Chapter 3

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CHAPTER 3

Dimensional Analysis
And Similitude
3. Dimensional Analysis and
Similitude
3.1. Dimensional analysis and homogeneity
3.2. Similitude
3.2. Hydraulic models
Introduction
• Hydraulics/Fluid mechanics is an experimental science & is also a complex subject
• It is usually impossible to determine all the essential facts for a given fluid flow by
pure theory, &hence, dependence must often be placed up on experimental
investigations.
• The number of tests to be made can be greatly reduced by the systematic use of
Dimensional Analysis and the laws of similitude or similarity
Hydraulic structures or machines can be designed using:
i. Pure theory,
ii. Empirical methods,
iii. Semi-empirical methods: (mathematical formulations based on
theoretical concepts supported by suitably designed experiments)
iv. Physical models (Dimensional Analysis),
v. Mathematical models.
• Note that, Mathematical modelling techniques have progressed rapidly due to
the advent of high speed computers ,enabling the equation of motion coupled
with semi-empirical relationships to be solved for complex flow situations.
• such as pipe network analysis, pressure transients in pipe lines, unsteady flows in
rivers and estuaries, e.t.c
• There are many cases particularly where localized flow patterns can not be
mathematically modelled ,when physical models (Dimensional analysis) are still
needed
• There fore, without the technique of dimensional analysis in experimental and
computational progress in fluid mechanics would have been considerably
retarded
Dimensional analysis
• Dimensional Analysis is a mathematical technique, which makes use of the study of
dimension as an aid to the solution of several engineering problems.
• Each physical phenomenon can be Expressed by an equation giving relationship between
different quantities, such quantities are dimensional and non dimensional
• Dimensional analysis helps in determining a systematic arrangement of the variables in
the physical relationship, combining dimensional variables to form non-dimensional
parameters
• It is based on the principle of dimensional homogeneity and uses the dimensions of
relevant variables affecting the phenomenon
• Dimensional analysis has become an important tool for analyzing fluid flow problems
• It is especially useful in representing experimental results in a concise form
• Dimensional analysis also forms the basis for the design and operation of physical scale
models, which are used to predict the behavior of their full –sized counter parts called
‘prototypes’.
• Such models, which are generally geometrically similar to the prototype, are used in the
design of aircraft, ships, submarines, pumps, turbines, harbors, breakwaters, river and
estuary engineering works, spillways, etc.

Working principles of dimensional analysis


i. First predicts the physical parameters that will influence the flow,
ii. Then grouping the parameters in dimensionless groups,

Application of dimensional analysis:


