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A Problem Solving Approach To Mathematic

Using exactly five 5s and only addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, write an expression that equals each of the numbers from 1 to 10. The chapter discusses addition and subtraction of whole numbers. It provides models for teaching computational skills involving whole numbers, including a set model to represent addition of whole numbers. The combined set of blocks is the union of the disjoint sets of 4 blocks and 3 blocks, which equals 7 blocks in all.

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A Problem Solving Approach To Mathematic

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Whole Numbers and

Their Operations
CHAPTER

Preliminary Problem
Using exactly five 5s and only addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, write an
expression that equals each of the numbers from 1 to 10. You do not have to use all operations.
Numbers such as 55 are permitted; for example, 5 could be written as 5 + 315 - 52 # 554.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

110
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 3-1 Addition and Subtraction of Whole Numbers 111

I n Section 2-1 we saw that the concept of one-to-one correspondence between sets can
be used to introduce children to the concept of a number. In NCTM’s Curriculum
Focal Points for Prekindergarten through Grade 8 Mathematics, we find the following:

Children develop an understanding of the meanings of whole numbers and recognize the num-
ber of objects in small groups without counting and by counting—the first and most basic math-
ematical algorithm. They understand that number words refer to quantity. They use one-to-one
correspondence to solve problems by matching sets and comparing number amounts and in
counting objects to 10 and beyond. They understand that the last word that they state in count-
ing tells “how many,” they count to determine number amounts and compare quantities (using
language such as “more than” and “less than”), and they order sets by the number of objects in
them. (p. 11)

In the following Peanuts cartoon, it seems that Lucy’s little brother has not yet learned to
associate number words with a collection of objects. He will soon learn that this set of fin-
gers can be put into one-to-one correspondence with many sets of objects that can be
counted. He will associate the word three not only with Lucy’s three upheld fingers but with
other sets of objects with this same cardinal number.

In this chapter, we will investigate operations involving whole numbers. As stated in

the Principles and Standards (PSSM) in “Number and Operation” for grades pre-K–2, all
students on this level should understand meanings of operations and how they relate to one
another. In particular, PSSM states that in pre-K–2 all students should:

• understand various meanings of addition and subtraction of whole numbers and the
relationship between the two operations;
• understand the effects of adding and subtracting whole numbers;
• understand situations that entail multiplication and division, such as equal groupings of objects
and sharing equally. (p. 78)

3-1 Addition and Subtraction of Whole Numbers

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When zero is included with the set of natural numbers, N = 51, 2, 3, 4, 5, Á 6, we have
the set of whole numbers, denoted W = 50, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Á 6. In this section, we provide a
variety of models for teaching computational skills involving whole numbers and allow you
to revisit mathematics for the deeper understanding that teachers need.

A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
112 Whole Numbers and Their Operations

Addition of Whole Numbers

Children encounter addition in preschool years by combining objects and wanting to know
how many objects there are in the combined set. They may “count on” as suggested by
▲
▲
Research Note Carpenter and Moser in the Research Note, or they may count the objects to find the car-
Simple addition and dinal number of the combined set.
subtraction problems
Set Model
can be better under-
stood when students A set model is one way to represent addition of whole numbers. Suppose Jane has 4 blocks
solve “joining” in one pile and 3 in another. If she combines the two groups, how many objects are there in
and “take-away” the combined group? Figure 3-1 shows the solution as it might appear in an elementary
problems by directly school text. The combined set of blocks is the union of the disjoint sets of 4 blocks and
modeling the 3 blocks. After the sets have been combined, some children count the objects to determine
situation or by using that there are 7 in all. Note the importance of the sets being disjoint or having no elements in com-
counting strategies mon. If the sets have common elements, then an incorrect conclusion can be drawn.
such as counting on
or counting back n(A) = 4 n(B) = 3
(Carpenter and Moser A B
▲
1984).
▲
a b
e f g
c d

a b
c d e

f g

n(A) + n(B) = 4 + 3 = 7 = n(A B)

Figure 3-1

Using set terminology, we define addition formally.

Definition of Addition of Whole Numbers

Let A and B be two disjoint finite sets. If n1A2 = a and n1B2 = b, then a + b = n1A ´ B2.

The numbers a and b in a + b are the addends and a + b is the sum.

NOW TRY THIS 3-1 If the sets in the preceding definition of addition of whole numbers are not
disjoint, explain why the definition is incorrect.
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▲
Historical Historians think that the word zero originated from the Hindu word sunya, which means
▲
Note “void.” Then sunya was translated into the Arabic sifr, which when translated to Latin
▲
became zephirum, from which the word zero was derived. ▲

Number-Line (Measurement) Model

The set model for addition may not be the best model for some additions. For example,
consider the following questions:
1. Josh has 4 feet of red ribbon and 3 feet of white ribbon. How many feet of ribbon does
he have altogether?
2. One day, Gail drank 4 ounces of orange juice in the morning and 3 ounces at lunchtime.
If she drank no other orange juice that day, how many ounces of orange juice did she
drink for the entire day?
A number line can be used to model whole-number addition and answer questions 1 and
2. Any line marked with two fundamental points, one representing 0 and the other repre-
senting 1, can be turned into a number line. The points representing 0 and 1 mark the ends
of a unit segment. Other points can be marked and labeled, as shown in Figure 3-2. Any two
consecutive whole numbers on the number line in Figure 3-2 mark the ends of a segment
that has the same length as the unit segment.

4+3
4 3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Figure 3-2

Addition problems may be modeled using directed arrows (vectors) on the number line.
For example, the sum of 4 + 3 is shown in Figure 3-2. Arrows representing the addends,
4 and 3, are combined into one arrow representing the sum 4 + 3. Figure 3-2 poses an in-
herent problem for students. If an arrow starting at 0 and ending at 3 represents 3, why
should an arrow starting at 4 and ending at 7 represent 3? Students need to understand that
the sum represented by any two directed arrows can be found by placing the endpoint of
the first directed arrow at 0 and then joining to it the directed arrow for the second number
with no gaps or overlaps. The sum of the numbers can then be read. We have depicted the
addends as arrows (or vectors) above the number line, but students typically concatenate
(connect) the arrows directly on the line.

NOW TRY THIS 3-2 A common error is that students represent 3 as an arrow on the number line
sometimes starting at 1, as shown in Figure 3-3. Explain why this is not appropriate.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 3-3

▲
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Historical The symbol “ + ” first appeared in a 1417 manuscript and was a short way of writing the
▲
Note Latin word et, which means “and.” The word minus means “less” in Latin. First written as
an m, it was later shortened to a horizontal bar. Johannes Widman wrote a book in 1489
▲
that made use of the + and - symbols for addition and subtraction. ▲

Ordering Whole Numbers

In the NCTM grade 1 Curriculum Focal Points, we find the following:

Children compare and order whole numbers (at least to 100) to develop an understanding of and
solve problems involving the relative sizes of these numbers. They think of whole numbers
between 10 and 100 in terms of groups of tens and ones (especially recognizing the numbers 11 to
19 as 1 group of ten and particular numbers of ones). They understand the sequential order of the
counting numbers and their relative magnitudes and represent numbers on a number line. (p. 13)

In Chapter 2, we used the concept of a set and the concept of a one-to-one correspon-
dence to define greater-than relations. A horizontal number line can also be used to de-
scribe greater-than and less-than relations in the set of whole numbers. For example, in
Figure 3-2, notice that 4 is to the left of 7 on the number line. We say, “four is less than
seven,” and we write 4 6 7. We can also say “seven is greater than four” and write 7 7 4.
Since 4 is to the left of 7, there is a natural number that can be added to 4 to get 7,
namely, 3. Thus, 4 6 7 because 4 + 3 = 7. We can generalize this discussion to form the
following definition of less than.

Definition of Less Than

For any whole numbers a and b, a is less than b, written a 6 b, if, and only if, there exists a
natural number k such that a + k = b.

Sometimes equality is combined with the inequalities, greater than and less than, to give
the relations greater than or equal to and less than or equal to, denoted Ú and … . Thus,
a … b means a 6 b or a = b. The emphasis with respect to these symbols is on the or, so
3 … 5, 5 Ú 3, and 3 Ú 3 are all true statements.

Whole-Number Addition Properties

Any time two whole numbers are added, we are guaranteed that a unique whole number
will be obtained. This property is sometimes referred to as the closure property of addition of
whole numbers. We say that “the set of whole numbers is closed under addition.”

Theorem 3–1: Closure Property of Addition of Whole Numbers

If a and b are whole numbers, then a + b is a whole number.

R E M A R K The closure property implies that the sum of two whole numbers exists and
that the sum is a unique whole number; for example, 5 + 2 is a unique whole number
and we identify that number as 7.
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NOW TRY THIS 3-3 Determine whether each of the following sets is closed under addition:
a. E = 52, 4, 6, 8, 10, Á 6
b. F = 51, 3, 5, 7, 96

In Principles and Standards we find the following:

In developing the meaning of addition and subtraction with whole numbers, students should also
encounter the properties of operations, such as the commutativity and associativity of addition.
Although some students discover and use properties of operations naturally, teachers can bring
these properties to the forefront through class discussions. (p. 83)

Figure 3-4(a) shows two additions. Pictured above the number line is 3 + 5 and below
the number line is 5 + 3. The sums are the same. Figure 3-4(b) shows the same sums ob-
tained with colored rods and the result being the same. Both illustrations in Figure 3-4
demonstrate the idea that two whole numbers can be added in either order. This property
is true in general and is the commutative property of addition of whole numbers. We say that
“addition of whole numbers is commutative.” The word commutative is derived from
commute, which means “to interchange.”

3+5
5
3 5
3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
5 3 3
5+3 5
(a) (b)

Figure 3-4

Theorem 3–2: Commutative Property of Addition of Whole Numbers

If a and b are any whole numbers, then a + b = b + a.

The commutative property of addition of whole numbers is not obvious to many young
children. They may be able to find the sum 9 + 2 and not be able to find the sum 2 + 9.
Using counting on, 9 + 2 can be computed by starting at 9 and then counting on two more
as “ten” and “eleven.” To compute 2 + 9 without the commutative property, the counting
on is more involved. Students need to understand that 2 + 9 is another name for 9 + 2.

NOW TRY THIS 3-4 Use the set model to show the commutative property for 3 + 5 = 5 + 3.

Another property of addition is demonstrated when we select the order in which to add
three or more numbers. For example, we could compute 24 + 8 + 2 by grouping the 24
and the 8 together: 124 + 82 + 2 = 32 + 2 = 34. (The parentheses indicate that the first
two numbers are grouped together.) We might also recognize that it is easy to add any
number to 10 and compute it as 24 + 18 + 22 = 24 + 10 = 34. This example illustrates
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the associative property of addition of whole numbers. The word associative is derived from the
word associate, which means “to unite.”

Theorem 3–3: Associative Property of Addition of Whole Numbers

If a, b, and c are whole numbers, then 1a + b2 + c = a + 1b + c2.

