Indoor airflow behavior and thermal

comfort in a courtyard house in warm

humid tropics

ABSTRACT
This paper assesses the effects of indoor airflow behavior modifying the indoor air temperature
on thermal comfort conditions in a residential tropical courtyard building where courtyard
maintains direct contacts with outdoor environment through openings found in the envelope.
Results taken from a field investigation and a computer simulation reveal that given the ambient
climatic conditions particular indoor airflow behaviors are sufficient to lower the indoor air
temperatures below the ambient level in the courtyard as well as in surrounding internal spaces.
Thus, thermal comfort condition not correlated to the number of openings but to the distribution
pattern and volumetric rate of indoor airflow in enhancing heat exchange between wall surfaces
and air. The optimum range of ambient wind direction, which required for optimum distribution
and volumetric flow of indoor air, was found within a range of 30-60 degrees to the longitudinal
axis of the courtyard and building.

INDEX TERMS
Indoor Airflow Pattern, Thermal Comfort, Passive Cooling, Tropical Courtyard

INTRODUCTION
In warm humid climates, where the combined effect of high levels of ambient air temperature
and relative humidity results in thermal discomfort, lowering of indoor air temperature through
architectural design is a simple energy conserving approach in promoting indoor thermal
comfort. In high-mass naturally ventilated buildings, the effect of heat exchange between the
mass and air is sufficient in order to lower the indoor air temperature than the ambient level.
However, the efficiency of such modifications can be attributed to the indoor airflow distribution
pattern and corresponding volume of air (airflow rates), which can affect the heat exchange
between the mass and air.
Buildings with courtyards have better ventilation potential through the internal spaces. With the
courtyard, the functional depth of the plan can be kept to a minimum for better ventilation
potential than a deep plan solid building form of the same area. When the courtyard is
surrounded by built mass and maintaining direct contacts with the outdoor environment through
openings found in the external envelope, the space above the courtyard can act as an opening that
discharges air into the sky while openings in the envelope act as inlets.
Assessments of airflow behaviors in buildings with isolated courtyards (isolated from outdoor
environment except from its sky roof opening) have been carried out using wind tunnel
experiments and computer simulations (Walker et al. 1993, Shao et al. 1993, Alvarez et al.
1998 and Bensalem et al. 1989). Thermal behaviors in hot dry courtyard buildings have been
investigated using field experiments (Meir, 2000). However, actual airflow behaviors and
consequent effect on indoor air temperature in open tropical courtyard buildings where the
courtyard maintains direct contacts with outdoor environment through various openings found in
the envelope, are less understood but aimed at addressing in this paper.
In a recent field investigation, authors monitored a high-mass (brick) single storey tropical
courtyard building found in Colombo, Sri Lanka (Figure1) for thermal behaviors. Later, indoor
air movement was simulated using CFD. The rectangular 3D building model (Figure 2 and 3)
was allowed to ventilate through openings found in the building envelope and located with the
courtyard on the longitudinal and cross axis. It was found that the courtyard functions as a wind
shadow while other openings in the external envelope function as suction zones inducing airflow
and thus optimizing the exposure of high- mass internal walls with incoming air. The air entering
from the envelope openings is seen traveling through the indoor spaces and finally discharges
into the sky through the courtyard – an “Up wind air funnel”.
The present study is aimed at assessing indoor thermal comfort conditions in this tropical
courtyard building investigated earlier. Thermal comfort is assessed using a new PMV* which
has been proposed for warm humid climates. In warm humid tropics, as air temperatures and
humidity levels are high, higher mean velocities are essential for promotion of thermal comfort.
However the model predicting the percentage of people dissatisfied by Fanger et al. (1989) is
applicable for a limited range of air temperatures and air velocities, within 20 to 26°C and 0.05
to 0.5m/s respectively. Thus a new index PMV* (Kindangen, 1997), which has been proposed
for hot and humid environment, replacing the operating temperature (To) of Fanger’s comfort
equation with Standard Effective Temperature (SET*) is used in the assessment of thermal
comfort.

