BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS

Malolos, Bulacan

- AR 312-311D – CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY 3 -

Prepared by:

ARCH. DANILO FAUSTINO II

First Semester
S.Y. 2019-2020

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DEFINITION
The CONSTRUCTION WORKING DRAWINGS, or simply construction
plans, is a method is a of presenting, by means of lines, marks, and symbols, buildings or
part of buildings on a two dimensional surface. They show the physical details needed to
build the project. These drawings define the form, location, arrangement and dimension
of the work. The working drawings are not pictures or sketches, but accurately drawn
plans and elevations, usually at a small scale, and frequently with sheets of details at a
larger scale. They are graphical presentations on paper that enable the reader to visualize
and understand how the building would be constructed and how it functions. They
contain details and information to enable one to know the exact picture of all the
elements, measurements, and how the various structural parts are to be put together to
form the whole structure.

The purpose of this is to convey information about the structure in a clear and
concise manner. Therefore, it must be drawn with accuracy and legibly. It must be
understood by anyone who sees it.

There are two types of Working Drawings; the Contract Drawings and the Shop
Drawings. CONTRACT DRAWINGS are made by the Architect/Designer which spell
out the physical conditions the Contractor must provide when he builds the project.
While SHOP DRAWINGS are prepared by the Contractor or subcontractors to guide
their own work.

HISTORY
The first presentation of architectural drawing was through diagrams. The first
diagram was made of pointed stick done on soft ground. When man learned to draw a
right angle and measure through scale, his diagrams included marks and symbols.
Egyptians used limestone and papyrus in drawings. In Assyria and Babylon,
plans were drawn on clay tablets, Ancient Greece used whitened or waxed wood while
Romans used marble. During the Early Christian era, building of abyss produced master
masons who gradually developed a knowledge of architectural drawing.
Architectural drawing was born during the Italian Renaissance. It was then that
scientific principles of perspective and descriptive geometry were developed. Also,
paper and printing were also invented. Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci were
architects as well as architectural drafters.
Due to technological advancements, Construction Drawings can be produced
easily and fast through the use of computers.

SET OF WORKING DRAWINGS

ARCHITECTURAL DOCUMENTS
A1 – Perspective, Location or Vicinity Map, Site Development Plan (Scale 1:200)
(see Figure No. 1 for A1)
A2 - Floor Plans
A3 – 4 Elevations and 2 Sections
A4 - Schedule of Doors and Windows
A5 - Reflected Ceiling Plans and Details
A6 - Blow-up Plans and Details (Kitchen, Stair. Toilet)
A7 - Architectural Details

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 STRUCTURAL DOCUMENTS
S1 - Foundation plan and details (footings, columns, walls)
S2 - Framing Plans and details (Girders, Beams. Slab, Stair)
S3 – Roof Framing Plan (Truss and Rafter)

PLUMBING/SANITARY DOCUMENTS
P1 - Plumbing Layout and Legend
P2 - Isometric Septic Tank and Catch Basin Detail

ELECTRICAL DOCUMENTS
E1 - Electrical Layout and Legend
E2 - Electrical Notes and others

DRAWING TOOLS
Drawings are usually made on sheets of paper like tracing paper. The usual paper
size is 20” x 30”. These are fastened on the drawing boards. The drawings are done with
the aid of a wide variety of tools. Some basic tools include T-square, triangles, scale,
eraser, pencils, and tape. These tools should be properly used in order to produce good
drawings. Purchase tools of good quality.

ARCHITECTURAL TECHNIQUES
There are two parts of architectural drawings: the drawings itself and the notes,
which include all pertinent data, such as titles, dimensions, titles, materials and so forth.
Notes should be properly lettered, because good drawings deserve good lettering.

Architectural draftsmen are artists as well. They should be able to present their
drawings with grace. Therefore, they have to develop their craft. Here are some tips :
1. Clean all tools and working surface with clean cloth. Clean your hand, also.
2. All necessary drafting tools must be within easy reach,
3. Backing sheet provides smoother working space,
4. Fasten the paper correctly.
5. Drawing requires certain amount of planning. Therefore, organize
considering other information such as dimension, title, etc.
6. Use drafting tools properly.
7. Dust off the erasure crumbs,
8. In using soft pencil, master slight twisting to keep the point sharp and avoid
pencil that will smudge the paper.
9. Don’t leave your work exposed on the drawing board.
10. A better end result will be obtained if the mind and hand are not cramped by
trying to stop at a given point.

Poor good best

11. Observe the meaning of line or the alphabet of line.

THE ALPHABET OF LINES

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) had set standards known
as the “Alphabet of Lines.” These standards give meaning to the lines in the drawing.

CHARACTER – refers to the type of line like straight line or long and short dashes.

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DENSITY- darkness of lines. It is necessary so lines will not disappear or fade when
copies are made.
CONSISTENT- means the quality of work must be equal throughout the drawing.
WEIGHT – refers to the thickness of line. These are:
Thin lines – hidden, center, section, dimension, leaders, long break, construction
lines
Wide Lines – visible lines, short break lines
Very Wide Lines – border lines and cutting plane lines

1. HIDDEN LINE – formerly called the invisible or dotted line. It is composed

of short dashes about 3-4mm long with gaps between dashes about 1-2mm
wide. It is used to represent the hidden edges of the object.

2. CENTER LINE – considered the lightest or finest line in a drawing. It

represents the axis or center of the object. It consists of long and short dash
alternately drawn. The gaps between dashes are about 1-2mm.

3. SECTION LINES – also called cross-hatching drawn at 45 angle. They

represent surfaces exposed by cut through.

4. DIMENSION LINE – used to indicate the measurement of an object. It is

consist three parts; arrowhead, fine line and number or measurement. The
fine line has the same thickness or weight as the projection line. The
arrowheads are short heavy strokes called flares.

5. PROJECTION LINE or EXTENSION LINE– slightly heavier than the

center line. It is composed of long equal dashes about 7mm to 4cm with gaps
of about 1-2mm. It is used to project one view to another and to determine the
limit of dimension.

6. LEADER LINE – fine broken line with an arrowhead at one end. The
broken line consists of a short horizontal line and an inclined line drawn at
any convenient angle. It is used for indicating the measurement and name of a
part.

7. LONG BREAK (LIMITING LINE) – limiting line is used for breaking the
length of an elongated object so that it can be shown without changing the size
of its view. Long Break Lines are long, thin, ruled lines that are joined by
freehand “zigzags”

8. PHANTOM LINES – used to indicate one or more possible position that

may be taken by the object. It is composed of long and very short dash lines.

9. REFERENCE LINE – an irregular fine, curved line with an arrowhead at

one end. It is used to label the parts of an object.

10. CONSTRUCTION LINES – guidelines, very thin light lines

11. VISIBLE OUTLINE or OBJECT LINE – represents the visible edges of an

object. A heavy stroke of the soft pencil.

12. SHORT BREAK LINES – limiting lines drawn freehand.

13. BORDER LINE – the heaviest or darkest lines in a drawing.

14. CUTTING PLANE LINES – used to show where a section has been taken
away. Arrows at the end show the direction of the section.

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 DO’S AND DON’TS OF DIMENSIONING
1. Plan all dimensions.
2. Always put the shortest dimensions closest to the drawings
3. Extension lines may cross each other provided that they are continuous lines.
4. Never use object line as a substitute for a dimension or extension line
5. Dimensions should be legible and don’t interfere with the lines in the
drawings.

LINE TECHNIQUE
Architectural draftsmen develop their own styles of linework just as they develop
their own styles of lettering. Linework consists of light and dark lines.

1. CUTTING-PLANE TECHNIQUE – used for section views where lines formed

by the cutting plane are darkened.
2. DISTANCE TECHNIQUE – used to show depth in an architectural drawing by
emphasizing the lines closest to the observer.
3. SILHUETTE TECHNIQUE – used by darkening the outline of the object. It is
known as the oldest line technique.
4. SHADOW TECHHNIQUE – Recessions and extensions can be shown by
darkening the edges away from the light source. The light is usually assumed to
be coming from the upper left.
5. MAJOR-FEATURE TECHNIQUE – This is commonly used technique. The
major elements are outlined, and the elements of lesser importance are drawn with
finer lines.

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 ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLS
A system of architectural symbols to indicate certain materials and features has
developed through the years. Properly used, these symbols complement the architectural
linework and form an attractive and useful language.

LETTERING
Many beautiful drawings are marred by poor lettering. Lettering is very
important in drawing. Commonly used lettering is the Commercial Gothic letters. The
American Standard Commercial Gothic Lettering makes use of
¼” for important titles and drawing numbers,
1/8” for lesser headings, and
3/32” for dimensioning and notes.

There are six lettering secrets which have been collected by professional
draftsmen who use Commercial Gothic lettering. Practice your lettering with these
secrets in mind:
1. Guidelines - These are very light lines (usually drawn with a 4H pencil) that
aid in forming uniformly sized letters. They are not erased, since they are
drawn so lightly that they are not objectionable.

2. Form – The exact form of every Commercial Gothic letter should be

memorized and used. Notice that all capital letters except S are based upon
straight and circular lines. The numerals and the letter S are based upon the
straight and elliptical lines

3. Stability – Letters and numerals should appear stable at all times.

4. Proportion – Nearly all letters are as wide as they are high. Letters narrower
than the standard are called “condensed”; and letters wider than the standards
are called “extended”.

5. Density – Black lines should used for lettering. This is necessary to improve
the appearance of the lettering and to improve its readability so that it will
show up well when reproduced.