When several numbers are being added, the parentheses are usually omitted since the
grouping does not alter the result.
Another property of addition of whole numbers is seen when one addend is 0. In Figure 3-5,
set A has 5 blocks and set B has 0 blocks. The union of sets A and B has only 5 blocks.

n(A) = 5 n(B) = 0 because B =

A B
a b
o r

a b

o r

n(A) + n(B) = 5 + 0 = 5 = n(A B)

Figure 3-5

This example uses the set model to illustrate the following property of whole numbers:

Theorem 3–4: Identity Property of Addition of Whole Numbers

There is a unique whole number 0, the additive identity, such that for any whole number
a, a + 0 = a = 0 + a.

Notice how the associative and identity properties are introduced on the grade 3 student
page on p. 117. Work through parts 4–7.

Example 3-1 Which properties justify each of the following?

▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼

a. 5 + 7 = 7 + 5
b. 1001 + 733 is a unique whole number.
c. 13 + 52 + 7 = 15 + 32 + 7
d. 18 + 52 + 2 = 2 + 18 + 52 = 12 + 82 + 5

Solution a. Commutative property of addition

b. Closure property of addition
c. Commutative property of addition
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d. Commutative and associative properties of addition

▲ ▲

School Book Page PROPERTIES OF ADDITION

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Source: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley Math, Grade 3, 2008 (p. 67).

Mastering Basic Addition Facts

Certain mathematical facts are basic addition facts. Basic addition facts are those involving a
single digit plus a single digit. In the Dennis The Menace cartoon, it seems that Dennis has
not mastered the basic addition facts.

▲
▲
Research Note One method of learning the basic facts is to organize them according to different derived
Students trying to fact strategies, as suggested in the Research Note. Several strategies are listed below.
master basic addition
1. Counting on. The strategy of counting on from the greater of the addends can be
facts should be given
used any time we need to add whole numbers, but it is inefficient. It is usually used
experiences with
when one addend is 1, 2, or 3. For example, in the cartoon Dennis could have com-
derived fact
puted 4 + 2 by starting at 4 and then counting on 5, 6. Likewise, 3 + 3 would be
strategies. For exam-
computed by starting at 3 and then counting on 4, 5, 6.
ple, 5 + 6 can be
2. Doubles. The next strategy involves the use of doubles. Doubles such as 3 + 3 in the
transformed into
15 + 52 + 1, which
cartoon receive special attention. After students master doubles, doubles + 1 and
doubles + 2 can be learned easily. For example, if a student knows 6 + 6 = 12, then
6 + 7 is 16 + 62 + 1, or 1 more than the double of 6, or 13. Likewise, 7 + 9 is
could be computed

17 + 72 + 2, or 2 more than the double of 7, or 16.

by finding the sum of
the easier double
3. Making 10. Another strategy is that of making 10 and then adding any leftover. For
5 + 5 = 10 and 1.
example, we could think of 8 + 5 as shown in Figure 3-6. Notice that we are really
Because this strategy
using the associative property of addition.
builds on a student’s
number sense and 8 + 5 8 + ( 2 + 3 )
meaningful relation-
ships between basic
combinations, it
+ +
( +
(
improves fact recall ( 8 + 2 ) + 3 10 + 3 = 13
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and provides a
fallback mechanism
for students (Fuson
( +
( + +

▲
1992). ▲
Figure 3-6

4. Counting back. The strategy of counting back is usually used when one number
is 1 or 2 less than 10. For example, because 9 is 1 less than 10, then 9 + 7 is 1
less than 10 + 7, or 16. In symbols, this is 9 + 7 = 110 + 72 - 1 = 17 - 1 = 16.
Also, 8 + 7 = 110 + 72 - 2 = 17 - 2 = 15.
Many basic facts might be classified under more than one strategy. For example, we could
find 9 + 8 using making 10 as 9 + 11 + 72 = 19 + 12 + 7 = 10 + 7 = 17 or using a
double + 1 as 18 + 82 + 1.

Subtraction of Whole Numbers

In the grade 1 Focal Points we find the following:

By comparing a variety of solution strategies, children relate addition and subtraction as inverse
operations. (p. 13)

In elementary school, operations that “undo” each other are inverse operations. Subtrac-
tion is the inverse operation for addition. It is sometimes hard for students to understand
this inverse relationship between the two operations, as the cartoon demonstrates.

In Principles and Standards we find the following:

Students develop further understandings of addition when they solve missing-addend problems
that arise from stories or real situations. Further understandings of subtraction are conveyed by
situations in which two collections need to be made equal or one collection needs to be made a
desired size. Some problems, such as “Carlos had three cookies. María gave him some more, and
now he has eight. How many did she give him?” can help students see the relationship between
addition and subtraction. (p. 83)

We can model subtraction of whole numbers using several solution strategies, including the
take-away model, the missing-addend model, the comparison model, and the number-line (mea-
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

surement) model.

Take-Away Model
In addition, we imagine a second set of objects as being joined to a first set, but in subtrac-
tion, we imagine a second set as being taken away from a first set. For example, suppose we
have 8 blocks and take away 3 of them. We illustrate this in Figure 3-7 and record this
process as 8 - 3 = 5.

8 blocks Take away

3 blocks

8 – 3 = 5 ; 5 blocks left

Figure 3-7

NOW TRY THIS 3-5 Recall how addition of whole numbers was defined using the concept of union
of two disjoint sets. Similarly, write a definition of subtraction of whole numbers using the concepts of
subsets and set difference.

Missing-Addend Model
A second model for subtraction, the missing-addend model, relates subtraction and addition.
In Figure 3-7, 8 - 3 is pictured as 8 blocks “take away” 3 blocks. The number of blocks left
is the number 8 - 3, or 5. This can also be thought of as the number of blocks that could
be added to 3 blocks in order to get 8 blocks, that is,
3 + 8 - 3 = 8
The number 8 - 3, or 5, is the missing addend in the equation
3 + n = 8.
We can also relate the missing-addend approach to sets or to a number line. The subtraction
8 - 3 is illustrated in Figure 3-8(a) using sets and in Figure 3-8(b) using the number line.

(a) n(A) = 8 (b) 3 ?

A 8
How many?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

8 - 3 = ?
if, and only if,
3 + ? = 8
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Figure 3-8

The missing-addend model gives elementary school students an opportunity to begin

algebraic thinking. An unknown is a major part of the problem of trying to decide the
difference of 8 - 3.
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 3-1 Addition and Subtraction of Whole Numbers 121

Refer to the student page on p. 122 to see how grade 3 students are shown how addition
and subtraction are related using a fact family. Answer the Talk About It questions on the
bottom of the student page.
Cashiers often use the missing-addend model. For example, if the bill for a movie is $8 and
you pay $10, the cashier might calculate the change by saying “8 and 2 is 10.” This idea can
be generalized: For any whole numbers a and b such that a Ú b, a - b is the unique whole
number such that b + 1a - b2 = a. That is, a - b is the unique solution of the equation
b + n = a. The definition can be written as follows:

Definition of Subtraction of Whole Numbers

For any whole numbers a and b such that a Ú b, a - b is the unique whole number c such that
b + c = a.

Comparison Model
Another way to consider subtraction is by using a comparison model. Suppose Juan has
8 blocks and Susan has 3 blocks and we want to know how many more blocks Juan has than
Susan. We can pair Susan’s blocks with some of Juan’s blocks, as shown in Figure 3-9, and
determine that Juan has 5 more blocks than Susan. We also write this as 8 - 3 = 5.

Juan’s 8 blocks

Difference of 5 blocks

Susan’s blocks

Figure 3-9

Number-Line (Measurement) Model

Subtraction of whole numbers can also be modeled on a number line using directed arrows,
as suggested in Figure 3-10, which shows that 5 - 3 = 2.

5–3 3
5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 3-10

The following four problems illustrate each of the four models for subtraction. In all four
problems the answer is 5 but each can be thought of using a different model.
1. Take-away model. Al had $9 and spent $4. How much did he have left?
2. Missing-addend model. Al has read 4 chapters of a 9-chapter book. How many
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chapters does he have left to read?

3. Comparison model. Al has 9 books and Betty has 4 books. How many more books
does Al have than Betty?
4. Number-line model. Al completed a 9-mile hike in two days. He hiked 4 miles on
the second day. How far did he hike on the first day?
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
122 Whole Numbers and Their Operations

School Book Page REL ATING ADDITION

AND SUBTRACTION

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Source: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley Math, Grade 3, 2008 (p. 70).

Properties of Subtraction
In an attempt to find 3 - 5, we use the definition of subtraction: 3 - 5 = c if, and only if,
c + 5 = 3. Since there is no whole number c that satisfies the equation, 3 - 5 is not mean-
ingful in the set of whole numbers. In general, it can be shown that if a 6 b, then a - b is
not meaningful in the set of whole numbers. Therefore, subtraction is not closed on the set
of whole numbers.

NOW TRY THIS 3-6 Which of the following properties hold for subtraction of whole numbers?
Explain.
a. Closure property b. Associative property
c. Commutative property d. Identity property

Introductory Algebra Using Whole-Number

Addition and Subtraction
Sentences such as 9 + 5 = x and 12 - y = 4 can be true or false depending on the values
of x and y. For example, if x = 10, then 9 + 5 = x is false. If y = 8, then 12 - y = 4 is
true. If the value that is used makes the equation true, it is a solution to the equation.

NOW TRY THIS 3-7 Find the solution for each of the following where x is a whole number:
a. x + 8 = 13 b. 15 - x = 8 c. x 7 9 and x 6 11

Assessment 3-1A

1. Give an example to show why, in the definition of addi- 6. Each of the following is an example of one of the proper-
tion, sets A and B must be disjoint. ties for addition of whole numbers. Identify the property
2. For which of the following is it true that n 1A2 + n1B2 = illustrated.
n1A ´ B2? a. 6 + 3 = 3 + 6
a. A = 5a, b, c6, B = 5d, e6 b. 16 + 32 + 5 = 6 + 13 + 52
b. A = 5a, b, c6, B = 5b, c6 c. 16 + 32 + 5 = 13 + 62 + 5
c. A = 5a, b, c6, B = ⭋ d. 5 + 0 = 5 = 0 + 5
3. If n1A2 = 3, n1B2 = 5, and n1A ´ B2 = 6, what do you e. 5 + 0 = 0 + 5
know about n1A ¨ B2? f. 1a + c2 + d = a + 1c + d2
4. If n1A2 = 3 and n1A ´ B2 = 6, 7. In the definition of less than, can the natural number k be
a. what are the possible values for n1B2? replaced by the whole number k? Why or why not?
b. If A ¨ B = ⭋, what are the possible values of n1B2? 8. a. Recall how we have defined less-than and greater-than
5. Explain whether the following given sets are closed un- relations, and give a similar definition using the con-
der addition: cept of subtraction for each of the following:
a. B = 506
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i. a 6 b
b. T = 50, 3, 6, 9, 12, Á 6 ii. a 7 b
c. N = 51, 2, 3, 4, 5, Á 6 b. Use subtraction to define a Ú b.
d. V = 53, 5, 76
e. 5x ƒ x 僆 W and x 7 106