METHODS
The 230m2 study building accommodates a central rectangular courtyard measuring 3.7m x
8.1m.The courtyard is bounded by a living area to the west and bedrooms to the east. It is
visually open to the outdoor environment through envelope openings found at the ends of two
axes passages, which are perpendicular to each other (Figure 1). The high-mass brick building
having wide roof eaves on perimeter ensure adequate shading to the envelope openings
throughout the day. Walls and roofs are not installed with insulation.

Figure. 1 The study building

Figure. 2 Simulated building model

Thermal behavior of the study building was monitored for ten days during the April 12 to
May 3, 2001 with five different boundary conditions with regard to composition between the
courtyard and other major openings found in the envelope (Table 1). During daytime (9.00h to
18.00h), boundary conditions of the building were changed through closing and opening the
major airflow access points (Op1, 2, 3 and 4). During nighttime (18.00h to 9.00h) equal
boundary conditions were maintained by keeping the opening 2 and courtyard’s top open while
other envelope openings (op1, 3 and 4) were remaining closed. Indoor air temperatures, relative
humidity, wall surface temperatures and air velocities at each opening were measured at 5-
minute intervals and later averaged for hourly values. Further, flow analysis software “α - Flow”,
and the standard k-ε turbulence model with isothermal flow and boundary conditions were
implemented to observe air movement and ventilation performance of each envelope opening
composition performed in the field investigation (Table 1). Ventilation from stack effect was
ignored, as its effect is small compared to daytime ambient wind. Simulations were carried out
for five models of opening compositions investigated during field investigation.
The geometry was realistically modeled for the simulation (Figure 2) utilizing the dimensions of
the building investigated on the site.
For each model, a three-dimensional orthogonal mesh was realized with Cartesian coordinates.
The total grid is composed of 921,100 (119x129x60) non-uniform cells with a density of more
fine grids at the envelope openings, courtyard void and wall boundaries. The geometry of the
grid is shown in Figure 2. Each air movement was simulated with wind at 45°to the building
facade. Power law gave vertical wind profile. The terrain roughness (α) was derived from on site
wind velocity measurements of a mean velocity of 1.5 and 1.8m/s at the height of 5m and 10m
respectively. The value of α is shown as equal to 0.25, an urban condition.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The ambient weather pattern was observed as uniform throughout the study period and even
several days prior. The maximum and minimum ambient temperatures of 32.8°C and 25.5°C
were recorded at 13-15.00h and 4-7.00h respectively. Daytime (9.00h to 18.00h) and nighttime
(18.00h to 9.00h) mean temperatures were 29.6°C and 24.5°C. Daytime and nighttime humidity
levels remained around 65 and 96%. Mean daytime wind velocities were recorded between 1 and
1.2m/s from SW with almost still conditions (or 0.2m/s) at night.

Table 1. Indoor thermal modification and corresponding airflow rates

Figure 3. Three Dimensional form of the building model

Modification of indoor air temperature

A positive ΔT value (Table 1) indicates a reduction of average air temperature below the average
ambient level while a negative value represents an overheated condition. Each case demonstrates
different air temperature modification levels in the courtyard and interior zones. However, the
difference is not seen as correlated to the ambient weather conditions, which remained uniform
during the study, but to the opening composition of the building (Table 1).

Volumetric airflow rates – measured and calculated

The volumetric airflow rates are proportionate to the area of openings. It is also found that
measured airflow rates are closely agreeing with calculated flow rates taken from CFD analysis
for all boundary conditions. Maximum reductions of courtyard and internal air temperatures are
seen with Cases B and D where the corresponding airflow rates are found within a range of 1.5
to 2.0 Air changes per hour.

Airflow patterns
Most of the envelope openings demonstrated a positive pressure zone while sky opening of the
courtyard showed a negative pressure (suction) zone. This pressure difference is seen as the
driving force in inducing airflow and thus optimizing the exposure of high-mass walls to
incoming air. The air entering from the envelope is seen traveling through the indoor spaces
(adjoining axis and courtyard) before getting discharged into the sky through the courtyard.
Three basic airflow patterns, “upwind funnel”, “horizontal plus upwind” and “top vortex” flows
are identified for all five boundary conditions as shown in Figure 4. The top vortex flow is
visible only when all envelope openings, except the courtyard opening, are closed (Case A in
Table 1 and Figure 4C). Indoor airflow distribution with top vortex flow is seen as minimal
(Figure 5C). The maximum indoor airflow distribution is seen in cases B and D with upwind
funnel flow where the openings 1 and 2 on the longitudinal axis act as inlets (Figure 5A).