6. Spacing – proper spacing of letters to form words and words to form sentces
is a “must”.

PARTS OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS

1. SITE DEVELOPMENT PLAN – is also known as Plot Plan. The outline and
the measurement of the proposed building and its placement on the property are
designated. SDP also show other proposed improvements like gates, lawn,
service yard, driveways, walks, contours and utilities. Roof plan and landscaping
could also be shown

The roof plan of the building is not a standard requirement in the working
drawing because it can be interpreted from the Roof Framing Plan. However,
some designers include it in the Site Development Plan or as a separate detail.
The features indicated in the figure are: (1) gutter; (2) hip roll; and (3) ridge roll.

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2. FLOOR PLAN – is a sectional drawing obtained by passing an imaginary
cutting plane through the walls about 1.20m. above the floor, showing the outline
and arrangement of the rooms in the structure. Here are the steps in drawing floor
plan/s:
a. Layout exterior and interior wall very lightly. Standard Exterior CHB
wall measures 0.15m while the interior CHB wall is 0.10m.
b. Locate windows and doors on the wall layout, using appropriate
symbols.
c. Add the floor plan details like stairs.
d. Show all built-in equipments like bathroom fixtures, closets, kitchen
cabinets and others. Also, indicate furniture layout.
e. Dimensioning
f. Lettering
g. Checking

3. ELEVATION – is a drawing representing the projection of an exterior side of a

structure on a vertical plane directly facing it. The view of the proposed building
from the street would normally be designated as the FRONT ELEVATION. The
right side of the viewer facing the front elevation is the RIGHT SIDE
ELEVATION; while the viewer’s left is the LEFT SIDE ELEVATION; and the
opposite of the front view is the REAR ELEVATION. Elevations give information
and details on:
a. Over-all design and character of the building
b. Materials and finishes for the exterior features
c. Height of the building and its carious levels
d. Approximate or true profile of the building site if not level
e. Types and designs of exterior doors and windows

4. SECTION – reveals the interior of the structure as projected on an imaginary

vertical plane that passes through a given axis of the building. Section shows:
a. The height of the different floor levels as seen from the inside of the
structure
b. Interior elements of the building
c. Contour of the building site if not level
d. Profile of the ceiling lines and floor sections.

5. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS – additional drawings required to supply

complete information about the structure. These are enlarged or blow-up
drawings which focus only on selected portions of the structure to show in greater
detail those parts of the construction. Detail drawings are usually prepared at
scale 1:20mts.. However other scale may be used.
a. Schedule of Doors and Windows
b. Blow-up plan of Kitchen and details
c. Closet Details
d. Details of T&B
e. Reflected Ceiling Plan and Details

PARTS OF STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS

1. FOUNDATION PLAN
The purpose of the FOUNDATION PLAN is to show the structural supports of
the proposed structure at the ground level, and/or basement level if the basement is
incorporated in the building plan. The principal information it presents are the
following:
a. position of the columns, masonry walls and other building elements at
the foundation level;

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 b. necessary measurements to show the spatial relationships between the
building parts, as well as for plotting their exact positions on the
ground;
c. spaces for concrete slabs on fill and their thickness; sizes and spacing
of steel reinforcing and temperature bars, if required;
d. foundation work required for other facilities like driveways, outdoor
terraces, patios, steps, walkways and other amenities related to the
function of the proposed building.

To complement the FOUNDATION PLAN, separate detailed drawings of

columns, footings and other members supporting the base of the building and
transmitting its dead and live loads to the ground are prepared at a bigger scale,
usually 1:20 meters.
Each structural member is given identification mark like; C1, C2, C3, for any
three different kinds of columns; or WF1, WF2, WF3 for three kinds of masonry
walls. The DETAIL DRAWINGS of the columns, footings and foundation walls
should be prepared on the same drawing sheet to facilitate easy and convenient easy
cross-reference between them.

2. FLOOR FRAMING PLAN

There is an old saying that should always be remembered: A good design id easy
to build.” This implies a thorough coordination of architectural and structural
requirements. It means that the plan should permit simple direct framing and spans
within economical limits, except where a prime requirement justifies more expensive
construction. It is exemplified by the functional use of appropriate building materials
and assemblies.

LOCATING COLUMNS
The first step is to determine the location of all the columns and the other
structural elements that are available to help support the floor and roof system. The
position of each column should be determined and marked on copies of the
architectural floor plans. Each tier of columns should be concentric as far as
architectural considerations permit. Obvious exceptions are setbacks where offsets
less than the column spacing are required in the exterior building walls, or where
large interior areas, such as ballroom, must be clear of obstructions. The location of
exterior columns is largely controlled by windows or other exterior openings; and that
of interior columns by partition. It is often impossible to obtain an ideal structural
arrangement, but there are a few considerations which should be borne in mind.
The best column spacing usually results from dividing the supported area into
squares or rectangles of approximately equal size. A column spacing of less than 6.0
meters is seldom desirable unless there are unusual conditions. A span of 4.8 mts.
have been found economical. A maximum span of 7.5 mts. where conventionally
designed reinforced concrete girder framing is used and 8.0 mts. for rolled steel girder
is generally desirable from the viewpoint of structural economy.

LOCATING THE GIRDERS AND BEAMS:

Having located the columns and other structural vertical elements, the designer is
ready to complete the structural diagram. In this type, it is necessary to decide
between a short span and a long span system for the floor construction. The term
short-span identifies a group of structural floors design which are used on spans
varying from about 1.8 mts to 3.0 mts and consequently require one or more
intermediate beams between each line of columns. Long-span systems are those
capable of spanning, under varying loads within the usual range, from 6.0 mts to
about 9.0 mts., thus eliminating the need for intermediate beams.

TYPICAL DESIGN FOR R.C. FLOOR FRAMING

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3. ROOF FRAMING DRAWINGS
Roof Framing Drawings show the details for the roofing system. The common
materials for the roofing system, nowadays, is steel for the trusses and the roof covering,
galvanized iron or G.I. sheets are used. In the roof framing plan, one can see the skeleton
of the roofing system showing the roof beams’ location, purlins, trusses/rafter and the
gutter. Details of trusses are shown including the blow-up detail of eaves.

ELECTRICAL PLANS
For this course, electrical power layout and electrical lighting layout and legend
are to be shown. Aside from power and lighting layout, in reality, electrical plans should
also include, load computations, riser diagrams, and electrical notes. These drawings
should be prepared, signed and dry-sealed by a professional electrical engineer or master
electrician.

SANITARY/PLUMBING
Sanitary Drawings are prepared, signed and dry-sealed by a licensed sanitary
engineer. Sanitary drawings show the arrangement of toilet fixtures, water layout, sewer
layout, isometric of the layout, catch basin details, septic vault details, and legend. For
the plate, the students are required to do the water line, sewer line, and legend.

THE FOLLOWING SHEETS SHOW SOME SAMPLES OF THE

DIFFERENT PARTS WORKING DRAWINGS

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SITE DEVELOPMENT PLAN

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 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGY
Construction is the act of building something on site or the manner in which
materials are assembled. Building technology, on the other hand, is discovering how to
use tools and techniques efficiently to get the best result. The development of the
construction industry has taken a quantum leap from its basic and traditional form to the
highly technological processes.
During the Stone-Age Era, men lived in caves. When these early settlers
experienced the discomfort of living in caves, they tried to build “lean-to” houses. This
was the first constructed structure.
As men tried to discover the materials around them to satisfy their basic need for
shelter more different structure evolved. The most magnificent architectural example of
the STONE AGE era was the Stonehenge in England. Human muscles were used to
move huge stones from quarrying place to its final position. The production process was
very slow and labor-intensive requiring a great number of workers to complete structure
for a long period of time. STONE construction was construction method of this early
period.
This method was carried up to the Asian civilization. Structures of this era were
massive and monumental. Labor force was so intense that the invention of wedge, lever,
sledges, roller and inclined plane were so helpful to somehow ease workers from the
enormous task. This was evident in the building of the great pyramids in Egypt. It is
believed the Egyptians were the first to practice manpower management, because leaders
had to manage a large number of slave labor on pyramid and temple building of huge
stonework.
Greeks built temples for their gods and goddesses, and civic structures for
political and social purposes. Marble, since abundant in the place, was the common
material used in their structures. They also used wood trusses for some of their
structures.
Soon, another method of construction evolved, the CONCRETE Method.
Romans should be credited for the development of this method. The use of cement
started during the Roman days, due to the discovery of POZZOLANA. Cement was later
improved through the development of Portland cement. Concrete method was later
improved, and now we have the Reinforced Concrete.

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 When Industrial Revolution rose, STEEL was developed. This paved way to the
development of tools and machinery such as cranes, derricks, hoists and shovels
earthmoving equipment which provided a less labor operations and made field
productivity soar. Availability of electricity, internal combustion engine and electrical
motors replaced steam to make construction tools and equipment even more mobile and
efficient.
The development of production methods in construction has taken a slightly
different path since the mid of the 1900s. It has undergone four phases of development
namely;
1. Traditional, in 1950s,
2. First Industrial phase, 1960s,
3. Subcontracting phase, 1970s, and
4. Second Industrial Phase, 1980s
“Traditional construction is characterized by site operations where skilled craft
operatives work on relatively unprocessed materials. Non-craft laborers and a relatively
small amount of plant support skilled workers. Thereof, a high proportion of the value of
a building is added on-site, rather than off-site in a factory.
Towards the end of the 1950s, however, greater attempts were made to emulate
manufacturing. The construction process was industrialized by carrying out more of the
construction process off-site, in factories. A typical example of this period was systems
building – wall and floor panels were prefabricated off-site, to be bolted together on site.
The intention was that large numbers of housing units could be built quickly, thus solving
the housing shortage, which had existed since 1945… This first attempt to industrialize
building production was largely unsuccessful – the systems were poorly designed and
executed.
Consequently, changes to social and organizational factors gathered pace in
1970s. The main change was the shift from direct employment to self-employment and
labor only subcontracting. The principal effect of this was to create a stronger link
between pay and productivity. This was because those employed were now paid a lump
sum for carrying out a set amount of work, rather than a regular weekly wage. Hence,
this particular payments-by-results system came to be known as the ‘lump’.
With the changes described above, the stage was set for a new phase of
industrialized construction. Once again, prefabricated components are being used
structurally. The impact of these changes has been far reaching. The main focus of value
added has shifted from the site to the factories where materials and components are made.
Although the workforce is more flexible and has the potential to be multi-skilled, there
has nevertheless been an increase in specialization of a sort. This is due to the division,

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and possible further subdivision, of work into packages.”(Stephen Lavender. 1996, pp.
268-271).
As construction technologies developed, Construction Method will continuously
evolve.