9. Find the next three terms in each of the following arith- 13. a. At a volleyball game, the players stood in a row or-
metic sequences: dered by height. If Kent is shorter than Mischa, Sally
a. 8, 13, 18, 23, 28, ____, ____, ____ is taller than Mischa, and Vera is taller than Sally,
b. 98, 91, 84, 77, 70, 63, ____, ____, ____ who is the tallest and who is the shortest?
10. If A, B, and C each stand for a different single digit from b. Write possible heights for the players in part (a).
1 to 9, answer the following if 14. Rewrite each of the following subtraction problems as
an equivalent addition problem:
A + B = C
a. 9 - 7 = x
a.What is the greatest digit that C could be? Why? b. x - 6 = 3
b.What is the greatest digit that A could be? Why? c. 9 - x = 2
c.What is the smallest digit that C could be? Why? 15. Refer to the student page on page 122 to recall the
d.If A, B, and C are even, what number(s) could C be? description of a fact family.
Why? a. Write the fact family for 8 + 3 = 11.
e. If C is 5 more than A, what number(s) could B be? b. Write the fact family for 13 - 8 = 5.
Why? 16. What conditions, if any, must be placed on a, b, and c in
f. If A is 3 times B, what number(s) could C be? Why? each of the following to make sure that the result is a
g. If A is odd and A is 5 more than B, what number(s) whole number?
could C be? Why? a. a - b b. a - 1b - c2
11. Assuming the same pattern continues, find the total of 17. Illustrate 8 - 5 = 3 using each of the following models:
the terms in the 50th row in the following figure: a. Take-away b. Missing addend
c. Comparison d. Number line
1 1st row 18. Find the solution for each of the following:
1 - 1 2nd row a. 3 + 14 + 72 = 13 + x2 + 7
1 - 1 + 1 3rd row b. 8 + 0 = x
1 - 1 + 1 - 1 4th row c. 5 + 8 = 8 + x
1 - 1 + 1 - 1 + 1 5th row d. x + 8 = 12 + 5

12. Make each of the following a magic square (a magic

square was defined in Chapter 1):
a. b.
1 6 17 10

5 7 14

4 2 13 18

Assessment 3-1B

1. For which of the following is it true that n 1A2 + n1B2 = 5. Set A is closed under addition and contains the numbers
n1A ´ B2? 2, 5, and 8. List six other elements that must be in A.
a. A = 5a, b6, B = 5d, e6 6. Each of the following is an example of one of the prop-
b. A = 5a, b, c6, B = 5b, c, d6 erties of whole-number addition. Fill in the blank to
c. A = 5a6, B = ⭋ make a true statement and identify the property.
2. If n1A2 = 3, n1B2 = 5, and n1A ¨ B2 = 1, what do you a. 3 + 4 = ____ + 3
know about n(A ´ B2? b. 5 + 14 + 32 = 14 + 32 + ____
3. Explain whether the following given sets are closed un- c. 8 + ____ = 8
der addition: d. 3 + 14 + 52 = 13 + ____2 + 5
a. B = 50, 16 e. 3 + 4 is a unique _____ number.
b. T = 50, 4, 8, 12, 16, Á 6
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

7. Each of the following is an example of one of the proper-

c. F = 55, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Á 6 ties for addition of whole numbers. Identify the property
d. 5x ƒ x 僆 W and x 7 1006 illustrated.
4. Set A contains the element 1. What other whole numbers a. 6 + 8 = 8 + 6
must be in set A for it to be closed under addition? b. 16 + 32 + 0 = 6 + 3

c. 16 + 82 + 2 = 18 + 62 + 2 b. x - 5 = 8
d. 15 + 32 + 2 = 5 + 13 + 22 c. 11 - x = 2
8. Find the next three terms in each of the following arith- 12. Refer to the student page on page 122 to recall the
metic sequences: description of a fact family.
a. 5, 12, 19, 26, 33, ____, ____, ____ a. Write the fact family for 9 + 8 = 17.
b. 63, 59, 55, 51, 47, ____, ____, ____ b. Write the fact family for 15 - 7 = 8.
9. If A, B, C, and D each stand for a different single digit 13. Show that each of the following is true. Give a property
from 1 to 9, answer each of the following if of addition to justify each step.
a. a + 1b + c2 = c + 1a + b2
A b. a + 1b + c2 = 1c + b2 + a
+ B 14. Illustrate 7 - 3 = 4 using each of the following models:
CD a. Take-away
a. What is the value of C? Why? b. Missing addend
b. Can D be 1? Why? c. Comparison
c. If D is 7, what values can A be? d. Number line
d. If A is 6 greater than B, what is the value of D? 15. Find the solution for each of the following:
10. a. A domino set contains all number pairs from double-0 a. 12 - x = x + 6
to double-6, with each number pair occurring only b. 19 - x2 - 6 = 1
once; for example, the following domino counts as 2-4 c. 3 + x = x + 3
and 4-2. How many dominoes are in the set? d. 15 - x = x - 7
e. 14 - x = 7 - x
16. Rob has 11 pencils. Kelly has 5 pencils. Which number
sentence shows how many more pencils Rob has than
Kelly?
b. When considering the sum of all dots on a single (i) 11 + 5 = 16
domino in an ordinary set of dominoes, explain how (ii) 16 - 5 = 11
the commutative property might be important. (iii) 11 - 5 = 6
11. Rewrite each of the following subtraction problems as (iv) 11 - 6 = 5
an equivalent addition problem:
a. 9 - 3 = x

Mathematical Connections 3-1

Communication b. Use an appropriate model for subtraction to explain

1. In a survey of 52 students, 22 said they were taking alge- why
bra and 30 said they were taking biology. Are there neces- a - b - c = a - 1b + c2
sarily 52 students taking algebra or biology? Why?
2. To find 9 + 7 a student says she thinks of 9 + 7 5. Explain whether it is important for elementary students to
as 9 + 11 + 62 = 19 + 12 + 6 = 10 + 6 = 16. What learn more than one model for performing the operations
property or properties is she using? of addition and subtraction.
3. In Figure 3-2, arrows were used to represent numbers in 6. Do elementary students still have to learn their basic facts
completing an addition. Explain whether you think an ar- when the calculator is part of the curriculum? Why or
row starting at 0 and ending at 3 represents the same why not?
number as an arrow starting at 4 and ending at 7. How 7. Explain how the model shown can be used to illustrate
would you explain this to students? each of the following addition and subtraction facts:
4. When subtraction and addition appear in an expression a. 9 + 4 = 13 b. 4 + 9 = 13
without parentheses, it is agreed that the operations are c. 4 = 13 - 9 d. 9 = 13 - 4
performed in order of their appearance from left to right.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Taking this into account, answer the following: 13

a. Use an appropriate model for subtraction to explain why
a - b - c = a - c - b
9 4
assuming that all expressions are meaningful.

8. How are addition and subtraction related? Explain. 15. Have each person in your group choose a different grade
9. Why is 0 not an identity for subtraction? Explain. textbook and report on when and how subtraction of whole
numbers is introduced. Compare with different ways sub-
Open-Ended traction is introduced in this section.
10. Describe any model not in this text that you might use to
Questions from the Classroom
teach addition to students.
11. Suppose A 8 B. If n1A2 = a and n1B2 = b, then b - a 16. A student says that 0 is the identity for subtraction. How
could be defined as n1B - A2. Choose two sets A and B do you respond?
and illustrate this definition. 17. A student claims that on the following number line, the
12. a. Create a word problem in which the set model would arrow doesn’t really represent 3 because the end of the
be more appropriate to show 25 + 8 = 33. arrow does not start at 0. How do you respond?
b. Create a word problem in which the number-line
(measurement) model would be more appropriate to
0 1 2 3 4 5
show 25 + 8 = 33.
18. A student asks why we use subtraction to determine how
Cooperative Learning
many more pencils Sam has than Karly if nothing is being
13. Discuss with your group each of the following. Use the taken away. How do you respond?
basic addition fact table for whole numbers shown. 19. A student claims that subtraction is closed with respect to
ⴙ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 the whole numbers. To show this is true, she shows that
8 - 5 = 3, 5 - 2 = 3, 6 - 1 = 5, and 12 - 7 = 5 and
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
says she can show examples like this all day that yield
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 whole numbers when the subtraction is performed. How
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 do you respond?
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 20. John claims that he can get the same answer to the prob-
4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 lem below by adding up (begin with 4 + 7) or by adding
5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 down (begin with 8 + 7). He wants to know why and if
6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 this works all the time. How do you respond?
7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 8
8 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 7
9 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
+ 4
a.How does the table show the closure property? Third International Mathematics and Science Study
b.How does the table show the commutative property? (TIMSS) Questions
c.How does the table show the identity property? Ali had 50 apples. He sold some and then had 20 left.
d.How do the addition properties help students learn Which of these is a number sentence that shows this?
their basic facts? a. n - 20 = 50
14. Suppose that a number system used only four symbols, b. 20 - n = 50
a, b, c, and d, and the operation ¢ ; and the system oper- c. n - 50 = 20
ated as shown in the table. Discuss with your group each d. 50 - n = 20
of the following:
TIMSS 2003, Grade 4
¢ a b c d The rule for the table is that numbers in each row and
a a b c d column must add up to the same number. What number
b b c d a goes in the center of the table?
c c d a b a. 1
d d a b c b. 2 4 11 6
c. 7
d. 12 9 5
a. Is the system closed? Why?
b. Is the operation commutative? Why? TIMSS 2003, Grade 4 8 3 10
c. Does the operation have an identity? If so, what
is it?
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

d. Try several examples to investigate the associative

property of this operation.

BRAIN TEASER Use Figure 3-11 to design an unmagic square. That is, use each of the
digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 exactly once so that every column, row, and diagonal adds
to a different sum.

Figure 3-11

3-2 Algorithms for Whole-Number Addition and Subtraction

In the grade 2 Curriculum Focal Points, we find the following regarding fluency with multi-
digit addition and subtraction:

Children use their understanding of addition to develop quick recall of basic addition facts and
related subtraction facts. They solve arithmetic problems by applying their understanding of mod-
els of addition and subtraction (such as combining or separating sets or using number lines),
relationships and properties of number (such as place value), and properties of addition (commu-
tativity and associativity). Children develop, discuss, and use efficient, accurate, and generalizable
methods to add and subtract multidigit whole numbers. They select and apply appropriate meth-
ods to estimate sums and differences or calculate them mentally, depending on the context and
numbers involved. They develop fluency with efficient procedures, including standard algorithms,
for adding and subtracting whole numbers, understand why the procedures work (on the basis of
place value and properties of operations), and use them to solve problems. (p. 14)

In Principles and Standards we also find a discussion of computational fluency and standard
algorithms.

