Notes-1

MAT 121 Vasanth 2024, IISER TVM

1 Integers, Rational numbers, supremum, infimum

• The set of positive integers: N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}.
• The set of non negative integers: Z⩾0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
• The set of integers: Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
• The set of rational numbers: Q = { pq : p, q ∈ Z, q ̸= 0}.

• The set of positive rational numbers: Q+ = { pq : p, q ∈ N}.

Some properties of rational numbers involving addition (+) and multiplication (·)

(F1) a + b = b + a and ab = ba for every a, b ∈ Q.

(F2) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (ab)c = a(bc) for every a, b, c ∈ Q.
(F3) a(b + c) = ab + ac for every a, b, c ∈ Q.
(F4) a + 0 = a and a.1 = a for every a ∈ Q.
(F5) For every a ∈ Q, there exist a unique b ∈ Q such that a + b = 0. (Note that b = −a)
(F6) For every x ∈ Q with x ̸= 0 there exist a unique y ∈ Q such that xy = 1. (Note that y = x1 ).

Above properties of Q altogether are known as “Field” properties of Q.

Some important properties of Q+

(P1) If a, b ∈ Q+ , then a + b ∈ Q+ .
(P2) If a, b ∈ Q+ , then ab ∈ Q+ .
(P3) If a ∈ Q, then exactly one of the following holds:

a ∈ Q+ , a = 0, − a ∈ Q+ .

Order properties of Q

We say a number a ∈ Q is positive and write it as a > 0 if a ∈ Q+ . This allows us to define an order “ > ”
on Q. For any two numbers a, b ∈ Q, we write a > b (or equivalently we write b < a) if a − b ∈ Q+ . Using
the properties (P1)-(P3) of Q+ , the following results about order are immediate for Q.
(i) If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
(ii) If a > b, then a + c > b + c.

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(iii) If a > b and c > 0 then ac > bc.
(iv) If a > b and c < 0 then bc > ac.
Bounded set in Q, supremum and infimum
• A subset E ⊆ Q is said to be bounded above if there exist a upper bound r ∈ Q for the set E, that is,
x ⩽ r for every x ∈ E.
• A subset E ⊆ Q is said to be bounded below if there exist a lower bound t ∈ Q for the set E, that is,
t ⩽ x for every x ∈ E.
• A subset E ⊆ Q is said to be bounded if E is both bounded above and bounded below. In other words
E is bounded if there exist t, r ∈ Q such that t ⩽ x ⩽ r for every x ∈ E. (E is contained in some
interval).
Notion of supremum/least upper bound and infimum/greatest lower bound in Q
• Least upper bound/supremum in Q : Suppose E ⊂ Q is bounded above. Then a number s ∈ Q is said
to be the least upper bound/supremum of E if
(i) s is an upper bound for E.
(ii) Any rational number lesser than s is not an upper bound for E. (In other words if g ∈ Q with
s > g, then g is not an upper bound for E.)
• Greatest lower bound/infimum in Q : Suppose E ⊂ Q is bounded below. Then a number h ∈ Q is said
to be the greatest lower bound/infimum of E if
(i) h is an lower bound for E.
(ii) Any rational number bigger than h is not an lower bound for E. (In other words if y ∈ Q with
y > h, then y is not an lower bound for E.)
Q fail to have least upper bound property
• There exists a non empty bounded set in Q which does not have the supremum/least upper bound.
For example consider the set E = {x ∈ Q : x > 0, x2 < 2}. We will show that E is bounded but E has
no supremum in Q.
(a) Note that E is a bounded subset of Q since for every x ∈ E, we have 0 < x < 2.
(b) Suppose s ∈ Q is the supremum for E. For this s ∈ Q, let’s consider t ∈ Q given by
s2 − 2 2s + 2
t=s− = .
s+2 s+2
2(s2 −2)
It is easy to verify that t2 − 2 = (s+2)2 .
(c) By (P3) property of the order, it follows that exactly one of the following holds:
s2 < 2, s2 > 2, s2 = 2.
(d) If s2 < 2 then s < t and furthermore t ∈ E. This shows that s is not an upper bound of E.
(e) If s2 > 2 ∈ E then t < s and furthermore 2 < t2 . This shows that x2 < 2 < t2 for every x ∈ E. It
follows that x < t for every x ∈ E. This gives us t is an upper bound of E with t < s. This shows
that s is not the least upper bound.
(f) Hence the only possibility remains is that s2 = 2. But with a simple argument it can be shown that
there exist no s ∈ Q with s2 = 2. (Argument: suppose s = pq for some p, q ∈ N with gcd(p, q) = 1
and moreover assume that s2 = 2. Then it follows that p2 = 2q 2 . This gives us p2 is even integer
and hence p is an even integer. writing p = 2m we get that q 2 = 2m2 . This gives us q 2 is an even
and hence q is an even integer. But this contradicts gcd(p, q) = 1. Hence there exist no rational
number s such that s2 = 2.)
(g) Thus we conclude that E has no least upper bound/supremum in Q.