DEVELOPMENT OF CONSTRUCTION METHOD

1. Stone construction
2. Wood Construction
3. Concrete Construction
4. Steel Construction
5. Prefabricated Construction

STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
1. trabeated - post and lintel
2. arcuated arch and pier
3. truss construction
4. corbel or cantilever

DEFINITION:
CONCRETE –is an artificial stone as a result of mixing cement, aggregates and
water.

Concrete is the only major building material that can be delivered to the job site in
a plastic state. This unique quality makes concrete desirable as a building material
because it can be molded to virtually any form.
The two major components of concrete are cement paste and inert materials. The
cement paste is consists of Portland cement, water and some air either in the form of
naturally entrapped air voids or minute, intentionally entrained air bubbles. The inert
materials are usually composed of fine and coarse aggregates.

CEMENT – is a binding agent or glue, derived from the Latin word,

“calmentum,” the name of a limestone, chips of which were used in mortar more than
2000 years ago in ITALY.

COMMONLY USED CEMENT:

1. Portland 2. Pozzolana

The Assyrians and Babylonians used clay as the bonding substance or cement.
The Egyptians used lime and gypsum cement. In 1756, British Engineer, John Smeaton
made the first modern concrete (hydraulic cement) by adding pebbles as coarse aggregate
and mixing powered brick into the cement. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, English bricklayer, a
mason and an inventor, invented the Portland cement named after the island of Portland
in the English Channel. Aspdin created the first true artificial cement by burning ground
limestone and clay together. The burning process changed the chemical properties of the
materials and created stronger cement. Its composition is 60% lime and about 25%silica
together with smaller proportions of alumina, iron oxide and gypsum. The lime is
obtained from limestone, silica and alumina from clay, and iron oxide from iron core.
The gypsum was added after burning to regulate the set of hardening time of the cement.

POZZOLANA – is a finely ground siliceous material which, as such, does not

possess cementitious property in itself, but reacts in the presence of water with lime

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(calcium hydroxide) at normal temperature to form compounds of low solubility having
cementitious properties. The action is termed pozzolanic action.
Pozzolanas can be used in combination with or for the partial replacement of
Portland cement.

AGGREGATES – are inert materials that when bound together into

conglomerated mass of Portland cement and water form concrete, mortar or plaster.

CATEGORIES OF AGGREGATES:
1. COARSE AGGREGATES – that portion of aggregate that is retained on No. 4
(4.76 mm) sieve. It should easily fit into the forms and in-between rebars, and not
larger than 1/5 of the narrowest dimension of the forms or 1/3 of the depth of the
slabor ¾ of the minimum distance between rebars.
2. FINE AGGREGATE the product of natural disintegration of silica-bearing or
calcium-bearing rock. Fine aggregates or sand are those that passes through No. 4
sieve and retained by a No. 200 (74 micron) sieve.

WATER – potable water is satisfactory for use in concrete mix.

WATER-CEMENT-RATIO – the proportion of water to cement to control the
strength of concrete.
HYDRATION – the setting up and the hardening of the cement paste which is
caused by a chemical reaction between the cement and water.
LAITTANCE – the adverse effect of excess water in a proportion for concrete
mix.
SALAMANDER – is an oil burning stove used in heating the water or aggregates
in cases of freezing weather to keep it above 50 degree F for purposes of 7
days
curing.

ADMIXTURE OR ADDITIVES – added to the basic ingredients to change the

basic nature of concrete.

TYPES OF ADMIXTURE OR ADDITIVES:

1. ACCELERATOR – speeds up the hardening or setting of concrete.
2. RETARDER – slow down the hardening
3. AIR-ENTRAINING AGENT – substances w/c holds air bubbles in concrete,
to resist deterioration
4. DISPERSAL AGENT – prevents bleeding of water or moisture to the surface
of concrete
5. CONCRETE HARDENER – improves hardness or denseness of concrete
6. WATER-REDUCING AGENT – improves workability of concrete
7. CONCRETE WATRPROOF – makes concrete more watertight
8. BONDING AGENT – improves bonding between old and freshly poured
concrete
9. CONCRETE COLORING AGENT – produces colored surface
10. SET-INHIBITING AGENT – inhibits the set of cement paste
11. SURFACE SEALING AGENT–prevents evaporation of water from new
concrete
12. GAS FORMING AGENTS-develops the potential strength of cement
13. POZZOLANIC ADMIZTURE-used for pozzolan cement decreases its weight
per cubic meter.

CONCRETE MAY BE DIVIDED INTO THREE (3) TYPES:

1. MASS OR PLAIN CONCRETE – a conglomeration of concrete materials
producing solid mass.

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 2. REINFORCED CONCRETE – a concrete with reinforcement embedded in
such manner that the two materials act together in resisting forces. R.C. was
invented by Joseph Monier in 1849 and received patent in 1867. Monier was
a Parisian gardener who made garden pots and tubs of r.c. with an iron mesh.
He exhibited his invention at the Paris Exposition in 1867.

3. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
a. Pretensioning or bonded prestressing
b. Post Tensioning or Unbounded prestressing

PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE MIXTURE

The right proportioning of the ingredients of concrete provides a balance between
the requirements of:
a. economy c. strength e. appearance
b. workability d. durability

CONCRETE MIXES:

CLASS OF MIXTURE CEMENT SAND GRAVEL

Bags 40 kg cu. ft. cu.m. cu. ft. cu.m
AA 1 1½ 0.043 3 0.085
A 1 2 0.057 4 0.113
B 1 2½ 0.071 5 0.142
C 1 3 0.085 6 0.170

TESTS FOR CONCRETE:

1. SLUMP TEST – check the amount of water placed in the mixture
PROCEDURE:
a. Place the freshly mixed concrete inside the mould in 3 layers each rodded
separately by 16mm rod 25 times.
b. Level the mould and lift at once
c. Measure the slump action immediately by getting the difference in height
between the height of the mould and the top of the slumped concrete

RECOMMENDED SLUMPS FOR VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION

TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION MAX. (cm) MIN

(cm)
r.c. foundation wall & footing 13 5
plain footing, caissons & sub-structure wall 10 2.5
slabs, beams, and reinforced walls 15 7.5
columns 15 7.5
pavement 7 5
heavy mass construction 7 2.5

2. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST – process applied in determining strength

of concrete
CONSISTENCY – refers to the state of fluidity of freshly mixed concrete
PROCEDURE:
a. for a coarse aggregate not more than 5 cm diameter, prepare a cylindrical
specimen 15 cm diameter and 30 cm long.
b. For aggregate more than 5 cm diameter, prepare 3 times the maximum size of
the aggregate and a height double its diameter.
c. The mould should be of metal placed on a plane surface preferably 6-12 m.
plate
d. Place the fresh concrete inside the mould in 3 separate equal layers rodded
separately with 16mm rod 25 strokes

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 e. Level the surface with trowel and cover with a glass or plane steel.
f. After 4 hours, cover the specimen with a thin layer of cement paste and cover
again with planed metal or glass
g. After 24 hours, curing shall be made in a moist atmosphere at 21 deg C.
h. Test should be done 7 and 28 days period.
i. Ascertain that both ends of the specimen are perfectly leveled
j. Specimen is placed under a testing machine; then a compressive load is
applied until the specimen fails. The load that makes the specimen fail is
recorded.
k. The recorded load divided by the cross sectional are of the cylinder gives the
ultimate compressive unit stress of the sample.

SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Class AA = 4500 psi = 35 Mpa
A = 4000 psi = 30 Mpa
B = 3500 psi = 25 Mpa
C = 3000 psi = 20 Mpa
D = 2500 psi = 15 Mpa

PLACING AND FINISHING CONCRETE

Concrete may be mixed on site, at the batching plant or even on the way to the
construction site in a transit mix truck which has a large drum on it.

Concrete shall deposited on its final position without segregation, re-handling or

flowing. Placing shall be done preferably with buggies, buckets or wheelbarrows. No
chutes shall be allowed to except to transfer concrete from hoppers to buckets, buggies or
wheelbarrows in which case they shall not exceed 20 ft in aggregate length. No
depositing of concrete shall be allowed without the use of vibrators, unless authorized in
writing by the designers and only for usual conditions where vibrators is extremely
difficult to use.

VIBRATOR- is a tube that is closed at one end. It is about 12” in length and 2” or 3” in
width. A long hose containing a flexible shaft is fastened to the open end and put
down into the wet concrete. The shaft in the hose is turned on by a gasoline
engine or an electric motor which causes the tube or vibrator head to shake. The
vibration forces the concrete tightly against the form and gets rid of air bubbles.
Vibrator is used to settle the concrete around the forms and the reinforcement.

After the concrete has been placed, the surface is made level with the top of the
form by using a straightedge set on screeds. If the concrete slab is very large additional
screeds must be set in between the ones on the form faces. Then, the cement finisher use
wood float back and forth over the surface until no coarse particle shows. Finally, a
smooth finish called steel trowel finish is applied by moving the steel trowel back and
forth over the surface.