By the end of grade 2, students should know the basic addition and subtraction combinations,
should be fluent in adding two-digit numbers, and should have methods for subtracting two-digit
numbers. At the grades 3–5 level, as students develop the basic number combinations for multi-
plication and division, they should also develop reliable algorithms to solve arithmetic problems
efficiently and accurately. These methods should be applied to larger numbers and practiced for
fluency . . . students must become fluent in arithmetic computation—they must have efficient
and accurate methods that are supported by an understanding of numbers and operations. “Stan-
dard” algorithms for arithmetic computation are one means of achieving this fluency. (p. 35)

The previous section introduced the operations of addition and subtraction of whole
numbers, and now, as pointed out in the Focal Points and the Principles and Standards, it is time
to focus on computational fluency—having and using efficient and accurate methods for com-
puting. PSSM suggest that “standard algorithms” are one means to achieve this fluency.
An algorithm (named for the ninth-century Arabian mathematician Abu al Khwarizmi) is a
systematic procedure used to accomplish an operation. In the 1998 National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Yearbook, Teaching and Learning Algorithms in School
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Mathematics, Usiskin stated that “algorithms are generalizations that embody one of the main
reasons for studying mathematics—to find ways of solving classes of problems. When we
know an algorithm, we complete not just one task but all tasks of a particular kind and we are
guaranteed an answer or answers. The power of an algorithm derives from the breadth of its
applicability.” (p. 10)
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
128 Whole Numbers and Their Operations

This section focuses on developing and understanding algorithms involving addition and
subtraction. We develop alternative algorithms as well as standard algorithms.

Addition Algorithms
In teaching mathematics to young children, it is important that we support them in the transi-
tion from concrete to abstract thinking by using techniques that parallel their developmental
processes. To help children understand the use of paper-and-pencil algorithms, they should
explore addition by first using manipulatives. If children can touch and move around items
such as chips, bean sticks, and an abacus or use base-ten blocks, they can be led (and often will
proceed naturally on their own) to the creation of algorithms for addition. In what follows, we
use base-ten blocks to illustrate the development of an algorithm for whole-number addition.
Suppose we want to add 14 + 23. We start with a concrete model in Figure 3-12(a), move to
the expanded algorithm in Figure 3-12(b), and then to the standard algorithm in Figure 3-12(c).

E-Manipulative (a) 14 23 (b) 14

Activity + 23
Practice using base-ten 7 (Add ones)
blocks to perform + 30 (Add tens)
additions can be found 37
in the Adding Blocks
Expanded algorithm
activity.

Figure 3-12

A more formal justification for this addition not usually presented at the elementary level
is the following:
14 + 23 = 11 # 10 + 42 + 12 # 10 + 32 Place value
= 11 # 10 + 2 # 102 + 14 + 32 Commutative and associative properties of
addition
= 11 + 2210 + 14 + 32 Distributive property of multiplication over
addition
= 3 # 10 + 7 Single-digit addition facts
= 37 Place value
On the student page (page 129), we see an example of adding two-digit numbers with
regrouping using base-ten blocks. Kim’s way leads to the expanded algorithm and Henry’s
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

way leads to the standard algorithm. Each of these algorithms is discussed in more detail on
page 130. Notice that on the student page, students are asked to estimate their answers
before performing an algorithm. This is good practice and leads to the development of
number sense and also makes students consider if their answers are reasonable. Study the
student page and answer the Talk About It questions.
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 3-2 Algorithms for Whole-Number Addition and Subtraction 129

School Book Page ADDING T WO-DIGIT NUMBERS

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Source: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley Mathematics, Grade 3, 2008 (p. 126)

Once children have mastered the use of concrete models with regrouping, they should be
ready to use the expanded and standard algorithms. Figure 3-13 shows the computation
37 + 28 using both algorithms. In Figure 3-13(b), you will notice that when there were
more than 10 ones, we regrouped 10 ones as a ten and then added the tens. Notice that the
words regroup or trade are now commonly used in the elementary classroom to describe
what we used to call carrying.
1
(a) 37 (b) 37
+ 28 + 28
15 (Add ones) 65 (Add the ones, regroup, and add the tens)
+ 50 (Add tens)
65
Expanded algorithm Standard algorithm
Figure 3-13
Next we add two three-digit numbers involving two regroupings. Figure 3-14 shows how
to add 186 + 127 using base-ten blocks and how this concrete model carries over to the
standard algorithm.
Standard
Concrete Model Algorithm
1. Add the ones and regroup. 1
186
6 ones + 7 ones = 13 ones
+ 127
13 ones = 1 ten + 3 ones
3

2. Add the tens and regroup. 11

1 ten + 8 tens + 186

2 tens = 11 tens + 127
11 tens = 1 hundred + 1 ten 313

3. Add the hundreds. 11

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

1 hundred + 1 hundred + 186

1 hundred = 3 hundreds + 127
313
186 + 127 = 313

Figure 3-14
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 3-2 Algorithms for Whole-Number Addition and Subtraction 131

Students often develop algorithms on their own, and learning can occur by investigating
how and if various algorithms work. Addition of whole numbers using blocks has a natural
carryover to the expanded form and trading used earlier. For example, consider the follow-
ing addition:
376 3 # 102 + 7 # 10 + 6
459 or 4 # 102 + 5 # 10 + 9
+ 8716 8 # 103 + 7 # 102 + 1 # 10 + 6
8 # 103 + 14 # 102 + 13 # 10 + 21
To complete the addition, trading is used. However, consider an analogous algebra problem
of adding polynomials:
13x2 + 7x + 62 + 14x2 + 5x + 92 + 18x3 + 7x2 + x + 62 or 3x2 + 7x + 6
4x2 + 5x + 9
+ 8x3 + 7x2 + x + 6
8x3 + 14x2 + 13x + 21
Note that if x = 10, the addition is the same as given earlier. Also note that knowledge of
place value in addition problems aids in algebraic thinking. Next we explore several algo-
rithms that have been used throughout history.

Left-to-Right Algorithm for Addition

Since children learn to read from left to right, it might seem natural that they may try to
add from left to right. When working with base-ten blocks, many children in fact do com-
bine the larger pieces first and then move to combining the smaller pieces. This method
has the advantage of emphasizing place value. A left-to-right algorithm is as follows:
568 568
+ 757 + 757
1500 + 7002 : 1200 ¡ 1215 : 1325
160 + 502
32
: 110
18 + 72 : 15
1325
Explain why this technique works and try it with 9076 + 4689.

Lattice Algorithm for Addition

We introduce this algorithm by working through an addition involving two four-digit
numbers. For example,
3 5 6 7
+5 6 7 8
0 1 1 1
8 1 3 5
9 2 4 5
To use this algorithm, add the single-digit numbers by place value on top to the single digit
numbers on the bottom and record the results in a lattice. Then add the sums along the
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

diagonals, as shown. This is very similar to the expanded algorithm introduced earlier. Try
this technique with 4578 + 2691.

Scratch Algorithm for Addition

The scratch algorithm for addition is often referred to as a low-stress algorithm because it
allows students to perform complicated additions by doing a series of additions that involve
only two single digits. An example follows:
1. 87 Add the numbers in the units place starting at the top. When the sum is
652 10 or more, record this sum by scratching a line through the last digit
+ 49 added and writing the number of units next to the scratched digit. For ex-
ample, since 7 + 5 = 12, the “scratch” represents 10 and the 2 represents
the units.
2. 87 Continue adding the units, including any new digits written down. When
652 the addition again results in a sum of 10 or more, as with 2 + 9 = 11,
+ 491 repeat the process described in (1).
2
3. 87 When the first column of additions is completed, write the number of units,
652 1, below the addition line in the proper place value position. Count the
+ 491 number of scratches, 2, and add this number to the second column.
1
2
4. 807 Repeat the procedure for each successive column until the last column
6 52 with non-zero values. At this stage, sum the scratches and place the num-
4091 ber to the left of the current value.
201
Try this technique with 56 + 23 + 34 + 67.

Subtraction Algorithms
As with addition, we can use base-ten blocks to provide a concrete model for subtraction.
Consider how the base-ten blocks are used to perform the subtraction 243 - 61: First we
represent 243 with 2 flats, 4 longs, and 3 units, as shown in Figure 3-15.

Figure 3-15

To subtract 61 from 243, we try to remove 6 longs and 1 unit from the blocks in
Figure 3-15. We can remove 1 unit, as in Figure 3-16.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Figure 3-16

To remove 6 longs from Figure 3-16, we have to trade 1 flat for 10 longs, as shown in
Figure 3-17.

E-Manipulative
Activity
Practice using base-ten
blocks to perform sub-
tractions can be found
in the Subtracting
Blocks activity. Figure 3-17

Now we can remove, or “take away,” 6 longs, leaving 1 flat, 8 longs, and 2 units, or 182, as
shown in Figure 3-18.

Figure 3-18

Student work with base-ten blocks along with discussions and recorded work lead to the
development of the standard algorithm as seen on the student page on page 134. Work
through the student page (a)–(f ).

NOW TRY THIS 3-8 Use base-ten blocks and addition to check that 243 - 61 = 182.

Equal-Additions Algorithm
The equal-additions algorithm for subtraction is based on the fact that the difference
between two numbers does not change if we add the same amount to both numbers. For
example, 93 - 27 = 193 + 32 - 127 + 32. Thus, the difference can be computed as
96 - 30 = 66. Using this approach, the subtraction on the student page could be per-
formed as follows:
255 255 + 7 262 262 + 30 292
: - 1163 + 72 - 1170 + 302
: : :
- 163 - 170 - 200
92
Subtraction of whole numbers using blocks has a natural carryover to the expanded form and
trading. For example, consider the following subtraction problem done earlier with blocks:
243 2 # 102 + 4 # 10 + 3 1 # 102 + 14 # 10 + 3
- 16 # 10 + 12 - 16 # 10 + 12
or or
- 61
1 # 102 + 114 - 6210 + 13 - 12
which results in 182. Note that to complete the subtraction, trading was used. As with addi-
tion, we see that understanding place value aids in subtraction computations.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

School Book Page MODELS FOR SUBTRACTING

THREE-DIGIT NUMBERS

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Source: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley Mathematics, Grade 3, 2008 (p. 150).

NOW TRY THIS 3-9 Jessica claims that a method similar to equal additions for subtraction also
works for addition. She says that in an addition problem, “you may add the same amount to one number
as you subtract from the other.” For example, 68 + 29 = 168 - 12 + 129 + 12. Thus, the sum can be
computed as 67 + 30 = 97 or as 168 + 22 + 129 - 22 = 70 + 27 = 97. (i) Explain why this method
is valid and (ii) use it to compute 97 + 69.

Understanding Addition and Subtraction

in Bases Other Than Ten
A look at computation in other bases may provide insight into computation in base ten. Use
of multibase blocks may be helpful in building an addition table for different bases and is
highly recommended. Table 3-1 is a base-five addition table.

Table 3-1 Base-Five Addition Table

ⴙ 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 10
2 2 3 4 10 11
3 3 4 10 11 12
4 4 10 11 12 13

NOW TRY THIS 3-10 Write each of the following as numerals in base five:
a. 444five + 1five b. 13five + 13five

Using the addition facts in Table 3-1, we can develop algorithms for base-five addition sim-
ilar to those we used for base-ten addition. We show the computation using a concrete model
in Figure 3-19(a); in Figure 3-19(b), we use an expanded algorithm; in Figure 3-19(c), we use
the standard algorithm.