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2 The set of Real numbers and its basic properties
• The set of real numbers, denoted as R, is also a number system containing Q having properties “similar”
to Q along with an extra property, namely the least upper bound property. We give the details of this
properties in below.

1. “Field” properties of R

The set R also have the properties (F1)-(F6) as mentioned in the case of Q.
(F1) a + b = b + a and ab = ba for every a, b ∈ R.
(F2) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (ab)c = a(bc) for every a, b, c ∈ R.
(F3) a(b + c) = ab + ac for every a, b, c ∈ R.
(F4) a + 0 = a and a.1 = a for every a ∈ R.
(F5) For every a ∈ R, there exist a unique b ∈ R such that a + b = 0. (we denote b = −a)
(F6) For every x ∈ R with x ̸= 0 there exist a unique y ∈ R such that xy = 1. (Note that y = x1 ).

2. “Order” properties of R

Like Q+ as in the case of Q, there exist a subset R+ of R, called as, positive real numbers having
properties (P1)-(P3).
(P1) If a, b ∈ R+ , then a + b ∈ R+ .
(P2) If a, b ∈ R+ , then ab ∈ R+ .
(P3) If a ∈ R, then exactly one of the following holds:

a ∈ R+ , a = 0, − a ∈ R+ .

This allows us to define an order “ > ” on R. For any two numbers a, b ∈ R, we write a > b (or
equivalently we write b < a) if a − b ∈ R+ . Using the properties (P1)-(P3) of R+ , the following results
about order are immediate for R as well.
(i) If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
(ii) If a > b, then a + c > b + c.
(iii) If a > b and c > 0 then ac > bc.
(iv) If a > b and c < 0 then bc > ac.
(v) If a ̸= 0, then a2 > 0.
(vi) 1 > 0.
(vii) If ab > 0 then both a and b are positive or both are negative.
(viii) If a > b and c > d, then a + c > b + d.

Bounded set in R, supremum and infimum

(i) A subset E ⊆ R is said to be bounded above if there exist a upper bound r ∈ R for the set E,
that is, x ⩽ r for every x ∈ E.
(ii) A subset E ⊆ R is said to be bounded below if there exist a lower bound t ∈ R for the set E, that
is, t ⩽ x for every x ∈ E.
(iii) A subset E ⊆ R is said to be bounded if E is both bounded above and bounded below. In other
words E is bounded if there exist t, r ∈ R such that t ⩽ x ⩽ r for every x ∈ E. (E is contained in
some interval).