METAL REINFORCEMENT
Concrete has tremendous compressive strength and durability. However, it has
poor strength in tension. By adding STEEL supports embedded into the concrete, its
tensile strength is improved considerably. Rebars also make thinner sections of concrete.
The bond between concrete and steel bars must be sufficiently strong to prevent
any relative movement between the reinforcement and the surrounding concrete.
Reinforcing steel must be free of rust, scale, oil, or any surface material that could affect
bonding.
Rebars may be round or square. Smaller sizes are usually round, while over 1’ in
diameter may be round or square.

KINDS OF REINFORCING BARS

28
 1. DEFORMED BARS – in order to obtain a strong bond between concrete and
steel, rebars are manufactured with surface deformation. Each has been run
through a machine at the steel mill that presses ridges into different patterns.
2. REINFORCING MESH – like wire fencing except that it is made of heavier wire.
Reinforcing mesh is made in widths of 4’,6’, or 100’, delivered to the construction
site in rolls.
3. PLAIN REBARS

ADMIXTURE OR ADDITIVES
NOM UNIT near ASTM 6M 7.5M 9M 10.5M 12M
dia (mm) WT. Designation (19.68’) (24.6’) (29.52’) (34.44’) (39.36’)

6 0.222 No. 2 1.332 1.665 2.000 2.331 2.664

10 0.616 3 3.696 4.620 5.544 6.468 7.392
12 0.888 4 5.328 6.660 7.992 9.324 10.656
16 1.579 5 9.474 11.843 14.211 16.580 18.948
20 2.466 6 14.796 18.495 22.194 25.893 29.592
25 3.854 8 23.124 28.905 34.686 40.467 46.248
28 4.833 9 28.998 36.248 43.497 50.747 57.996
32 6.313 10 37.878 47.348 56.817 66.286 75.756
36 7.991 11 47.946 59.933 71.919 83.906 95.892

MINIMUM CONCRETE COVER

1. footings and the like – 8 cm 3. slabs – 2 cm to 4 cm
2. beams – 4 cm to 5 cm 4. thin shells – 2 cm
BUILDING FORMS
Concrete is a very versatile material. It can take any shape one wish to have
because of its plasticity. Building forms are necessary to shape the concrete.
BUILDING FORM is a temporary boarding, or sheathing or pans used to produce the
desired shape and size of concrete. Forms should be watertight, strong enough and rigid
to sustain weight of concrete, economical and simple.

FORMS MUST BE:

a. built so that it can be removed easily without changing the concrete or the
materials;
b. strong enough to keep from bulging from the weight of the wet concrete;
c. economical and simple.

CONSIDERATION ON SELECTION OF FORM:

1. Cost of materials
2. construction and assembling cost
3. number of times it could be used
4. strength and resistance to pressure, tear and wear.

TYPES OF FORMWORK MATERIALS

1. wood/lumber
2. steel
3. combination

TWO TYPES OF FRAMING FOR WOOD FORMS:

1. longitudinal rib type 2. perpendicular or cross rib type

GREASING OF FORM
Wood forms are greased or oiled to prevent it from absorbing the water in the
concrete. Absorption of water causes the swelling and warping of forms. The
mineral oil or paraffin are the most satisfactory to use but crude oil is the

29
 cheapest, but also preferred if mixed with one part of grease to 3 parts of oil.
Thisker mixer is required in warmer weather. Greasing should be done after the
steel bars have been set to its final position.

FORMS CAN BE SECURED WITH:

1. nails 4. bolts
2. cleats and braces 5. clamps
3. tie wires

TWO TYPES OF FRAMING FOR WOOD FORMS

1. character of structure
2. availability of equipment and materials
3. anticipated repeat use or forms
4. familiarity with method of construction
5. ultimate shape, dimensions and surface finish
SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING

SCAFFOLDING – is a term used for small construction of lumber framework that serves
as a guide and support for columns, beams, girders, flooring, and wall forms, which at the
same time used as flatform of workers in building construction. It is also a temporary
framework for other construction purposes.

STAGING – is a more substantial framework progressively built up as building rise up.

FALSE WORK – is another term for scaffolding and staging.

Experience proves that economy of materials for scaffolding and staging result in a big
loss due to: 1. delay of work
2. higher labor cost
2. accident
3. sub-standard quality of work

Primary Cause of Accidents:

1. The use of poor quality lumber
2. inadequate support and bases.
3. inadequate nails and other materials for economy sake

PARTS OF STAGING:
1. vertical support
2. base support
3. horizontal braces
4. block or wedge support
5. diagonal support and/or braces

ALLOWING CONCRETE TO SET

Concrete is set when it will retain or hold the shape given by its particular form.
Concrete which is set is firm, but is not hard or strong. The amount of time for concrete
to set depends upon the kind of concrete used and the temperature and humidity during
the time it is in the form. However, concrete will usually set in 12 to 24 hours. It usually
takes a much longer period of time for concrete to become hard and strong.

CURING CONCRETE
Curing the concrete means the process through which the concrete becomes hard
and strong. Not a result of concrete drying out, but, it results from chemical reaction of
the elements within the concrete. Techniques to keep the moisture in the concrete for 14-
28 days
a. curing with water

30
 b. curing with sealing membranes

STRIPPING – is the process of removing the forms from around the concrete.
GREEN CONCRETE – refers to concrete which has set but not yet cured.
SCHEDULE OF STRIPPING OF FORMS
PARTS OF STRUCTURE CLASSIFICATION TIME REQ’D
1. footings a. massive a. 1 day
b. cantilever b. 5 days
c. slab footing c. 3 days
2. walls and pilaster a. massive (12”thk. or >) a. up to 2’ high 1 day
retaining wall, basement add 1 day for every 3’
elev. Shafts, bank vaults ht. or fraction thereof
b. thin walls (<12”thk.) b. up to 6’high 2 days
add 1 day for every 3’
ht. or fraction thereof
3. columns - 3 days
4. beams/girders a. sides a. 3 days
b. bottom b. up to 14’ 15 days
add ½ day for every
1’ or fraction thereof
5. slab - 17 days

31
32
33
STEEL – is an alloy of carbon and iron and other elements being present in varying
amounts depending upon the properties desired.

HISTORY
The exact date at which people discovered the technique of smelting iron ore to
produce usable metal is not known. The earliest iron implements discovered by
archeologists in Egypt date from about 3000 BC, and iron ornaments were used even
earlier, the comparatively advanced technique of hardening iron weapons by heat
treatment was known to the Greeks about 1000 BC.
The alloys produced by early ironworkers, and, indeed, all the iron alloys made
until about the 14th century AD, would be classified as today as wrought iron. They were
made by heating a mass of iron ore and charcoal in a forge or furnace having a forced
draft. Under this treatment the ore was reduced to the sponge of metallic iron filled with
a slag composed of metallic impurities and charcoal ash. This sponge of iron was
removed from the furnace while still incandescent and beaten with heavy sledges to drive
out the slag and to weld and to consolidate the iron. The iron produced under these
conditions usually contained about 3% of slag particles and 0.1% of other impurities.
Occasionally, this technique of iron making produced, by accident, a true steel rather than
wrought iron. Ironworkers learned to make steel by heating wrought iron and charcoal in
clay boxes for a period of several days. By this process the iron absorbed enough carbon
to become a true steel.
After the 14th century, the furnaces used in smelting were increased in size, and
increased draft was used to force the combustion gases through the “charge,” the mixture
of raw materials. In these larger furnaces, the iron ore in the upper part of the furnace
was first reduced to metallic iron and then took on more carbon as a result of the gases
forced through it by the blast. The product of these furnaces was pig iron, an alloy that
melts at a lower temperature than steel or wrought iron.
Modern steel making employs blast furnaces that are merely refinements of the
furnaces used by the old ironworkers. The British inventor Sir Henry Bessemer, who
developed the Bessemer furnace, or converter, in 1855, accomplished the process of
refining molten iron with blasts air. Since 1960s, several so called minimills have been
producing steel from scrap metal in electric furnaces. Such mills are an important
component of total U.S. steel production. The giant steel mills remain essential for the
production of steel from iron ore.

CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL
Steel is often classified by its carbon content.

A. Carbon Steels - more than 90% of all steels are carbon steels. They contain
varying amount of carbon and not more than 1.65% manganese, 0.60%
silicon, and 0.60% copper. High-carbon steel is serviceable for dies and
cutting tools because of its great hardness and brittleness. Low- or medium-
carbon steel is used for sheeting and structural forms because of its
amenability to welding and tooling.

B. Alloy Steels – These steels have a specified composition, containing certain

percentages of vanadium, molybdenum, or other elements as well as larger
amounts of manganese, silicon and copper than do the regular carbon steels.

34
 Automobile gears and axles, roller skates, and carving knives are some of the
many things that are made of alloy steels.

C. High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels (HSLA) – This is the newest of the five

families of steels. They cost less than the regular alloy steels because they
contain only small amounts of the expensive alloy elements. They have been
specially processed, however to have much more strength than carbon steels
of the same weight. Numerous buildings are now being constructed with
frameworks of HSLA steels. Girders can be made thinner without sacrificing
their strength, and additional space is left for offices and apartments.

D. Stainless Steel – This contain chromium, nickel and other elements that keep
them bright and rust resistant in spite of moisture or the action of corrosive
acids and gases. Some stainless steels are very hard, some have unusual
strength and will retain that strength for long periods at extremely high and
low temperature. They are often used for decorative purposes. They are also
used for the pipes and tanks of petroleum refineries and chemical plants, for
jet planes, and for some capsules. Surgical instruments and equipment are
made from these steels, and also used to patch or replace broken bones
because these steels can withstand tha action of body fluids. In kitchens and
in plants where food is prepared, handling equipment is often made of
stainless steel because it does not taint the food and can be easily cleaned.