(a) 12 five 31five (b) 12five (c) 12five

+ 31five + 31five
3 43five
+ 40 Standard algorithm
43five
Expanded algorithm
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12five + 31five ⫽ 43five

Concrete model

Figure 3-19
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
136 Whole Numbers and Their Operations

The subtraction facts for base five can also be derived from the addition-facts table
by using the definition of subtraction. For example, to find 12five - 4five, recall that
12five - 4five = cfive if, and only if, cfive + 4five = 12five. From Table 3-1, we see that
c = 3five. An example of subtraction involving regrouping, 32five - 14five, is developed in
Figure 3-20.

(a) Take away 14five

32five – 14five = 13five

32five

21
(b) (c) 32five
Fives Ones Fives Ones
– 14five
3 2 2 12 13five
– 1 4 – 1 4
1 3

Figure 3-20

NOW TRY THIS 3-11

a. Build an addition table for base two.
b. Use the addition table from part (a) to perform (i) 1101two - 111two, (ii) 1111two + 111two.

BRAIN TEASER The number on a license plate consists of five digits. When the license plate is
looked at upside down, you can still read it, but the value of the upside-down number is 78,633 greater
than the real license number. What is the license number?

Assessment 3-2A

1. Find the missing digits in each of the following: 4. Tom’s diet allows only 1500 calories per day. For break-
a. - - 1 b. - 0 2 5 fast, Tom had skim milk (90 calories), a waffle with no
+4 2 - 1 1 - 6 syrup (120 calories), and a banana (119 calories). For
lunch, he had 12 cup of salad (185 calories) with mayon-
- 4 0 2 +3 1 4 8
naise (110 calories) and tea (0 calories). Then he had
6 - 6 -
pecan pie (570 calories). Can he have dinner consisting
2. Make an appropriate drawing like the one in Figure 3-14
of fish (250 calories), a 21 cup of salad with no mayon-
to show the use of base-ten blocks to compute 29 + 37.
naise, and tea?
3. Place the digits 7, 6, 8, 3, 5, and 2 in the boxes to obtain
5. Wally kept track of last week’s money transactions. His
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

a. the greatest sum. b. the least sum.

salary was $150 plus $54 in overtime and $260 in tips.
nnn His transportation expenses were $22, his food ex-
+ nnn penses were $60, his laundry costs were $15, his enter-
tainment expenditures were $58, and his rent was $185.

After expenses, did he have any money left? If so, how 11. In each of the following, justify the standard addition
much? algorithm using place value of the numbers, the commu-
6. In the following problem, the sum is correct but the or- tative and associative properties of addition, and the dis-
der of the digits in each addend has been scrambled. tributive property of multiplication over addition:
Correct the addends to obtain the correct sum. a. 68 + 23
b. 174 + 285
2834 nnnn
c. 2458 + 793
+ 6315 + nnnn 12. Use the lattice algorithm to perform each of the following:
9059 9059 a. 4358 + 3864
7. Use the equal-additions approach to compute each of b. 4923 + 9897
the following: 13. Perform each of the following operations using the bases
a. 93 shown:
a. 43five + 23five
- 37
b. 43five - 23five
b. 321 c. 432five + 23five
d. 42five - 23five
- 38
e. 110two + 11two
f.10001two - 111two
14. Construct an addition table for base eight.
15. Perform each of the following operations:
8. Janet worked her addition problems by placing the
a. 3 hr 36 min 58 sec b. 5 hr 36 min 38 sec
partial sums as shown here:
⫹ 5 hr 56 min 27 sec ⫺ 3 hr 56 min 58 sec
569
+ 645 16. Andrew’s calculator was not functioning properly. When
he pressed 8 + 6 = , the numeral 20 appeared
14
on the display. When he pressed 5 + 4 = , 13 was dis-
10 played. When he pressed, 1 5 - 3 = , 9 was
11 displayed. What do you think Andrew’s calculator was
1214 doing?
17. Use scratch addition to perform the following:
a. Use this method to work the following: 432
a.
(i) 687 (ii) 359
976
+ 549 + 673
+ 1418
b. Explain why this algorithm works.
9. Analyze the following computations. Explain what is b. 32five
wrong in each case.
13five
a. 28
22five
+ 75
43five
9 13
23five
b. 28
+ 12five
+ 75
18. Perform each of the following operations:
1 21
a. 4 gross 4 doz 6 ones
c. 305
- 5 doz 9 ones
- 259
b. 2 gross 9 doz 7 ones
154
2 10
+ 3 gross 5 doz 9 ones
d. 305 19. Determine what is wrong with the following:
- 259
22five
56
+ 33five
10. Give reasons for each of the following steps: 55five
11 # 10 + 62 + 13 # 10 + 12
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

16 + 31 =
11 # 10 + 3 # 102 + 16 + 12
20. Fill in the missing numbers in each of the following:
= a. 2 - - five
= 11 + 3210 + 16 + 12
- 2 2five
= 4 # 10 + 7
= 47 - 0 3five

b. 2 0 0 1 0three not, reverse the digits and add this reversed number to the
-2 - 2 - three original number. Is the result a palindrome? If not, repeat
1 - 2 - 1three the procedure until a palindrome is obtained. For example,
start with 78. Because 78 is not a palindrome, we add:
21. Find the numeral to put in the blank to make each equa-
78 + 87 = 165. Because 165 is not a palindrome, we add:
tion true. Do not convert to base ten.
165 + 561 = 726. Again, 726 is not a palindrome, so we
a. 3423five - ____ = 2132five
add 726 + 627 to obtain 1353. Finally, 1353 + 3531
b. 11011two + ____ = 100000two
yields 4884, which is a palindrome.
c. TEEtwelve - ____ = 1
a. Try this method with the following numbers:
d. 1000five + ____ = 10000five
(i) 93 (ii) 588 (iii) 2003
22. A palindrome is any number that reads the same backward
b. Find a number for which the procedure described
as forward, for example, 121 and 2332. Try the following.
takes more than five steps to form a palindrome.
Begin with any multi-digit number. Is it a palindrome? If

Assessment 3-2B

1. Find the missing digits in each of the following: Use this method to work the following:
a. 3- - a. 985
- 159 + 356
- 24 b. 413
b. 1 - - - 6 + 89
- 8 3 0 9 7. Analyze the following computations. Explain what is
4 9 8 7 wrong in each case.
2. Make an appropriate drawing like the one in Figure 3-12 to a. 135
show the use of base-ten blocks to compute 46 + 38. + 47
3. Place the digits 7, 6, 8, 3, 5, and 2 in the boxes to obtain 172
a. the greatest difference. b. 87
b. the least difference. + 25
nnn 1012
- nnn c. 57
- 38
4. In the following problem, the sum is correct but the
21
order of the digits in each addend has been scrambled.
d. 56
Correct the addends to obtain the correct sum.
- 18
8354 nnnn 48
+ 3456 + nnnn 8. George is cooking an elaborate meal for Thanksgiving.
11729 11729 He can cook only one thing at a time in his microwave
oven. His turkey takes 75 min; the pumpkin pie takes
5. Use the equal-additions approach to compute each of
18 min; rolls take 45 sec; and a cup of coffee takes
the following:
30 sec to heat. How much time does he need to cook
a. 86 b. 5 8 2
the meal?
- 38 - 44 9. Give reasons for each of the following steps:
6. Janet worked her addition problems by placing the par-
tial sums as shown here: 123 + 45 = 11 # 102 + 2 # 10 + 32 + 14 # 10 + 52
= 1 # 102 + 12 # 10 + 4 # 102 + 13 + 52
569 = 1 # 102 + 12 + 4210 + 13 + 52
+ 645 = 1 # 102 + 6 # 10 + 8
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

14 = 168
10 10. In each of the following justify the standard addition
11 algorithm using place value of the numbers, the
1214

commutative and associative properties of addition, and 17. Determine what is wrong with the following:
the distributive property of multiplication over addition:
23six
a. 46 + 32
b. 3214 + 783 + 43six
11. Use the lattice algorithm to perform each of the 66six
following: 18. Find the numeral to put in the blank to make each equa-
a. 2345 + 8888 tion true. Do not convert to base ten.
b. 8713 + 4214 a. 342five - ____ = 213five
12. Perform each of the following operations using the bases b. 1101two - ____ = 1011two
shown: c. E08twelve - ____ = 9twelve
a. 43five - 24five d. 100two + ____ = 10000two
b. 143five + 23five 19. The Hawks played the Elks in a basketball game. Based
c. 32five - 23five on the following information, complete the scoreboard
d. 232five + 43five showing the number of points scored by each team dur-
e. 110two + 111two ing each quarter and the final score of the game.
f. 10001two - 101two
13. Construct an addition table for base six.
14. Perform each of the following operations 12 c = 1 pt, Quarters
2 pt = 1 qt, 4 qt = 1 gal2: Teams 1 2 3 4 Final Score
a. 1 qt 1 pt 1 c Hawks
+ 1 pt 1 c Elks
b. qt
1 1c
- 1 pt 1c a. The Hawks scored 15 points in the first quarter.
c. 1 gal 3 qt 1 c b. The Hawks were behind by 5 points at the end of the
- 4 qt 2 c first quarter.
c. The Elks scored 5 more points in the second quarter
15. The following is a supermagic square taken from an en-
than they did in the first quarter.
graving called Melancholia by Dürer. Notice I514 in the
d. The Hawks scored 7 more points than the Elks in the
bottom row, the year the engraving was made.
second quarter.
e. The Elks outscored the Hawks by 6 points in the
16 3 2 13 fourth quarter.
f. The Hawks scored a total of 120 points in the
5 10 11 8 game.
g. The Hawks scored twice as many points in the third
9 6 7 12 quarter as the Elks did in the first quarter.
h. The Elks scored as many points in the third quar-
4 15 14 1
ter as the Hawks did in the first two quarters
combined.
a. Find the sum of each row, the sum of each column, 20. a. Place the numbers 24 through 32 in the follow-
and the sum of each diagonal. ing circles so that the sums are the same in each
b. Find the sum of the four numbers in the center. direction:
c. Find the sum of the four numbers in each corner.
d. Add 11 to each number in the square. Is the square
still a magic square? Explain your answer.
e. Subtract 11 from each number in the square. Is the
square still a magic square?
16. Use scratch addition to perform the following:
a. 537 b. 41six
318 32six
+ 2345 22six
43six
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

b. How many different numbers can be placed in the

22six
middle to obtain a solution?
+54six

Mathematical Connections 3-2

Communication 6. Cathy found her own algorithm for subtraction. She

1. Discuss the merit of the following algorithm for addi- subtracted as follows:
tion where we first add the ones, then the tens, then the 97
hundreds, and then the total: - 28
479 - 1
+ 385 + 70
14 69
150 How would you respond if you were her teacher?
+ 700 7. Discuss why the words regroup and trade are used rather
864 than carry and borrow for whole-number addition and
subtraction algorithms.
2. The following example uses a regrouping approach to
8. Consider the following subtraction algorithm.
subtraction. Discuss the merit of this approach in teach-
a. Explain how it works.
ing subtraction.
b. Use this algorithm to find 787 - 398.
843 800 + 40 + 3
- 1500 + 60 + 82
: : 585
- 568
- 277
700 + 130 + 13 385
- 1500 + 60 + 82
800 + 30 + 13
- 1500 + 60 + 82 285
:
200 + 70 + 5 = 275 + 23
3. Tira, a fourth grader, performs addition by adding and 308
subtracting the same number. She added as follows: Open-Ended
39 39 + 1 40 9. Search for or develop an algorithm for whole-number
: :
+ 84 + 84 - 1 + 83 addition or subtraction and write a description of your
123 algorithm so that others can understand and use it.