Figure. 4 Different 3D airflow patterns, A. Courtyard and Longitudinal axis (Case B and D) B.
Courtyard and both axes (Case E and similar in Case C) C. Sky opening of the courtyard (Case
A)

Figure. 5 Airflow behaviors at human body height (1.1m, all velocities in m/s) A. Courtyard and
longitudinal axis (Case B and D) B. Courtyard and both axes (Case E) C. Sky opening of the
courtyard (Case A)

Wall surface temperature

A significant correlation between measured internal surfaces and indoor temperatures was
observed. During the early hours of daytime, indoor surface temperature remains below the level
of indoor and ambient air but gradually increases and equals the indoor air temperature by
evening (at 16.00h). During the early half of the night, the wall temperature remains higher than
the indoor air but gradually decreases and reaches a minimum by early morning. The optimum
heat transfer from air to mass in daytime is seen in cases B and D, when the maximum
distribution of air through the indoor spaces has enhanced the grater internal wall surface
exposure. A more detailed investigation of the behavior of wall surface temperature has been
presented in Rajapaksha et al. (2002).
Thermal comfort conditions
Activity levels are taken as 1.1met (55Wm2), sedentary activity, with tropical clothing of 0.4clo.
Since the PMV* is calculated for internal areas directly close to the courtyard (Zone e, a and
courtyard zone, refer to Figure 5.), mean radiant temperature of wall surfaces and calculated
indoor air velocity at human body height of these internal spaces were considered as parameters
of PMV*. Air velocities were taken from CFD calculation.

Figure 6. Daytime and Nighttime comfort analyses for all cases (PMV* and PPD%)

Since the PMV* values between the internal zones show unnoticeable difference, PMV* values
were averaged for analysis of cases. Differences in comfort levels from “warm unpleasant” to
“neutral comfortable” were observed (Figure 6). Case A, with a PMV* vote of 2.2 and 1.5 in day
and night was found as having the worst thermal conditions with warm unpleasant and slightly
warm unacceptable indoor environments throughout the day. However these conditions were
changed in other cases. The rest of the cases were found within a range of comfortable (0) to
slightly warm but acceptable (1) comfort levels. Among them the best thermal environment
throughout the day was evident in Cases B and D.

Table 2. Ambient wind direction and corresponding ACH

Figure 7. Simulated wind incidence angles

By varying the ambient wind direction, building model was simulated in order to find out the
optimum wind direction, which could results in an indoor airflow rate within a range of 1.5- 2.0
ACH. From the field investigation it was found that maximum reduction of indoor air
temperature is seen with this airflow rate. Table 2 (previous page) gives the results of airflow
patterns and corresponding airflow rates. Simulation results provide evident that external wind
incidence within 30-60 degrees from the longitudinal building axis could results the required
range of indoor airflow rate. In addition, same wind directions promote openings 1 and 2 as
inlets for airflow due to wind. Also variations in wind velocity also have an impact on airflow
rate. For 45 and 60 angles 25% increase in wind velocity results a 20% increase of ACH.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Results from the study reveals a correlation between thermal comfort conditions and indoor
airflow behaviors in a tropical courtyard building with adequate shading on its envelope
openings. Indoor airflow behavior in terms of airflow patterns and airflow rates depends greatly
on the composition between envelope openings and the courtyard than the number of envelope
openings. Also, optimum modification (lowering) of courtyard and indoor air temperature and
thus thermal comfort condition is seen not correlated to the number of openings but the
distribution pattern and volumetric rate of indoor airflow in enhancing heat exchange between
wall surfaces and indoor air. These conclusions have implications on climate design. Thus, the
use of courtyards for passive cooling in tropical climates is possible provided optimum
distribution and volumetric flow rate of indoor air are achieved through building design. Further
research for other climatic extremes would be useful.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their thanks to Tsutomu Aoyagi of Fujitsu Corp., Japan and Ichiro
Takahashi of Computational center, Nagoya University.

REFERENCES