E. Tool Steels – These steels are fabricated into many types of tools and into the
cutting and shaping parts of power-driven machinery for various
manufacturing operations. They contain tungsten, molybdenum, and other
elements that give them extra strength, hardness and resistance to wear.

STRUCTURAL SHAPES
The steel used in a structural framework is made of long pieces called
shapes or sections. Shape or Section is the product of rolled mill used as
structural steel members represented by the shapes of their cross-section. Steel
shapes are the ff.:

1. square bar 6. I-beam

2. round bar 7. Tee-beam

3. plate bar 8. H-column

4. angle bar 9. Wide Flange

5. channel 10. Zee

Regular Section – refers to those steel shapes commonly used with higher demand.

Special Section – are those frequently used or rolled only upon demand or special
arrangement.

Bars – 15 cm or less wide by 0.51 cm thk., 15 cm to 20 cm wide by 0.58 cm thk.

Plate – over 20 cm wide by 0.58 cm thk., Over 1.29 m. wide by 0.46 cm thk. or more.

35
ERECTING STEEL FRAME
Steel frames are generally erected at the construction site one piece at a time.
Each piece of steel must be of proper size.
A crane is used to set each piece in place. Riggers attach the pieces to the lifting
cable. After the lower part of the structure has been erected, the steel frame is plumbed
and braced with guy wires.
For tall buildings, steel for the upper level is set with a derrick. The derrick is
placed at the level of the last steel erected. The derrick is moved up, level by level , until
the steel frame is “topped out.” The derrick has two main parts:
a. mast – is a tall pole that is held vertically upright by legs or by guy
wires.
b. Boom – is another long pole that works like the boom on a crane.
Fastened to the bottom of the mast on a pivot

METHOD OF CONNECTING STRUCTURAL STEEL:

The three methods adopted in connecting structural steels are rivets, bolts and
welds. Rivets and bolts are generally called fasteners. The choice of any of the above
methods depends upon the condition of fabrication and erection, detail of arrangement
and condition of service.
1. RIVET – a steel metal with a head at one end, the other end being hammered into
a head after insertion.
2. BOLT – a metal rod with a head at one end and a screw for nut at the other.
3. WELD – to join together by heating with flame torch or electric current.

ADVANTAGES OF USING WELDED CONNECTIONS:

1. Minimal noise in the erection of structure
2. Savings on labor and materials
3. Rigidity of frames
4. Easy to correct new work to existing structure and also its repair.
5. Simplicity of design

TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS:

1. square type butt-joint 2. single V-type butt joint 3. double V-type butt
joint

4. Y-type butt joint 5. U-type butt joint 6. double U-type butt

joint

7. open-corner joint 8. half-open corner joint 9. V-type corner joint

10. square T-joint 11. single bevel T-joint 12. double bevel V-joint

13. single fillet lap joint 14. double fillet lap joint

36
SITE PREPARATION:
Generally, SOIL provides the load-bearing surface upon which the foundation
(base) of the structure rests. No matter what the structure may be, it must have a strong
and sturdy foundation. To be sure of the strength and stability (firmness) of foundation,
the construction designer must know what soil is like where the foundation is to be built.
The designer or soil consultant tests the soil and decides what needs to be done with the
soil so it will support the structure that is being planned.

SOIL TESTING

LABORATORY FIELD

Soil Stability
Soil Soil Water in Soil (plate test)
Stength Plasticity the soil compressibility
(shear test) (plastic (liquid limit (compression Settlement
limit test) test) test) (plate test)

Compaction
(density test)

How deep is Bedrock

(geophysical test)

SITE INVESTIGATION – is the procedure of determining surface and subsurface

conditions in the area of the proposed construction.

BORING TEST – serves to provide a visual identification of soil strata underlying an

area by literally penetrating into the earth.

THE GENERAL CONSTRUCTION PROCESS:

PREPARATION EARTHMOVING FOUNDATION

37
 FINISHED PROJ. UTILITIES SUPERSTRUCTURE
PREPARATION:
CLEARING THE SITE
SITE FACTORS – things about the site is important to those who prepare and clear the
site; such as:
a. size of the site
b. the amount of natural growth
c. man-made and natural obstacles
d. location of the site
e. what is around the site.

ALLOWING CONCRETE TO SET

1. DEMOLISHING – destroying by blasting, use of explosives, or wrecking which
can be done using mechanical devices such as crowbar (a hand tool), crawler
tractor (bulldozer with blade), and crane with wrecking ball.
2. SALVAGING – saving things from being demolished. This can be done by
tearing down, taking apart or removing the wanted materials from the site.
3. CUTTING – bringing down trees by using axes, explosives or saws; cutting of
pieces metals using torch. Special equipments can also be used.
4. EARTHMOVING – also a major part of construction process, usually done by
excavating (digging) and transferring (moving) it to another place where it is
piled up, spread out, or used as fill materials (disposing).
5. DISPOSING – removing from the site materials that are not wanted, may be done
by burying, burning, or hauling away.

LAYOUT
LAYOUT is also called “STAKING OUT” which means the process of relocating
the point of boundaries and property line of the site where the building is to be
constructed. Or simply LAYOUT is the process of transferring the building plan
measurements to the ground of the site. Materials used in Staking Out are:
a. Stake – are wooden sticks used as posts sharpened at one end driven into the
ground to serve as boundaries or support of the batter boards.
b. Batter Board – wood stick or board nailed horizontally at the stake which
serves as the horizontal plane where the reference point of building
measurements are established.
c. String – is either plastic chord or galvanized wire across the batter board used
to indicate the outline of the building wall and foundation.

LAYOUT METHODS AND PROCEDURES

1. Secure Building Permit first before Construction begins.
2. Relocate the boundaries of the construction site. It is suggested that this shall be
done by a Geodetic Engineer specially for those lots without existing reference
points or adjoining structures.
3. Clear the site of any existing structures, trees and other elements that will obstruct
the construction work.
4. Construct and allocate a space for laborers’ quarters, construction office, bodega
for the materials and working tools and temporary waste disposal
5. Apply for temporary connections of electric and water supply.
6. Construct a temporary fence around the construction.
7. Order the construction materials
8. Verify the measurement in the plan if the distances indicated are from:
a. center to center c. outer to outer

38
 b. center to outer d. inside to inside

Sometimes, surveying is needed for locating structures on construction

sites. A surveyor uses a measuring tape and transit to measure horizontal
distances and angles; also Engineer’s level and a level rod to measure vertical
distances.
9. Fix the batter board to its horizontal position with the aid of a level instrument
preferably plastic hose with water.
After the surveyor has marked where the structure is to be on the site, he
uses these markings to set control points. These are points from which to measure
both horizontal and vertical distances. Control points are put any place where
they will be safe from construction equipment.
Usually, the batter board is aligned with the ground floor elevation. The
important points in the plan such as post distances and wall corners are indicated
on the batter board by common wire nails wherein the string is tied and laid
across the opposite direction of the batter board.
10. Verify the measurement on the batter board. The position of the stake should be
well-planned not to be affected by excavation, otherwise, future adjustment and
correction of the batter board might displace the right position of the reference
points.
11. After establishing the reference point and the line of footing, transfer the
intersecting points of the string to the ground by the aid of a plumb bob and
indicate the size and width to be excavated.

EARTHMOVING:
EARTHMOVING is usually done by excavating (digging) and transferring
(moving) spoil to another place where it is piled up, spread out or used as fill materials
(disposing).
SPOIL – excavated materials, transferred or moved then disposed. The spoil may
be disposed of by using it for fill or top dressing. Transferring liquid wastes and
rain water may be done through the use of pumps.
FILLING – leveling of low spots
TOP DRESSING – is spreading of the thin coat over an area

Sometimes tough or dense material must be loosened before it can be excavated. The
most common techniques are:
a. blasting – done mostly to rocks
b. breaking – applying of strong blows to tear up hard materials
c. scarifying – done by running blades or teeth through it.
d. Ripping – done by pulling one or two large teeth with tractor

EXCAVATING IS DONE TO:

1. reach a good base for foundation,
2. build basements,
3. make cuts through hilly land and travel routes, and
4. level uneven ground.

EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENTS:
1. POWER SHOVELS – used primarily to excavate earth and load it into trucks or
tractor-pulled wagons or onto conveyor belts. They are capable of excavating all
classes of earth, except solid rock, without prior loosening. They may be
mounted on crawler tracks, referred to as crawler-mounted shovels. Such shovels
have very low travel speeds, but the wide treads give low soil pressures which
permit them to operate on soft ground. They maybe mounted on rubber-tired
wheels. Single engine self-propelled units are powered and operated from the

39
 excavator cab. The non-self-propelled units mounted on the rear of trucks, which
are referred to as truck mounted, have separate engines for operating them.
Rubber-tire-mounted shovels which have higher travel speeds than the crawler
mounted units, are useful for small jobs where considerable traveling is necessary
and where the road surfaces and ground are firm.

2. DRAGLINES – used to excavate earth and load it into hauling units, such as
trucks or tractor-pulled wagons, or to deposit it in levees, dams, and spoil banks
near the pits from which it is excavated. In general, a power shovel up to a
capacity of 2 ½ cu. yd. can be converted into a dragline by replacing the boom of
the shovel with a crane boom and substituting a dragline bucket for the shovel
dipper. Types of draglines are crawler-mounted, self-propelled wheel-mounted,
and truck-mounted.

3. CLAMSHELLS – are used primarily for handling loose materials such as sand,
gravel, crushed stone, coal, etc., and for removing materials from cofferdams, pier
foundations, sewer manholes, sheet-lined trenches, etc. They are especially suited
to vertically lifting materials from one location to another, as in charging hoppers
and overhead bins. The limit of vertical movement may be relatively large when
they are used with long crane booms.