To test the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid motion
Developing equations –reducing number of variables in an experiment.
Producing dimensionless parameters – establish the principle of model design.
Converting one system of units into another
To determine the dimension and unit of a physical quantity in an equation.
To establish principles for hydraulics similitude for model study.
Fundamental Dimensions
• A dimension is a measure of physical quantity (without numerical values), while a
unit is a way to assign a number to that dimension.
• The seven fundamental dimensions are :- mass (M), length (L), time (T),
temperature (T) electric current (I), amount of light (P) and amount of matter (N)
• All non fundamental/derived dimensions (Eg. Velocity, area, acceleration) can be
formed by some combination of the seven primary dimensions
• In fluid mechanics the basic dimensions , mass (M), length (L)and time (T) are
sufficient
• The expression for derived quantities in terms of the fundamental quantities is
called dimension of the quantity
Example: Velocity = distance /time (= LT-1)
Discharge = Volume/ time ( = L3T-1)
Force = mass *acceleration (= (M) (LT-2)
System for fundamental dimensions
• A quantity may be expressed dimensionally in two systems
1.M-L-T system (In this system Force is derived).
2.F-L-T system (In this system Mass is derived).
• These two systems are related by Newton’s 2nd Law of motion.
F=ma
F=MLT-2
M=FL-1T2
• Some engineers prefer to use force instead of mass a a fundamental quantity
because the force is easy to measure.
Dimensions of physical quantities used in fluid mechanics and heat transfer
Dimensions of physical quantities used in fluid mechanics and heat transfer
Conti….
Example:
determine the dimensions of the following quantities
(i)Discharge (ii)Kinematic viscosity (iii)Force (iv)Specific weight
Dimensional Homogeneity
• The working principle of dimensional analysis is dimensional homogeneity
• All rational equations that relate physical quantities must be dimensionally
homogeneous.
• I.e., all terms in both sides of an equation must have the same dimensions.
• As all the terms in dimensionally homogeneous equation have the same dimensions;
the ratio of these dimensions becomes dimensionless ratios.
• Some times non-homogeneous equations are said used in fluid mechanics, like
Manning’s equation, Chazy's equation.
• Such equations have resulted from fitting equation to observed data.
Methods of dimensional analysis
• The following two methods of dimensional analysis are generally used.
i. Rayleigh Method
ii. Buckingham p-Method
i. Rayleigh Method
• This method of dimensional analysis was originally proposed by Lord Rayleigh in
1899.
• He used this method for determining the effect of temperature on gases.
• Used to find expression of a variable which operates up on maximum of 3 to 4
variables
• In this method, functional relationship of variables is expressed in the form of an
exponential equation.
• The equation must be dimensionally homogeneous.
• For example if Y is some function of independent variables X1,X2,X3… etc., then
functional relationship may be written as
Y = f [ X1,X2,X3…]
• In this equation, Y is dependent variable and X1,X2,X3 are independent variables.
• Dependent variable is one about which information is required
• Independent variables are those which govern the variation of dependent variables.
Rayleigh’s method is based on the following steps
1.Write the functional relationship of the given data. Y = f [ X1,X2,X3…]
2.Write equation in the exponential form with exponents a, b, c…
3.Put the dimensions of variables involved using any one system (MLT, or FLT).
4.Apply dimensional homogeneity and evaluate the values of exponents a, b, c…,d.
5.Substitute the values of exponents a, b, c… in the equation form in step number 2.
6.Simplify the equation for the required physical quantity.
Example
Find an expression for the drag force on smooth sphere of diameter D, moving with a
uniform velocity V in a fluid density ρ and dynamic viscosity µ.
Solution. The force drag F is a function of Diameter (D), Velocity (V),
Fluid density (ρ), and Dynamic viscosity (µ).
Step1 write the functional relationship
F = f (D, V, ρ, µ) or F = C(D, V, ρ, µ)
Step2 write the equation in exponential form
F = C (Da . Vb . ρc . µd ) where, C is a non-dimensional constant
Step3. Put the dimensions of variables in MLT, or FLT systems
Using M-L-T system the corresponding equation for dimensions is:
–2 a –1 b –3 c –1 –1 d
[ MLT ]= [CL ]. [LT ] . [ML ] . [ML T ]
Step4. Apply dimensional homogeneity and evaluate the values of Exponents
• For M: 1=c+d …….(i) ∴ c=1–d
• For L: 1 = a + b – 3c – d ……(ii)
• For T: –2 = – b – d ...….(iii) ∴ b=2–d
Putting these values in (ii), we get:
a = 1 – b + 3c + d = 1 – 2 + d + 3 (1 – d) + d
a= 1 – 2 + d + 3 – 3d + d
a= 2 – d
Step5. substitute the values of exponents a, b, c… in the equation form in step 2.

F = C[D2 – d . V2 – d . ρ1 – d . µd ]

F = C[D2 V2 ρ(D– d . V– d . ρ– d . µd )] =

= = Φ (1/Re)
ii. Buckingham’s Pi-theorem
• It has been observed that the Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis becomes
bulky when more variables are involved. In order to overcome this, Buckingham’s
method may be used.
• It states that ” if there are n variables in a dimensionally homogeneous equation and if
these variables contain m fundamental dimensions such as ( M-L-T). They may be
grouped into (n minus m) non dimensional independent pi-terms.”
• The Buckingham - pi method is widely used in the dimensional analysis of a problem
and expresses the resulting equation in terms of dimensionless groups ( terms).