How would you respond if you were her teacher? Cooperative Learning
4. Explain why the scratch addition algorithm works. 10. In this section you have been exposed to many different
5. The equal-additions algorithm was introduced in this sec- algorithms. Discuss in your group whether children
tion. The following shows how this algorithm works for should be encouraged to develop and use their own
1464 - 687: algorithms for whole-number addition and subtraction
or whether they should be taught only one algorithm
1 4 61 4 (Add 10 to the 4 ones to get 14 ones.) per operation and all students should use only one
- 69 8 7 (Add 1 ten to the 8 tens to get 9 tens.) algorithm.
7 (Subtract the ones.)
Questions from the Classroom
Now we move to the next column. 11. To find 68 - 19, Joe began by finding 9 - 8. How do
1 41 61 4 (Add 10 tens to the 6 tens to get 16 tens.) you help?
- 769 8 7 (Add 1 hundred to the 6 hundreds to get 7 hundreds.) 12. Jill subtracted 415 - 212 and got 303. She asked if this
was correct. How would you respond?
7 7 7 (Subtract the 9 tens from the 16 tens and then
13. Betsy found 518 - 49 = 469. She was not sure she was
the 7 hundreds from the 14 hundreds.)
correct so she tried to check her answer by adding
a. Try the technique on three more subtractions.
518 + 49. How could you help her?
b. Explain why the equal-additions algorithm works.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

14. A child is asked to compute 7 + 2 + 3 + 8 + 11 and National Assessment of Educational Progress

writes 7 + 2 = 9 + 3 = 12 + 8 = 20 + 11 = 31. No- (NAEP) Questions
ticing that the answer is correct, if you were the teacher
how would you react?
Review Problems
15. Is the set 51, 2, 36 closed under addition? Why?
16. Give an example of the associative property of addition
of whole numbers.
The figure above represents 237. Which number is

more than 237?

a. 244 b. 249 c. 251 d. 377

NAEP 2007, Grade 4
The Ben Franklin Bridge was 75 years old in 2001. In
what year was the bridge 50 years old?
a. 1951 b. 1976 c. 1984 d. 1986
NAEP 2007, Grade 4

LABORATORY ACTIVITY
1. One type of Japanese abacus, soroban, is shown in Figure 3-21(a). In this abacus, a bar separates two
sets of bead counters. Each counter above the bar represents 5 times the counter below the bar.
Numbers are illustrated by moving the counter toward the bar. The number 7632 is pictured. Practice
demonstrating and adding numbers on this abacus.
ou ds
ou ds
un s

ts
ou ds
un s

s
s

H and
H and

ni
ed

n san

Th san

Te
Th san

U
U

dr
dr

s
s

Te hou
ou

th
th

t
ed
n
Te

dr
un
H

(a) (b)

Figure 3-21
2. The Chinese abacus, suan pan (see Figure 3-21(b)), is still in use today. This abacus is similar to the
Japanese abacus but has two counters above the bar and 5 counters below the bar. The number 7632
is also pictured on it. Practice demonstrating and adding numbers on this abacus. Compare the ease of
using the two versions.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

3-3 Multiplication and Division of Whole Numbers

In the grade 3 Focal Points we find the following concerning multiplication and division of
whole numbers:

Students understand the meanings of multiplication and division of whole numbers through the
use of representations (e.g., equal-sized groups, arrays, area models, and equal “jumps” on num-
ber lines for multiplication, and successive subtraction, partitioning, and sharing for division).
They use properties of addition and multiplication (e.g., commutativity, associativity, and the dis-
tributive property) to multiply whole numbers and apply increasingly sophisticated strategies
based on these properties to solve multiplication and division problems involving basic facts. By
comparing a variety of solution strategies, students relate multiplication and division as inverse
operations. (p. 15)

Further in the grade 3 Focal Points, we see the connection between studying multiplication
and division of whole numbers and the study of algebra.

Understanding properties of multiplication and the relationship between multiplication and

division is a part of algebra readiness that develops at grade 3. The creation and analysis of pat-
terns and relationships involving multiplication and division should occur at this grade level.
Students build a foundation for later understanding of functional relationships by describing
relationships in context with such statements as, “The number of legs is 4 times the number of
chairs.” (p. 15)

These quotes from the Focal Points set the tone and agenda for this section. We discuss rep-
resentations that can be used to help students understand the meanings of multiplication
and division. We develop the distributive property of multiplication over addition along
with the relationship of multiplication and division as inverse operations.

Multiplication of Whole Numbers

In this section, we explore the kind of problems that Grampa is having in the Peanuts
cartoon. Why do you think he would have more troubles with “9 times 8” rather than
“3 times 4”? If multiplication facts are only memorized, they may be forgotten. If students
have a conceptual understanding of the basic facts, then all of the basic facts can be deter-
mined even if not automatically recalled.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Repeated-Addition Model
On the student page on page 144 we see that if we have 4 groups of 3 brushes, we can use
addition to put the groups together. When we put equal-sized groups together we can use
multiplication. We can think of this as combining 4 sets of 3 objects into a single set. The
4 sets of 3 suggest the following addition:
3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12
four 3s
We write 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 as 4 # 3 and say “four times three” or “three multiplied by four.”
The advantage of the multiplication notation over repeated addition is evident when the
number of addends is great, for example, if we have 25 groups of 3 brushes, we could find
the total number of brushes by adding 25 threes or 25 # 3.
The repeated-addition model can be illustrated in several ways, including number lines and
arrays. For example, using colored rods of length 4, we could show that the combined
length of five of the rods can be found by joining the rods end-to-end, as in Figure 3-22(a).
Figure 3-22(b) shows the process using arrows on a number line.
5.4 5.4
10 10 4 4 4 4 4
4 4 4 4 4
0 4 8 12 16 20
(a)
(b)

Figure 3-22

The constant feature on a calculator can help relate multiplication to addition. Students can
find products on the calculator without using the * key. For example, if a calculator has the
constant feature, then 5 * 3 can be found by starting with and pressing + 3 = = = = = .
Each press of the equal sign will add 3 to the display. (Some calculators will work differently.)
As pointed out in the Research Note, access to only the “repeated-addition” model for
multiplication can lead to misunderstanding. In this section, we introduce three other mul-
tiplication models: the array and area models and the Cartesian-product model.

▲
Research
▲
Students learning multiplication as a conceptual operation need exposure to a variety of
Note models (for example, array and area). Access only to the “multiplication as repeated
addition” and the term times leads to basic misunderstandings of multiplication that
complicate future extensions to decimals and fractions (Bell et al. 1989; English and
Halford 1995). ▲ ▲

▲
Historical William Oughtred (1574–1660), an English mathematician, was interested in mathematical
▲
Note symbols. He was the first to introduce the “St. Andrew’s cross” 1 *2 as the symbol for multi-
plication. This symbol was not readily adopted because, as Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz
(1646–1716) objected, it was too easily confused with the letter x. Leibniz used the dot 1 # 2
▲
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

for multiplication, which has become common. ▲

School Book Page MULTIPLICATION AS

REPE ATED ADDITION

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Source: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley Math, Grade 3, 2008 (p. 260).

The Array and Area Models

Another representation useful in exploring multiplication of whole numbers is an array.
An array is suggested when we have objects in equal-sized rows, as in Figure 3-23.

(a) (b)

Figure 3-23

In Figure 3-24(a), we cross sticks to create intersection points, thus forming an array of
points. The number of intersection points on a single vertical stick is 4 and there are
5 sticks, forming a total of 5 # 4 points in the array. In Figure 3-24(b), the area model is
shown as a 4-by-5 grid. The number of unit squares required to fill in the grid is 20. These
models motivate the following definition of multiplication of whole numbers.

5
(a) (b)

Figure 3-24

Definition of Multiplication of Whole Numbers

For any whole numbers a and n Z 0,
n # a = a + a + a + Á + a.
n terms
If n = 0, then 0 # a = 0.

E-Manipulative
Activity
#
R E M A R K We typically write n a as na, where a is not a number but a variable.

Practice using the area

model to perform mul- Cartesian-Product Model
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

tiplication can be found

in the Multiplication The Cartesian-product model offers another way to discuss multiplication. Suppose you can
activity. order a soyburger on light or dark bread with one condiment: mustard, mayonnaise, or
horseradish. To show the number of different soyburger orders that a waiter could write for

the cook, we use a tree diagram. The ways of writing the order are listed in Figure 3-25,
where the bread is chosen from the set B = 5light, dark6 and the condiment is chosen from
the set C = 5mustard, mayonnaise, horseradish6.
Type
of What the
Bread Condiment Cook Sees

Mustard Dark mustard

Dark Mayonnaise Dark mayo

Horseradish Dark horseradish

Order
Mustard Light mustard

Light Mayonnaise Light mayo

Horseradish Light horseradish

Figure 3-25

Each order can be written as an ordered pair, for example, (dark, mustard). The set of or-
dered pairs forms the Cartesian product B * C. The Fundamental Counting Principle tells
us that the number of ordered pairs in B * C is 2 # 3.
The preceding discussion demonstrates how multiplication of whole numbers can be de-
fined in terms of Cartesian products. Thus, an alternative definition of multiplication of
whole numbers is as follows:

Alternative Definition of Multiplication of Whole Numbers

For finite sets A and B, if n1A2 = a and n1B2 = b, then a # b = n1A * B2.

In this alternative definition, sets A and B do not have to be disjoint. The expression a # b,
or simply ab, is the product of a and b, and a and b are factors. Note that A * B indicates
the Cartesian product, not multiplication. We multiply numbers, not sets.

NOW TRY THIS 3-12 How would you use the repeated-addition definition of multiplication to
explain to a child unfamiliar with the Fundamental Counting Principle that the number of possible
outfits consisting of a shirt and pants combination—given 6 shirts and 5 pairs of pants—is 6 # 5?

The following problems illustrate each of the models shown for multiplication. In all five
problems, the answer can be thought of using a different model. Work through each prob-
lem using the suggested model.