4. HOES – applied to excavating machines of the power-shovel group referred to by

several names such as hoe, backhoe, back shovel and pull shovel. A power
shovel is converted into a hoe by installing a dipper stick and a dipper at the end
of the boom. A hoe is frequently equipped with a gooseneck boom to increase the
digging depth of the machine. It is used primarily to excavate below the natural
surface of the ground on which the machine rests. They are adapted to excavating
trenches, pits for basements, and general grading work which requires precise
control of depths.

5. SCRAPERS – are open-fronted box whose bottom edge can be sunk below the
ground surface. Self-powered or pulled by a tractor, the scraper excavates a layer
of earth as it moves. The excavated earth is carried in the box, and some scrapers
are equipped with moving belts for unloading. Scrapers are among the largest of
the earthmoving machines, and some have capacities in excess of 38-cubic
meters. Graders are used to shape ground surfaces, particularly where roads are
to be built. Mounted under a tractor, the grader blade can be tilted in any
direction to comfort to the desired surface shape.

CATEGORY OF EXCAVATION FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:

1. MINOR EXCAVATION
Minor Excavation are those constructions having independent footing and hollow
block wall footing where the digging of the soil for the footing extend to a depth from 1.0
to 1.50 meter and about half a meter depth for the wall footing.

2. MAJOR EXCAVATION
Building construction that requires wide excavation or total extraction of the soil
are classified into two categories depending upon the condition or location of the site.
When an area of construction site is big that there is enough space to accommodate
working activities, storing of materials and dumping ground for excavated soil, problem
is less due to free movement of construction equipment. Building construction on a busy
commercial center with adjacent existing structure is considered to be the most
complicated among the various construction works since this requires careful analysis of
the right approach.
The Building Code on the protection of adjoining property provides:
Any person making or causing excavation to be made below existing grade shall protect
the excavation so that the soil of the adjoining property will not cave-in or settle and shall defray

40
 the cost of underpinning or extending the foundation of buildings on adjoining properties. Before
commencing the excavation, the person making or causing the excavation to be made shall notify
in writing the owner of the adjoining buildings not less than 10 days before such excavation is to
be made and that the adjoining building will be protected by him. The Owners of the adjoining
properties shall be given access to the excavation for the purpose of verifying if their properties are
sufficiently protected by the person making the excavation. Likewise, the person causing such
excavation shall be given access to enter the adjoining property for the purpose of physical
examination of such property, prior to the commencement and at reasonable periods during the
progress of excavation. If the necessary consent is not accorded to the person making the
excavation, then it shall be the duty of the person refusing such permission to protect his building
or structure. The person causing the excavation shall not be responsible for damages on account of
such refusal by the adjoining owner to permit access for inspection. In case there is a party wall
along a lot line of the premises where an excavation was being made, the person causing the
excavation to be made shall at his own expense, preserve such party wall in a safe condition as it
was before the excavation was made and shall when necessary, underpin and support the same by
adequate method.

TRIMMING AND STABILIZING

Crude trench or pit or rough excavation is unfit for the foundation. It may weaken
the support of structures. Trimming and stabilizing the bed and walls of excavation may
then be necessary.
1. TRIMMING – done to make the excavation ready for the foundation.
2. STABILIZING –done to make the walls hold their form and to keep them from
falling

4 MAJOR PRACTICES USED FOR TRIMMING AND SHAPING EXCAVATION

BED AND WALLS:
1. CLEANING & WASHING – remove mud from the base rock. This is done so there
will be good bond between the concrete of the foundation and the base of the exca-
vation. This is done by high-pressure water hosing which blasts the mud off the rock.
2. GRADING – makes bed and walls of the excavation level and firm. Grading is done
by: compacting (packing), grouting (filling with mortar), scaling (scraping), or filling
(moving in loose earth).
3. SLOPING – The sides of excavation are sloped to lower the chances of slides. Here
loose soil is usually removed from the sides of the excavation.
4. TREATING – Loose soil is filled with a substance that makes it more solid.
Sometimes chemical solution is used.

5 WAYS TO STABILIZE EARTHWORKS:

1. COMPACTING – is the compressing or packing down of the earth to make it firm
2. SHORING – is the process of providing temporary supports to the structure or ground
during excavation. The shore is placed diagonally against the excavation walls or
sheeting panels. It is held by stake at the bottom. Shoring is used in wider
excavations where you cannot brace against the sidewall. This is sometimes called
sheeting and bracing.
3. BRACING AND SHEETING – The brace in placed horizontally between the sheeting
panels. Bracing is used in narrow excavation.
SHEETING – forms walls to keep earth out of the excavated area.
4. PILING – driving of large concrete, steel or wooden stake called piles into the ground
to give more stability to a structure. This method is used even during the prehistoric
times. Piling has two main purposes:
a. to improve the load bearing capacity of the earth, and
b. to help guard against uneven settlement of the structure.
5. COFFERDAMMING – is popular method used in construction when a structure must
be built in water or water-filled soil.

SUBSIDENCE – sinking down, or sink to lower level

SETTLEMENT – the sinking or lowering of materials or structure

41
UNDERPINNING – the operation of providing permanent foundation in place of
inadequate footing, for instance replacing shallow footing by a new footing at a greater
depth.

All structures is general composed of:

1. SUBSTRUCTURE – which refers to foundation, and
2. SUPERSTRUCTURE – that part resting on a foundation.
All substructure rest upon bearing surfaces, in addition they may have footings, walls
or piers.
Superstructure may be classified as:
a. mass – are those built from materials taken directly from the earth. Example; dams
b. bearing wall – built from masonry and other materials which are built into walls
around the place to be enclosed. Example of materials: bricks or CHB
c. framed superstructure – made of steel, reinforced concrete, or wood assembled to
provide skeleton upon which the walls, floors, and roof can be constructed.

FOUNDATION –
The early builders of the Babylonian Empire constructed Raft or Mat Foundation
from out of the sun-dried and burned bricks on top of a flat moulded earth which was
filled up and raised from 1.50 m to 4.50 meters high. The Mat Foundation was
constructed to a thickness of 1.0 to 1.5 meters of brick platform bound together by a
natural asphaltic materials forming a solid foundation where the city walls, temples, and
public buildings were constructed.
The Greeks has extensively used marble blocks as foundation oftenly tied
together with metal band. Marble being abundant in Greece becomes the chief
construction materials extensively used to articulate their temples including carvings and
statues.
Likewise, the Chinese builders also used large stones carefully cut and accurately
fitted to each other without the use of mortaraas evidently seen in the construction of the
Great Wall of China.
The Roman builders, introduced various foundation type to suit the soil
conditions. Wood piles were used on a very soft ground and wooden mats were laid
underground where masonry structure were built upopn them, the Roman builders further
developed the construction of built-up foundation consisting of flat stone bonded with
Roman cement which, unfortunately, this early use of concrete has been forgotten during
the Middle Ages.
The introduction of Grillage Footing resolves the problem of foundation weight in
the year 1880 when it was first introduced. Consequently, the improved grillage footing
made of steel rail embedded in concrete was introduced in Chicago by John Root in the
year 1891. The Advent of Reinforced Concrete in the early part of 1890 superceded all
theses kind of footings due to the advantages it offers in all aspect of building
construction.
FOUNDATION – is that portion of of the stsructural elements that carry or support the
superstructure of the building. Also, called SUBSTRUCTURE which refer to that portion
of the structure below the susrface of the ground that transmits the load of the building to
the underlying soil or rock.
PARTS OF FOUNDATION:
UPRIGHT SUPPORT
- also called foundation wall

42
 FOOTING
- flat part of foundation which
directly transmits the column load
to the underlying soil or rock.
FOUNDATION BED
- refers to the soil or rock beneath
the footing

Soil provides the load-bearing surface upon which the foundation of the structure
rests. To be sure of the strength and stability of the foundation, the construction designer
must know the soil characteristics where foundation is to be built. This determines the
type of foundation to be used. This is done through laboratory and field test.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION
1. SPREAD FOOTING
This type of foundation is the simplest. They are used on bearing surfaces
of rock or of soil that is packed solidly like hard clay.
The SPREAD FOOTING is a pad which may be long and rather narrow to
go under a wall or it may be square or rectangular where it is to go under pier
or post.

a. Isolated / Individual / Independent / Conventional –

They are usually square, sometimes rectangular, in plan with
reinforcement consisting of two sets of bars at right angles to each other
known as two-way reinforcement, and represent the simplest and most
economical type.
1) block or square footing

2) stepped footing

3) sloped or pyramidal footing

b. Combined Footing
This is employed when two or more columns are spaced closely to each
other that their footing will almost or completely merge.

1) Combined – This condition occurs frequently in a column having

its face flushed with a partly or building line, as building cannot
extend beyond the building line and independent footing is
impractical. Combined footing is the construction of a single
footing that supports both the exterior column and the nearest
interior column. This type of footing is to distribute then two
column loads over a uniform soil bearing. The design of footing
could be: a) rectangular combined footing
b) trapezoidal combined footing

2) Cantilevered -
This is designed to serve the function as combined footing. The
load of the property line column is considered supported near the
end of the beam which has one support over the center of the
adjacent interior column. The beam connecting the footing is
called strap beam or footing tie beam and footing of this type are
called connected footings.

3) Continuous –

43
 This footing consists of reinforced concrete slab extending
continuously under three or more columns. They tend to reduce
the differential settlement between columns.