Rules:
1. If a phenomenon involves n variables and these variables are described by m
fundamental dimensions, they will produce n - m groups f1 (1,2,3... n-m)=constant;
2. Each  - group should be a function of maximum of m+1 variable
3. m repeating variables are selected from amongst the n - variables so that in
combination contain m fundamental dimensions
Selection of repeating variables
i. from the describing the geometry of flow (Diameter, length)
ii. from the representing fluid properties (Density, viscosity, surface tension, elasticity,
vapor pressure)
iii. from the fluid motion (Velocity, acceleration, discharge, pressure, force, power)
It is conventional to select
length dimension for 1st group
Density dimension for 2nd group
Velocity dimension for 3rd group
4. The governing quantities must not combine among themselves to form dimensionless
groups.
And each -term is dimensionless, the final function must be dimensionless, and
therefore dimensionally homogeneous.
f (л1, л2, л3, …, лn-m) = M0 L0 T0
Example
Determine pi groups using the Buckingham's pi method for drag force in the previous
example.
Solution

General repeating variables (for fluid mechanics)


Similitude
• To find solutions to numerous complicated problems in hydraulic engineering and fluid
mechanics model studies are usually conducted
• In order that results obtained in the model studies represent the behavior of
prototype, the following three similarities must be ensured between the model and
prototype
1. Geometric similarity
2. Kinematic similarity
3. Dynamic similarity
1. Geometric similarity
• It is the similarity of the shape (scale factor).
• It is obtained when the solid boundaries that control the flow of fluid are geometrically
similar.
• The model is a geometric reduction of the prototype and is accomplished by
maintaining a fixed ratio of all homologous lengths between the model and prototype.
• These physical quantities are length, area, diameter, volume, etc.
2. Kinematic similarity
• It is the similarity flow characteristics in fluid motion such as, time, velocity, acceleration,
and discharge.
• the streamline pattern in the model must be the same as in its prototype.
• The ratios of kinematic quantities representing the flow characteristics must be the same at
all corresponding points.
.

3. Dynamic similarity
• It is the Similarity of forces involved in fluid motion.
• Dynamic Similarity is attained if the ratio of homologous forces in the model and
prototype are kept constant.

• The conditions required for complete similarity are developed form the
Newton 2nd law of motion

• The forces acting may be any one or a combination of several of the following:
(viscous, pressure, gravity, elasticity, surface tension, inertia forces e.t.c).

• Note: newton's law: Inertia force (Fi) is equal and opposite to the resultant forces
Forces influencing hydraulic phenomenon
• In practice, a mode is designed to study the effects of only a few dominant forces.
• Dynamic similarity requires that the ratios of these forces be kept the same between
the model and prototype
• The forces which may affect/ influence the flow characteristics of a problem are:

2
• Mathematically, Thus forces can be summarized as follows:
• In problems of(5 fluid flow, the inertia force will always exist and hence it is customary
to find out the force ratios with respect to the inertia forces, thus:
1. Inertia- to- viscous forces ratio

2. Inertia-to gravity forces ratio

3. Inertia to elastic forces ratio


 Fi  F 
    i 
 Fe m  Fe  p
4. Inertia- to surface tension forces ratio
 Fi  F 
    i 
 Fs m  Fs  p

5. Inertia -to pressure forces ratio


 Fi   
    Fi 
F   
 p m  Fp  p
• When two systems are geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar, they are completely
similar or complete similitude exists b/n the two systems.
• The above six equations are dimensionless groups.
• The significance of the dimensionless ratios is discussed below:
1. Reynolds Number: (phenomenon governed by viscous force)
2. Froude Number: (phenomenon governed by gravity force)
3. weber Number: (phenomenon governed by surface tension)
4. Mach Number: (phenomenon governed by elastic forces)
5. Euler Number: (phenomenon governed by pressure forces.)
1.Reynolds Number(Re)
• A fluid in motion always involves inertia forces
• If the inertial forces and viscous forces can be considered to be the only forces that govern the
motion, the ratio of these forces in a model and its prototype is defined by the Reynolds number. We
can consider the following examples:
 pipe flow
 Airplane traveling at speed below that at which compressibility of the air is appreciable
 A submarine submerged far enough so as not to produce waves on the surfaces.
• i.e. (for pipe flow)

• There fore, NOTE: D is taken as L for pipe flow.