1. Repeated-addition model. One piece of gum costs 5¢; how much do three pieces cost?
2. Number-line model. If Al walks 5 mph for 3 hr, how far has he walked?
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

3. Array model. A panel of stamps has 4 rows of 5 stamps. How many stamps are there in
a panel?
4. Area model. If a carpet is 5 ft by 3 ft, what is the area of the carpet?
5. Cartesian-product model. Al has 5 shirts and 3 pairs of pants; how many different shirt-
pants combinations are possible?
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 3-3 Multiplication and Division of Whole Numbers 147

Properties of Whole-Number Multiplication

The set of whole numbers is closed under multiplication. That is, if we multiply any two
whole numbers, the result is a unique whole number. This property is referred to as the
closure property of multiplication of whole numbers. Multiplication on the set of whole numbers,
like addition, has the commutative, associative, and identity properties.

Theorem 3–5: Properties of Multiplication of Whole Numbers

Closure property of multiplication of whole numbers For whole numbers a and b, a # b is
a unique whole number.
Commutative property of multiplication of whole numbers For whole numbers a and b,
a # b = b # a.
Associative property of multiplication of whole numbers For whole numbers a, b, and c,
1a # b2 # c = a # 1b # c2.
Identity property of multiplication of whole numbers There is a unique whole number 1
such that for any whole number a, a # 1 = a = 1 # a.
Zero multiplication property of whole numbers For any whole number a, a # 0 = 0 = 0 # a.

The commutative property of multiplication of whole numbers is illustrated easily by building

a 3-by-5 grid and then turning it sideways, as shown in Figure 3-26. We see that the num-
ber of 1 * 1 squares present in either case is 15; that is, 3 # 5 = 15 = 5 # 3. The commuta-
3

tive property can be verified by recalling that n1A * B2 = n1B * A2.

5
The associative property of multiplication of whole numbers can be illustrated as follows.
Suppose a = 3, b = 5, and c = 4. In Figure 3-27(a), we see a picture of 315 # 42 blocks. In
3 5 = 15

Figure 3-27(b), we see the same blocks, this time arranged as 413 # 52. By the commuta-
tive property this can be written as 13 # 524. Because both sets of blocks in Figure 3-27(a)
5 and (b) compress to the set shown in Figure 3-27(c), we see that 315 # 42 = 13 # 524. The
associative property is useful in computations such as the following:
3 # 40 = 314 # 102 = 13 # 4210 = 12 # 10 = 120
3
5 3 = 15

Figure 3-26 3

2
3 4
3 3
1 2
1
4 4
5 5 5
(a) 3(5 4) (b) (3 5)4 (c) 3(5 4) = (3 5)4

Figure 3-27

The multiplicative identity for whole numbers is 1. For example, 3 # 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3. In

general, for any whole number a,
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

a#1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + Á + 1 = a
a terms
Thus, a # 1 = a, which, along with the commutative property for multiplication implies that
a # 1 = a = 1 # a. Cartesian products can also be used to show that a # 1 = a = 1 # a.
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
148 Whole Numbers and Their Operations

Next, consider multiplication involving 0. For example, 0 # 6 by definition means we have

0 6’s or 0. Also 6 # 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 0. Thus we see that multiplying 0 by 6
or 6 by 0 yields a product of 0. This is an example of the zero multiplication property. This
property can also be verified by using the definition of multiplication in terms of Cartesian
products. In algebra, 3x means 3 x’s or x + x + x. Therefore, 0 # x means 0 sets of x, or 0.

The Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition and Subtraction

We now investigate the basis for understanding multiplication algorithms for whole num-
bers. The area of the large rectangle in Figure 3-28 equals the sum of the areas of the two
smaller rectangles and hence 513 + 42 = 5 # 3 + 5 # 4.
5(3 + 4) = 5 3 + 5 4

5 5 5

3 4 3 4

(3 + 4)

Figure 3-28

The properties of addition and multiplication of whole numbers also can be used to justify
this result:
513 + 42 = 13 + 42 + 13 + 42 + 13 + 42 + 13 + 42 + 13 + 42

Five terms

Definition of multiplication
= 13 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 32 + 14 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 42

Commutative and associative properties of addition

= 5 # 3 + 5 # 4 Definition of multiplication
Note that 513 + 42 can be thought of as 5 13 + 42’s.
This example illustrates the distributive property of multiplication over addition for whole
numbers. A similar property of subtraction is also true. Because in algebra it is customary to
write a # b as ab, we state the distributive property of multiplication over addition and the dis-
tributive property of multiplication over subtraction as follows:

Theorem 3–6: Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition for

Whole Numbers
For any whole numbers a, b, and c,
a1b + c2 = ab + ac
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Theorem 3–7: Distributive Property of Multiplication over Subtraction for

Whole Numbers
For any whole numbers a, b, and c with b 7 c,
a1b - c2 = ab - ac

R E M A R K Because the commutative property of multiplication of whole numbers

holds, the distributive property of multiplication over addition can be rewritten as
1b + c2a = ba + ca.
The distributive property can be generalized to any finite number of terms. For
example, a1b + c + d2 = ab + ac + ad.

The distributive property can be written as

ab + ac = a1b + c2
This is commonly referred to as factoring. Thus, the factors of ab + ac are a and 1b + c2.
Students find the distributive property of multiplication over addition useful when doing
mental mathematics. For example, 13 # 7 = 110 + 327 = 10 # 7 + 3 # 7 = 70 + 21 = 91.
The distributive property of multiplication over addition is important in the study of alge-
bra and in developing algorithms for arithmetic operations. For example, it is used to
combine like terms when we work with variables, as in 3x + 5x = 13 + 52x = 8x or
3ab + 2b = 13a + 22b.

Example 3-2 a. Use an area model to show that 1x + y21z + w2 = xz + xw + yz + yw.

▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼

b. Use the distributive property of multiplication over addition to justify the result in
part (a).

Solution a. Consider the rectangle in Figure 3-29, whose height is x + y and whose length
is z + w. The area of the entire rectangle is 1x + y21z + w2. If we divide the
rectangle into smaller rectangles as shown, we notice that the sum of the areas
of the four smaller rectangles is xz + xw + yz + yw. Because the area of the
original rectangle equals the sum of the areas of the smaller rectangles, the
result follows.

z w

x xz xw

y yz yw

Figure 3-29

b. To apply the distributive property of multiplication over addition, we think

about x + y as one number and proceed as follows:
1x + y21z + w2 = 1x + y2z + 1x + y2w The distributive property of
multiplication over addition
= xz + yz + xw + yw The distributive property of
multiplication over addition
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

= xz + xw + yz + yw The commutative and

associative properties of addition
▲▲

The properties of whole-number multiplication reduce the 100 basic multiplication facts
involving numbers 0–9 that students have to learn. For example, 19 facts involve multiplica-
tion by 0, and 17 more have a factor of 1. Therefore, knowing the zero multiplication prop-
erty and the identity multiplication property allows students to know 36 facts. Next, 8 facts
are squares, such as 5 # 5, that students seem to know, and that leaves 56 facts. The commuta-
tive property cuts this number in half, because if students know 7 # 9, then they know 9 # 7.
This leaves 28 facts that students can learn or use the associative and distributive properties
to figure out. For example, 6 # 5 can be thought of as 15 + 125 = 5 # 5 + 1 # 5, or 30.

Division of Whole Numbers

We discuss division using three models: the set ( partition) model, the missing-factor model,
and the repeated-subtraction model.

Set (Partition) Model

E-Manipulative Suppose we have 18 cookies and want to give an equal number of cookies to each of
Activity three friends: Bob, Dean, and Charlie. How many should each person receive? If we
Practice using the set draw a picture, we can see that we can divide (or partition) the 18 cookies into three sets,
(partition) model to with an equal number of cookies in each set. Figure 3-30 shows that each friend receives
perform divisions can
be found in the 6 cookies.
Division activity.

Bob Dean Charlie

Figure 3-30

The answer may be symbolized as 18 , 3 = 6. Thus, 18 , 3 is the number of cookies in

each of three disjoint sets whose union has 18 cookies. In this approach to division, we par-
tition a set into a number of equivalent subsets.

Missing-Factor Model
Another strategy for dividing 18 cookies among three friends is to use the missing-factor model.
If each friend receives c cookies, then the three friends receive 3c, or 18, cookies. Hence,
3c = 18. Because 3 # 6 = 18, we have c = 6. We have answered the division computation by
using multiplication. This leads us to the following definition of division of whole numbers:

Definition of Division of Whole Numbers

For any whole numbers a and b, with b Z 0, a , b = c if, and only if, c is the unique whole
number such that b # c = a.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

The number a is the dividend, b is the divisor, and c is the quotient. Note that a , b can
a
also be written as or b 冄 a.
b

Repeated-Subtraction Model
Suppose we have 18 cookies and want to package them in cookie boxes that hold 6 cookies
each. How many boxes are needed? We could reason that if one box is filled, then we would
have 18 - 6 (or 12) cookies left. If one more box is filled, then there are 12 - 6 (or 6)
cookies left. Finally, we could place the last 6 cookies in a third box. This discussion can be
summarized by writing 18 - 6 - 6 - 6 = 0. We have found by repeated subtraction that
18 , 6 = 3. Treating division as repeated subtraction works well if there are no cookies left
over. If there are cookies left over a nonzero remainder, will arise.
Calculators can illustrate the repeated subtraction operation. For example, consider
135 , 15. If the calculator has a constant key, K , press 1 5 - K 1 3 5 = Á and then
count how many times you must press the = key in order to make the display read 0. Calcula-
tors with a different constant feature may require a different sequence of entries. For example, on
some calculators, we can press 1 3 5 - 1 5 = and then count the number of times we
press the = key to make the display read 0 .

The Division Algorithm

Just as subtraction of whole numbers is not closed, division of whole numbers is not closed.
For example, to find 27 , 5, we look for a whole number c such that 5c = 27.
Table 3-2 shows several products of whole numbers times 5. Since 27 is between 25 and 30,
there is no whole number c such that 5c = 27. Because no whole number c satisfies this equa-
tion, we see that 27 , 5 has no meaning in the set of whole numbers, and the set of whole
numbers is not closed under division.

Table 3-2
5#1 5#2 5#3 5#4 5#5 5#6

5 10 15 20 25 30

Even though the set of whole numbers is not closed under division, practical applications
with whole number divisions are common. For example, if 27 apples were to be divided
among 5 students, each student would receive 5 apples and 2 apples would remain. The
number 2 is the remainder. Thus, 27 contains five 5s with a remainder of 2. Observe that
the remainder is a whole number less than 5. This operation is illustrated in Figure 3-31.
The concept illustrated is the division algorithm.

Remainder
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

27 = 5 . 5 + 2 with 0 ≤ 2 < 5

Figure 3-31
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
152 Whole Numbers and Their Operations

Division Algorithm
Given any whole numbers a and b with b Z 0, there exist unique whole numbers q (quotient)
and r (remainder) such that
a = bq + r with 0 … r 6 b

When a is “divided” by b and the remainder is 0, we say that a is divisible by b or that b is a

divisor of a or that b divides a. By the division algorithm, a is divisible by b if a = bq for a
unique whole number q. Thus, 63 is divisible by 9 because 63 = 9 # 7. Notice that 63 is also
divisible by 7 and that the remainder is 0.