2. MAT (Closer) or RAFT (Loose) FOUNDATION –

This is usually employed where the bearing capacity of soil is not uniform
and when columns carry a uniform load. This is the consolidation of all types
of foundation. Also used when buildings has basement. It has different
design such as:
a) flat slabs of plain or reinforced concrete

b) beams or girders with slab underneath

c) beams or girders with slab on top

3. PILE (PILOTE) and PIER FOUNDATION –

This is intended to transmit structural loads through the upper zone of poor
soil to a depth where the earth is capable of providing the desired support.

PILES – are slender foundation units driven into place.

a. wood
b. concrete – pre-cast or cast-in-place
c. steel
d. composite

PIER UNITS – are formed in place by excavating an opening to a desired

depth where concrete is poured.
4. CAISSONS –
This is a structural box or chamber that is sunk in place or built in place by
excavating systematically below the bottom of the unit which descends to the
final depth.

5. FLOATING FOUNDATION –
This is a special type of foundation applied in location where deep
deposits of compressible cohesive soils exist and the use of piles is
impractical. It represents a special application of soil mechanics principles to
a combination of mat-caisson foundation.

6. GRILLAGE FOOTING –
Advantages in the Use of Steel-Beam Grillages:
1. When it is desirable to avoid the deep excavation required for concrete
or masonry footings;
2. When the load of the wall has to be distributed over a wide area of
support;
3. Steel beams are frequently aadvantageously used to give the required
moment of resistance with a minimum of depth;
4. Cheaper and preferable to rails, although second-hand rails have been
used as an expedient.

APPLICATION:
The foundation bed should be firsr covered with a layer of concrete
not less than 6” thick and so mixed and compacted as nearly as impervious
to moisture as possible. The beams should be placed on this layer, the

44
upper surfaces brought to the line and the lower flanges carefully grouted
so as to secure an even bearing. Subsequently, concrete should be placed
between and around the beams so as to permanently protect them.

45
46
47
48
49
COLUMN – refers to the vertical structure used to support a building made of stone,
concrete, steel or combination of those amterials.

50
 - It is also referred to a relatively long, slender structural compression
member such as post, pier, pillar, or strut; usually vertical, supporting a
load which acts in the direction of its longitudinal axis.

CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS AS TO HEIGHT:

1. SHORT COLUMN – when unsupported height is not greater than ten times the
shortest lateral dimension of the cross section,
2. LONG COLUMN – when the unsupported height is more than ten times the
shortest lateral dimension of the cross section.

TYPES OF COLUMNS
1. TIED COLUMN – has reinforcement consisting of vertical or longitudinal bars
held in position by lateral reinforcing bars called lateral ties. The vertical
reinforcement should consist of at least 4 bars with a minimum diameter of at
least 16mm steel bars.

REQUIRED SIZE OF LATERAL TIES:

a. 10 mm Ø ties if the main reinforcement of the column is 32 mm Ø or
smaller;
b. 12 mm Ø ties if the main reinforcement of the column is 36 mm Ø,
45mm Ø, or 57 mm Ø.
SPACING OF LATERAL TIES
a. not > 16x the Ø of the main rebars;
b. not > 48x the Ø of the lateral ties;
c. not > than the shortest dimension of the cross section of the column.

BUNDLED BARS – is recommended to accommodate the required steel bars and

at the same time provide enough space for the concrete, thereby, observing the
rules and specifications as to the spacing of bar limitation and the required
concrete protective covering.

2. SPIRAL COLUMN – where circular concrete core is enclosed by spirals with

vertical or longitudinal bars. The vertical reinforcement is provided with evenly
spaced continuous spiral held firmly in position by at least three vertical bar
spacers.

3. COMPOSITE COLUMN – structural steel column is embedded into the

concrete core of a spiral column.

4. COMBINED COLUMN – a column with structural steel encased in concrete of

at least 7 cm thk. reinforced with wire mest surrounding the column at a distance
of 3cm inside the outer surface of the concrete covering.

5. LALLY COLUMN – a fabricated post made of steel pipe provided with a plain
flat steel bars or plate which hold the girder, girts, or beam.

51
TYPES OF STEEL COLUMNS
1. STRUTS OF ONE OR TWO ANGLES – 2 angles of double strut are riveted together
by rivets driven through washers placed between the two angles at intervals of 4 to 6
feet.
2. STARRED ANGLES - 2 or 4 angles are connected with batten plates spaced at
intervals of 3 to 4 feet.
3. LATTICED COLUMNS – made of channels/angles connected by lattice bars.
4. ROLLED H-COLUMN – obtainable with depths ranging from 6” to 16”.
5. BUILT-UP COLUMN – H-shaped section formed by a combination of plates and
angles.
6. TOP CHORD SECTION – heavy trusses unsymmetrical and are made of 2 rolled
7. COLUMNS FOR BENTS – pair of channels and an I-beam with batten plates at
intervals of 3 to 4 feet connecting the flanges of the channels.
8. BATTENED COLUMNS – 2 component parts of a column are connected only by
batten plates.
9. BOX COLUMNS
10. LALLY COLUMNS – made up of cylindrical steel pipe shell filled with 1:1/2:3
portland-cement concrete.

52
FLOOR SYSTEM
A FLOOR SYSTEM of a building refers to the beam, girder and floor slab. A
floor slab carries both live and dead load. Live load refers to the human occupants, and
other movable and moving objects on the floor. The dead loads are fixed objects and the
weight of the slab itself. The weight of the slab is transmitted to the beam. The total
weight of the slab and the beam is then transmitted to the column.

REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB

SLAB – the upper part of a reinforced concrete floor, which is carried on beams below.

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM

1. ONE-WAY SOLID SLAB AND BEAM made of solid slab supported by two
parallel beams, rectangular slab where reinforcement are laid in one direction with
temperature bar parallel to the beam to counteract the effect of shrinkage and
changes in temperature and to distribute load over larger area.

2. TWO-WAY SOLID SLAB AND BEAM - slabs which are supported on four
sides where the floor panel is nearly square, generally economical to employ the two
direction of reinforcing bar placed at right angle with each other.

3. RIBBED FLOORS – is generally an economical type of floor construction but is

applicable only to medium span with light and medium load.

53
4. FLAT SLAB OR GIRDERLESS FLOORS– is a rectangular slab directly
supported by columns without beams or girders. The increased area directly
above the column is called drop panel or drop.

54
55
BEAM –
Generally, BEAMS/GIRDERS are defined as structural members, resting on
supports at its end, which supports transverse loads. They are usually horizontal but
occasionally inclined or even curved. To avoid ambiguity in the use of terms
applying to structural framing, it is better to know the following terms and their
definition:
GIRDER – a large or principal beam of steel, reinforce concrete, or timber, used to
support concentrated loads at isolated points along its length. It is a relatively
heavy member spanning between walls, piers or columns normally supporting
walls, beams, or joists.
BEAM – is somewhat lighter member spanning between girders, walls, piers, or
columns. It normally furnish the direct support for a floor or a flat roof system,
including partitions and other minor concentrated loads.
JOIST – is generally applied to the lightest of all horizontal members, which are used
at a comparatively close spacing, seldom more than 30”, on centers and spanning
between beams, girders, or walls.

CLASSIFICATION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS:

1. SIMPLE BEAM – beam having a single span with a support at each end,
these being no restraints at the support. Restraint means a rigid connection or
anchorage at the support. This is also called Simply Supported Beam.

2. CONTINUOUS BEAM – beam resting on more than two supports

56
 3. SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAMS – refers to a beam with two span with or
without restraint at the two extreme ends.

4. CANTILEVERED BEAM – beam supported at one end only or they may be

that portion of beams projecting beyond one of its support.

5. T-BEAM – when the floor slab and beams are poured with concrete
simultaneously producing a monolithic structure where the portion of the slab
at both sides of the beam serves as flanges of the T-beam.

The basic reinforcements of concrete beams or girders consist of four longitudinal

bars located at each corner of the beam or girder section. When the structural engineer
has computed that four pieces of bars is inadequate for beam or girder to support the
loads it is to carry, an appropriate number of short ones are added. These are placed over
supports and midspans, at the top or bottom parts, respectively, of the beam or girder
section.
Aside from longitudinal bars, stirrups are also used in reinforced concrete beams
or girder. These consist of either the open (U-stirrups) or the closed stirrups. They
enclose, and are secured to the longitudinal reinforcements by tying with g.i. wires or by
welding. While the longitudinal bars resist the longitudinal stresses, the stirrups take care
of the diagonal tension. They also keep the longitudinal bars in their proper position.

STEEL BEAMS
1. PLATE GIRDER – beam composed of a wide plate (web) at the top and bottom
of which are riveted angles and plates.
2. BOX GIRDER – built up beam in which more than one web plot is used.

REINFORCED CONCRETE STAIRWAYS

The simplest form of reinforced concrete stairway is the inclined slab supported at
the end by beams provided with steps on its upper surface. Under this type, steel
reinforcements are placed only in one direction along the length of the slab. A traverse
steel consisting of one bar per tread is employed to assist in the distribution of the load
and also serve as temperature reinforcement.

The National Building Code specifies

1. The minimum width of any stair slab and the minimum dimension of any landing
should be about 1.10 mts.
2. The maximum rise of stair step is usually specified as about 18 cm. A rise less
than 16 cm is generally not considered satisfactory.
3. The minimum tread width exclusive of nosing is 25 cm.
4. The maximum height of straight flight between landing is generally 3.60 mts.
except those serving as an exit from place of assembly where a maximum height
of 2.40 mts. is normally specified.
5. The number of stairway governed by the number of probable occupants per floor,
width of stairway and the building floor area. The distance from any point in an
open floor to the nearest stairway shall not exceed 30meters and that the

57
 corresponding distance along corridors in a particular area shall not exceed 38
meters.
6. The combined width of all the stairway in any floor shall accommodate at one
time the total number of persons occupying the largest floor area under the
condition that one person for .33 square meter floor area each on the landing and
halls within the stairway enclosure.