2. Froude number(Fr)
 Inertial forces and gravity forces are considered to be the only dominant forces in
the fluid motion,
 The ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces acting on the homologous elements of
the fluid in the model and prototype are :

 For dynamically similitude model and prototype:


N.B
For open channel, L is the depth of the channel.
For a ship, L is taken as the length at water line.

 This is used for the wave action setup by a ship, the flow of water in open channels, the
forces of a stream on a bridge pier, the flow of jet from an orifice, and so on.
3. Weber number (We)
 The surface tension is a measure of energy level on the surface of a liquid body
 The ratio of inertia forces to Surface tension forces is given by
Fi V 2 L2 V2
 
Fs L 
L

 The square root of this dimensionless ratio is known as WEBER NUMBE (We):
V

L

 It is applied at the leading edge of a very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface. Like:

 Capillary movement of water in solids.


 Flow of liquid at a very small depth over a surface.
 Flow over weir at very small heads.
 Spray of liquid from the exit of discharging tube resulting in the formation of drops of liquids.
4. MACH NUMBER (Ma)
 The Mach number can be regarded as the ratio of inertia and elastic forces
 The Mach number is therefore, measures of the effects of compressibility.
 The Ratio of Inertia forces& Elastic forces in prototype and model is:
Fi L2V 2 V 2
 2

Fe EL E

 The square root of this dimensionless number is known as MACH NUMBER (M). Thus:
V V
M  
E

C , C is the sonic velocity (or celerity) in the given medium.
5. EULER NUMBER (Eu)
 The ratio of Inertia forces to pressure forces for both prototype and model is given by:
Fi V 2 L2 V 2
 
Fp PL2 P

 The square root of this dimensionless number is known as EULER NUMBER (Eu). Thus:
V V V
Eu   
2P
2 g  P 
P
   
Types of Models
 In general hydraulic models can be classified under two broad categories
i. Undistorted models
ii. Distorted models
i. Undistorted Models:
- If the scale ratio for the linear dimensions of the model and prototype is same then the
model is said to be undistorted model
- i. e., the scale ratios for the corresponding linear dimension are the same.
ii. Distorted models:
- A distorted model is said to be a distorted model only when it is not geometrically similar to
prototype.
- The distortion may be geometrical, or material or hydraulic quantities or a combination of
these.
If the scale ratio for the linear dimensions of the model and prototype is same, then the
model is said to be undistorted model. A distorted model is said to be a distorted model only
when it is not geometrically similar to prototype. Advantages of distorted models.
• In geometrical distortion, the distortion can be either of dimension or that of
configuration.
• When different scale ratios are adopted for the longitudinal, transverse, & vertical
dimensions; then it is known as distortion of dimensions.
• (It is adopted in river models where a different slope ratio for depth is adopted)
• The distortion of configuration results when the general configuration of the model
doesn’t have resemblance with its prototype.
• (If a river model has different bed slope ratio, this is distortion of configuration).
• The material distortion is occurred when the physical properties of the material used
in the model and prototype are different
• The distortion of hydraulic quantities is occurred for certain uncontrollable hydraulic
quantities such as time, discharge etc
• Distorted models are required to be prepared for rivers, dams across very wide rivers,
harbors, and estuaries etc. for which the horizontal dimensions are large in
proportion to the vertical ones.
 The following are some of the reasons for adopting distorted models:
a)to maintain accuracy in vertical measurements;
b)to maintain turbulent flow;
c)to obtain suitable bed material & its adequate movement;
d)to obtain suitable roughness condition;
e)to accommodate the available facilities such as space, money, water supply &
time.
The end
Thank you!

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