particular part of drum. The spots have a positive electrical charge. The drum is then
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rolled through a toner which is negatively charged ink powder and the positively charged spots are
picked up the toner. As the piece of electro statically charged paper is rolled against the drum, the
toner is transferred to the paper. Thus the image written on the drum by the laser is transferred to the
paper.
A laser printer can print 10-200 pages per minute. Printing quality is high and can print graphics.
Since the laser printers prints a page at a time they are also called page printer. They are available in
both colour and black and white.

3.2.2 Ink-jet Printer: -It uses ink jet technology to print characters on the paper. They produce
characters by spraying stream of ink drops onto the paper. Inkjet printers form fully formed characters.
They are quite and can form any kind of character. Inkjet printers are cheap and very popular now
days. Their speed ranges from 50-300 characters per second.

3.2.3 Thermal Printer: - Thermal printers use heat to produce an image on special paper. The print
mechanism is designed to heat the surface of chemically treated paper so that a dot is produced based
on the reaction of the chemical to the heat. No ribbon and ink is involved. The main disadvantage of
thermal printer is its paper.

Graph Plotter: - Plotter is a device that draws pictures on paper based on commands from a computer.
Plotters are output devices. They are used to produce precise and good quality graphics and drawing under
computer’s control. Plotters are basically of two types those that use pens and those that do not. Drum and
Flatbed plotter both use pens but electrostatic plotters do not.
In drum plotter, the paper is placed on the surface of a drum. The drum revolves and the plotter pens
are horizontally positioned over the target area. When the paper has rotated to the correct point, the pens are
dropped to the surface and moved left and right under program control across the paper as the drum
revolved.
Flatbed plotters are designed so that the paper is placed flat and one or more pens move horizontally
and vertically across the paper.
Electrostatic plotter use electrostatic charges to create images out of very small dots on specially
treated paper. Electrostatic plotters are faster and can produce images of very high resolution.

Ports: - A port is an interface on a computer to which peripheral devices are connected. All computer
peripherals are connected to the computer system through the port. A port is a connection point that allows
us to connect peripheral device like monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer etc. Data flow in and out through these
ports. Ports are of two types parallel and serial.
A parallel port allows transferring of all the bits of a word simultaneously. In parallel interface, there
are multiple lines to connect the peripheral to the port. A parallel interface is used to transfer data at faster
rate for high speed peripherals such as disk and tape.
A serial port allows serial data transfer. In serial data transfer, one bit of data is transferred at a time.
In serial interface, only one line or a pair of lines is used to transmit data. It is used for slow speed peripherals.
The disadvantage of a serial or parallel port is that only one device can be connected to a port.

USB (Universal Serial Bus): - It is a high speed serial bus. Its data transfer rate is higher than that of a serial
port. It allows interfacing several devices to a single port in a daisy chain.
It provides power line along with data lines. USB cable contains 4 wires two out of four wires in the USB cable
are used to supply electrical power to devices and two are reserved for send data and commands. It can

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operate in two modes i.e. Low speed mode and medium speed mode. IN low speed mode data transfer rate is
1.5 Mbps and at medium speed mode data transfer mode is 12 Mbps.

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