TERMS:
Live Load – refers to the occupancy load which is either partially or fully in place or
may not be present at all.

Dead Load – loads that are distributed or concentrated which are fixed in position
throughout the lifetime of the structure such as weight of the structure itself.

Environmental Load – consist of wind pressure and suctions, earthquake, rainwater on

flat roof, flood, snow and forces caused by temperature differentials.

Shear - is the effect of external forces that acts upon the structure causing the adjacent
sections of a member to slip from each other.

Strength – is the cohesive power of the materials that resist an attempt to pull it apart in
the direction of its fiber.

Ultimate Strength – is the maximum unit of stress developed at any time before rapture

Moment – is the tendency of a force to cause rotations about a certain point of axis.

Strain – is a kind of alteration or deformation produced by the stresses

Stress – is an internal action set up between the adjacent molecule of the body when
acted upon by forces or combination of forces which produces strain. Stress refers to the
pressure of load, weight, and some other adverse forces or influences.

REINFORCED WALL
Unless otherwise specified concrete walls shall have minimum reinforcement as
scheduled:

58
 WALL REINFORCEMENT
THICKNES (in meter) HORIZONTAL VERTICAL
0.10 10 mm Ø @ 0.25 m.o.c. 10 mm Ø @ 0.30 m.o.c.
0.15 12 mm Ø @ 0.228 m.o.c. 12 mm Ø @ 0.25 m.o.c.
0.20 10 mm Ø @ 0.25 m.o.c.E.F. 10 mm Ø @ 0.30 m.o.c.E.F.
0.25 12 mm Ø @ 0.25 m.o.c.E.F. 12 mm Ø @ 0.30 m.o.c.E.F.
0.30 12 mm Ø @ 0.20 m.o.c.E.F. 12 mm Ø @ 0.30 m.o.c.E.F.

TYPES OF WALLS:
Bearing Wall – a wall on which either the floor or roof construction rests.

Curtain Wall – enclosing wall of an iron or steel framework or the non-bearing portion
of an enclosing wall between piers.

Foundation Wall – portion of an enclosing wall below the first tier of joints.

Retaining Wall – subsurface wall built to resist the lateral pressure of internal loads. A
wall whose purpose is to resist the thrust of a bank of earth or other materials.

Spandrel Wall – space between any arch and the beam over the same. Exterior non-load
bearing wall in skeleton construction built between columns or piers wholly supported at
each storey.

Breast Wall – similar to retaining wall in that the breast wall or face wall is built to
prevent the fall of earth in its undisturbed natural position (usually basement floors, two
walls leading to basement door.

OTHER TYPE OF FOUNDATION:

WALL FOOTINGS – a strip of reinforced concrete wider than the wall which
distributes the load to the soil. Wall footing is an inverted beam that resist the upward
pressure of the foundation bed corresponding to the uniformly distributed load of the
wall.

RETAINING WALLS – are used to hold back masses of earth or other loose materials
where conditions make it impossible to let those masses assume their natural slopes.

TYPES OF RETAINING WALL

1. Gravity Wall – its weight alone resists the thrust of the earth

2. Cantilever Wall – makes use of the earth in resisting the tendency to overturn at
the outer edge.

3. Counterfort Wall – vertical wall is tied to the base at regular intervals with
triangular-shaped walls (similar to a buttress).

59
THREE TYPES OF ROOF FRAME:
1. Rafter type
2. Truss type
3. Laminated type

ROOF TRUSSES – are the most economical structure to cover a building having a wide
span of supporting columns or wall. A TRUSS is a structural frame generally supported
only at both ends by columns, roof beams, or walls. Also, TRUSS is a built up frame
commonly employed on a long span roof unsupported by intermediate columns or
partitions. It is a design of a series of triangles used to distribute load, stiffen the
structure and flexibility for the interior spacing as well as strength and rigidity.

BASIC TYPES OF TRUSSES

a. Howe Truss

b. Pratt Truss

c. Belgian Truss

90O
W

d. Fan Truss

e. Fink Truss

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BASIC PARTS OF A SIMPLE TRUSS
D TOP CHORDS
C E
RISE B F
A G
L K J I H
SPAN

BOTTOM CHORDS
1. Top Chords: AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FG
2. Bottom Chords: GH, HI, IJ, JK, KL, LA
3. King Post: DJ
4. Web Members, a. Vertical Members: BL, CK, EI, FH
b. Diagonal Members: BK, CJ, EJ, FI
5. Span = is the horizontal distance between the end supports.
6. Rise = is the distance between the bottom chord and peak (ridge) of the top
chord
7. Pitch = is the ratio of the rise to the span of the truss.

PURLIN – is a beam placed on top of the rafters or top chord that extends from truss to
truss which carry and transfer the roof load to the truss at the panel points.

ROOF PANEL – refers to the roof portion that lies between two adjacent joints of the
upper chord. In short, roof panel is that portion of the roof supported by each purlins.

SAG ROD – refers to the steel bar usually of 16 mm or 19 mm diameter rod attached at
the center or end points of the span of the purlins. Sag rod is secured to the purlins over
the line of the ridge truss usually placed at 7 cm. below the top flange of the purlins.

61
STEPS IN ERECTION OF STEEL ROOF FRAME

1 2 3 4 5

62
 B A Y S

ANCHOR BOLT PLAN

PROCEDURE:
1. Erect F1 and Fz
2. Set up purlins and sag rod.
3. Put cross bridging or roof brace
4. Check alignment, plumbline, and brace

PLUMBING – is considered as one of the art and science of installing pipes, fixtures and
apparatus in buildings to convey water and other substances including the discharge of
waste, water and other liquids, gases and other ingredients affecting the health and
sanitation of life and property.

PLUMBER – is the title given to a person who is a skilled worker in the field of
sanitation, who fits and repairs the pipes and fixtures of a water system. It is a word
derived from a Roman term Plumbarium which in turn was taken from the Latin word
Plumbum meaning lead. Lead is a metal commonly used as a plumbing material and is
preferred for its twin properties of malleability and resistance to acid.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEM

63
 1. CESSPOOL – is a hole on the ground with stones and bricks laid in such a
manner as to allow raw contaminated sewage to leach into the undersurface of the
ground.

2. PRIVY- is a concrete vault constructed for the collection of raw sewage sealed
with a wooden shelter,

3. SEPTIC TANK – is a receptacle or vault used to collect organic waste discharge

from the house sewer.

4. PUBLIC SEWER LINE – is a public sewage disposal system consisting of a

sewage treatment unit which conveys the raw sewage to the disposal system.

ELECTRICITY - is a form of energy generated by friction, induction or chemical

change; having magnetic, chemical and radiant effect. In short, electricity is electrons in
motion.

ILLUMINATION – is defined as the intensity of light per unit area.

ELECTRIC ILLUMINATION – is the production of light by means of electricity and

its application to provide efficient, comfortable and safe vision.

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 ENGLISH TERM VERNACULAR
1. POST, COLUMN halige, poste
2. GIRDER guililan
3. JOIST suleras
4. FLOORING sahig, suelo
5. GIRT sepo
6. BEAM biga
7. BOTTOM CHORD barakilan
8. TRUSS kilo
9. TOP CHORD tahilan
10. PURLIN reostra
11. FASCIA BOARD senepa
12. CEILING JOIST kostilyahe
13. EXTERIOR SIDING - tabike
14. STUD (VERTICAL) pilarete
15. STUD (HORIZONTAL) pabalagbag
16. WINDOW SILL pasamano
17. WINDOW HEAD sumbrero
18. WINDOW/DOOR JAMB hamba
19. COLLAR PLATE sinturon
20. STRINGER (OPEN) hardinera
21. STRINGER (CLOSED) madre (de escalera)
22. TREAD baitang
23. RISER takip, silipan
24. HANDRAIL gabay
25. MOULDING muldura
26. EAVE sibe
27. PROJECTION bolada
29. GUTTER kanal
30. CONDUCTOR alulod
31. W.I.STRAP planchuela
32. BOLT pierno
33. FRAMEWORK balangkas

65
34. STAKE estaka
35. STUCCO/PLASTER palitada
36. PLASTERED COURSE kusturada
37. SCRATCH COAT rebokada
38, PICKWORK piketa
39. VARNISH FINISH monyeka
40. SPACING OR GAP biento
41. CONCRETE SLAB larga masa
42. ALIGNMENT asintada
43 PLUMB LINE hulog
44. CEMENT TILE baldosa
45. CEMENT BRICK ladrilyo
46. DOOR FILLET batidorA
47 GROOVE kanal
49. PATTERN / SCHEDULE plantilya.
50. HINGE bisagra
51. PANELLED DOOR de bandeha
52. EARTHFILL escombro
53. MASONRY FILL lastilyasd
54. ADOBE ANCHOR liyabe
55. SOLDER hinang
56. NICOLITE BAR estanyo
57. TEMPER (metal work) suban, subuhan
58. DIAGONAL BRACE pie de gallo
59. NAIL SETTER punsol
60. WIRING KNOB poleya
61. CABINET HINGE espolon
62. FILL tambak
63. MORTAR paupo
64. BALLUSTER barandilyas
65. NAILERS pamakuan
66. LANDING pahingahan; mesa
67. LAYING OF CHB asintada
68. LABORER piyon
69. KING POST pendulum
70. TRELLIS - pergola
71. LATTICE sala-sala
72. CLEATS tako
73. DWARF POSR tukod
74. NUT tuerka
75. PLUG tapon
76. SHEET - plantsa
77. PUTTY - masilya
78. TANSOM espeho
79. ALTERNATE/ STAGGERED uno sinotra
80. MITER kanto mesa

66