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 Notion of supremum/least upper bound and infimum/greatest lower bound in R

(a) Least upper bound/supremum in R : Suppose E ⊂ R is bounded above. Then a number s ∈ R is

said to be the least upper bound/supremum of E if
(i) s is an upper bound for E.
(ii) Any real number lesser than s is not an upper bound for E. (In other words if g ∈ R with
s > g, then g is not an upper bound for E.)
(b) Greatest lower bound/infimum in R : Suppose E ⊂ R is bounded below. Then a number h ∈ R
is said to be the greatest lower bound/infimum of E if
(i) h is an lower bound for E.
(ii) Any real number bigger than h is not a lower bound for E. (In other words if y ∈ R with
y > h, then y is not an lower bound for E.)

3. Least upper bound property (Completeness property) :

(L1) Every non empty bounded above subset of R has a least upper bound.

Thus R is a set having

1. “Field” properties (F1)-(F6),
2. “Order” properties (existence of a subset R+ satisfying (P1)-(P3) which defines a order on R) and
3. Least upper bound property.
√
Existence of 2 in R

• There exists a real 2

√ number y such that y > 0 and y = 2. This y is called the positive square root of 2
and denoted as 2. The existence follows from the following arguments.

• Consider E = {x ∈ R : x > 0, x2 < 2}.

• Note that E is a non empty bounded set in R as 0 < x < 2 for every x ∈ E.
• By least upper bound property of R, there must exists a y ∈ R such that y = sup E. Note that y > 0
as y is an upper bound of E. We will show that y 2 = 2.

• Let’s consider t ∈ R given by

y2 − 2 2y + 2
t=y− = .
y+2 y+2
2(y 2 −2)
It is easy to verify that t2 − 2 = (y+2)2 .

• By the order property (P3) of R, exactly one of the following holds:

y 2 < 2, y 2 > 2, y 2 = 2.

We will show that first two cases are impossible. This will give us that y 2 = 2.
• If y 2 < 2 then y < t and furthermore t ∈ E. This shows that y is not an upper bound of E.

• If y 2 > 2 ∈ E then t < y and furthermore 2 < t2 . This shows that x2 < 2 < t2 for every x ∈ E. It
follows that x < t for every x ∈ E. This gives us t is an upper bound of E with t < y. This shows that
y is not the least upper bound.
• Hence y 2 < 2 and y 2 > 2 is not possible, therefore y 2 = 2.

Absolute value in Real number system

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Definition 1 The absolute value of a real number a, denoted by |a|, is defined by

a
 if a > 0,
|a| := 0 if a = 0,

−a if a < 0.


Some additional properties of absolute value are as follows.

Theorem 1 Absolute value satisfies the following properties:

(i) |ab| = |a||b| for all a, b ∈ R.

(ii) |a|2 = a2 for all a ∈ R.
(iii) If c > 0, then |a| ⩽ c if and only if −c ⩽ a ⩽ c.

(iv) −|a| ⩽ a ⩽ |a| for all a ∈ R.

Theorem 2 (Triangle Inequality) The inequality |a + b| ⩽ |a| + |b| holds for every a, b ∈ R.

It can be shown that equality occurs in the Triangle inequality if and only if ab > 0, that is, a and b has the
same sign.

Corollary 3 If a, b ∈ R, then
(i) |a − b| ⩽ |a| + |b|,
(ii) |a| − |b| ⩽ |a − b|.

Corollary 4 If a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ R, then

|a1 + a2 + · · · + an | ⩽ |a1 | + |a2 | + · · · + |an |.

Archimedean Property

Theorem 5 Suppose x, y ∈ R with y > 0. Then there exist a natural number n ∈ N such that ny > x.

Corollary 6 If E = { n1 : n ∈ N}, then inf E = 0.

Corollary 7 If x, y are two real number satisfying x < y, then there exists a rational number r ∈ Q such
that x < r < y. In other words, between any two real number there exists a rational number.

Corollary 8 If x, y are two real number satisfying x < y, then there exists a irrational number t ∈ R \ Q
such that x < t < y. In other words, between any two real number there exists an irrational number.

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