Example 3-3 If 123 is divided by a number and the remainder is 13, what are the possible divisors?
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼

Solution If 123 is divided by b, then from the division algorithm we have

123 = bq + 13 and b 7 13
Using the definition of subtraction, we have bq = 123 - 13, and hence 110 = bq. Now we
are looking for two numbers whose product is 110, where one number is greater than 13.
Table 3-3 shows the pairs of whole numbers whose product is 110.
Table 3-3
1 110
2 55
5 22
10 11

We see that 110, 55, and 22 are the only possible values for b because each is greater
than 13.

▲ ▲
NOW TRY THIS 3-13 When the marching band was placed in rows of 5, one member was left over.
When the members were placed in rows of 6, there was still one member left over. However, when they
were placed in rows of 7, nobody was left over. What is the smallest number of members that could have
been in the band?

Relating Multiplication and Division as Inverse Operations

In Section 3-1, we saw that subtraction and addition were related as inverse operations and
we looked at fact families for both operations. In a similar way, division with remainder 0
and multiplication are related. Division is the inverse of multiplication. We can again see this
by looking at fact families as shown on the grade 3 student page on page 153. Notice that
question 1 in the Talk About It has students think of division using the repeated-subtraction
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

model by skip counting backward from a starting point. Question 2 has students think of
division using the missing-factor model.

School Book Page REL ATING MULTIPLICATION

AND DIVISION
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Source: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley Math, Grade 3, 2008 (p. 384).

Next consider how the four operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divi-
sion are related for the set of whole numbers. This is shown in Figure 3-32. Note that ad-
dition and subtraction are inverses of each other, as are multiplication and division with
remainder 0. Also note that multiplication can be viewed as repeated addition, and division
can be accomplished using repeated subtraction.
Inverse
⫹ operations ⫺

Repeated Relationships Repeated

addition between subtraction
operations

Inverse
⫻ operations ⫼
Figure 3-32
In Section 3-1, we have seen that the set of whole numbers is closed under addition and that
addition is commutative and associative and has an identity. On the other hand, subtraction
did not have these properties. In this section, we have seen that multiplication has some of the
same properties that hold for addition. Does it follow that division behaves like subtraction?
Investigate this in Now Try This 3-14.

NOW TRY THIS 3-14

a. Provide counterexamples to show that the set of whole numbers is not closed under division and that
division is neither commutative nor associative.
b. Why is 1 not the identity for division?

Division by 0 and 1
Division by 0 and by 1 are frequently misunderstood by students. Before reading on, try to
find the values of the following three expressions:
1. 3 , 0 2. 0 , 3 3. 0 , 0
Consider the following explanations:
1. By definition, 3 , 0 = c if there is a unique whole number c such that 0 # c = 3. Since
the zero property of multiplication states that 0 # c = 0 for any whole number c, there
is no whole number c such that 0 # c = 3. Thus, 3 , 0 is undefined because there is no
answer to the equivalent multiplication problem.
2. By definition, 0 , 3 = c if there exists a unique whole number such that 3 # c = 0.
Any number c times 0 is 0, and in particular 3 # 0 = 0. Therefore, c = 0 and
0 , 3 = 0. Note that c = 0 is the only number that satisfies 3 # c = 0.
3. By definition, 0 , 0 = c if there is a unique whole number c such that 0 # c = 0.
Notice that for any c, 0 # c = 0. According to the definition of division, c must be
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

unique. Since there is no unique number c such that 0 # c = 0, it follows that 0 , 0 is

undefined.

School Book Page DIVISION BY 0 AND 1

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Source: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley Math, Grade 3, 2008 (p. 396).

Division involving 0 may be summarized as follows. Let n be any nonzero whole number.
Then,
1. n , 0 is undefined; 2. 0 , n = 0; 3. 0 , 0 is undefined.
Recall that n # 1 = n for any whole number n. Thus, by the definition of division,
n , 1 = n. For example, 3 , 1 = 3, 1 , 1 = 1, and 0 , 1 = 0. A grade 3 discussion of
division by 0 and 1 can be found on the student page on page 155.

Order of Operations
Difficulties involving the order of arithmetic operations sometimes arise. For example, many
students will treat 2 + 3 # 6 as 12 + 326, while others will treat it as 2 + 13 # 62. In the first
case, the value is 30; in the second case, the value is 20. To avoid confusion, mathematicians
agree that when no parentheses are present, multiplications and divisions are performed before
additions and subtractions. The multiplications and divisions are performed in the order they
occur, and then the additions and subtractions are performed in the order they occur. Thus,
2 + 3 # 6 = 2 + 18 = 20. This order of operations is not built into some calculators that
display an incorrect answer of 30. The computation 8 - 9 , 3 # 2 + 3 is performed as
8 - 9 , 3#2 + 3 = 8 - 3#2 + 3
= 8 - 6 + 3
= 2 + 3
= 5

Assessment 3-3A

1. For each of the following, find, if possible, the whole b. n1¢ + ~2

numbers that make the equations true: c. a1b + c2 - ac
a. 3 # n = 15 b. 18 = 6 + 3 # n 6. Place parentheses, if needed, to make each of the follow-
c. n 15 + 62 = n 5 + n 6
# # # ing equations true:
2. In terms of set theory, the product na could be thought a. 5 + 6 # 3 = 33
of as the number of elements in the union of n sets with b. 8 + 7 - 3 = 12
a elements in each. If this were the case, what must be c. 6 + 8 - 2 , 2 = 13
true about the sets? d. 9 + 6 , 3 = 5
3. Determine if the following sets are closed under multi- 7. Using the distributive property of multiplication over
plication: addition, we can factor as in x2 + xy = x1x + y2. Use
a. 50, 16 b. 52, 4, 6, 8, 10, Á 6 the distributive property and other multiplication prop-
c. 51, 4, 7, 10, 13, Á 6 erties to factor each of the following:
4. a. If 5 is removed from the set of whole numbers, is the a. xy + y2 b. xy + x
set closed with respect to addition? Explain. c. a2b + ab2
b. If 5 is removed from the set of whole numbers, is the 8. For each of the following, find whole numbers to make
set closed with respect to multiplication? Explain. the statement true, if possible:
c. Answer the same questions as (a) and (b) if 6 is a. 18 , 3 = n b. n , 76 = 0
removed from the set of whole numbers. c. 28 , n = 7
5. Rename each of the following using the distributive 9. A sporting goods store has designs for six shirts, four
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

property of multiplication over addition so that there are pairs of pants, and three vests. How many different
no parentheses in the final answer: shirt-pants-vest outfits are possible?
a. 1a + b21c + d2 10. Which property is illustrated in each of the following:
a. 615 # 42 = 16 # 524

b. 615 # 42 = 614 # 52 a. 1a , b2 , c = a , 1b , c2
c. 615 # 42 = 15 # 426 b. a , 1b + c2 = 1a , b2 + 1a , c2
d. 115 # 42 = 5 # 4 20. Suppose c is a divisor of a and of b. Show that
e. 13 + 42 # 0 = 0 1a + b2 , c = 1a , c2 + 1b , c2 using
f. 13 + 4215 + 62 = 13 + 425 + 13 + 426 a. a model.
11. Students are overheard making the following state- b. the definition of division in terms of multiplication
ments. What properties justify their statements? and the distributive property of multiplication over
a. I know that 9 # 7 is either 63 or 69 and I know they addition.
can’t both be right. 21. Find the solution for each of the following:
b. I know that 9 # 0 is 0 because I know that any number a. 5x + 2 = 22 b. 3x + 7 = x + 13
times 0 is 0. c. 31x + 42 = 18
c. Any number times 1 is the same as the number we 22. Millie and Samantha began saving money at the same
started with, so 9 # 1 is 9. time. Millie plans to save $3 a month, and Samantha
12. The product 6 # 14 can be found by thinking of the prob- plans to save $5 a month. After how many months will
lem as 6110 + 42 = 16 # 102 + 16 # 42 = 60 + 24 = 84. Samantha have saved exactly $10 more than Millie?
a. What properties are being used? 23. There were 17 sandwiches for 7 people on a picnic. How
b. Use this technique to mentally compute 32 # 12. many whole sandwiches were there for each person if
13. The distributive property of multiplication over subtrac- they were divided equally? How many were left over?
tion is 24. a. Find all pairs of whole numbers whose product is 36.
a1b - c2 = ab - ac b. Plot the points found in (a) on a grid.
Use this property to find each of the following: c. Compare the pattern shape formed by the points to
a. 9110 - 22 the graph of the pattern shape that could be found
b. 2018 - 32 using all pairs of whole numbers whose sum is 36.
14. Show that 1a + b22 = a2 + 2ab + b2 using
25. A new model of car is available in 4 exterior colors and
3 interior colors. Use a tree diagram and specific colors to
a. the distributive property of multiplication over addition
show how many color schemes are possible for the car.
and other properties.
26. To find 7 , 5 on the calculator, press 7 , 5 = ,
b. an area model.
which yields 1.4. To find the whole-number remainder,
ignore the decimal portion of 1.4, multiply 5 # 1, and
15. If a and b are whole numbers with a 7 b, use the
rectangles in the figure to explain why 1a + b22 -
1a - b22 = 4ab.
subtract this product from 7. The result is the remain-
der. Use a calculator to find the whole-number remain-
b a der for each of the following divisions:
a. 28 , 5 b. 32 , 10
b
a c. 29 , 3 d. 41 , 7
e. 49,382 , 14
a 27. Is it possible to find a whole number less than 100 that
b when divided by 10 leaves remainder 4 and when divided
a b by 47 leaves remainder 17?
28. In each of the following, tell what computation must be
16. In each of the following, show that the left side of the done last:
equation is equal to the right side and give a reason for a. 5116 - 72 - 18
every step: b. 54>110 - 5 + 42
a. 1ab2c = 1ca2b b. 1a + b2c = c1b + a2 c. 114 - 32 + 124 # 22
17. Factor each of the following: d. 21,045>345 + 8
a. xy - y2 29. Write an algebraic expression for each of the following:
b. 47 # 101 - 47 a. Width of a rectangle whose area is A and length is l
c. ab2 - ba2 b. f feet in yards
18. Rewrite each of the following division problems as a c. h hours in minutes
multiplication problem: d. d days in weeks
a. 40 , 8 = 5 b. 326 , 2 = x
19. Show that, in general, each of the following is false if a,
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

b, and c are whole numbers:

Assessment 3-3B

1. For each of the following, find, if possible, the whole 11. Students are overheard making the following statements.
numbers that make the equations true: What properties justify their statements?
a. 8 # n = 24 b. 28 = 4 + 6 # n a. I know if I remember what 7 # 9 is, then I also know
c. n 18 + 62 = n 8 + n # 6
# # what 9 # 7 is.
2. Determine if the following sets are closed under multi- b. To find 9 # 6, I just remember that 9 # 5 is 45 and so
plication: 9 # 6 is just 9 more than 45, or 54.
a. 506 b. 51, 3, 5, 7, 9, Á 6 12. The product 5 # 24 can be found by thinking of the prob-
c. 50, 1, 26 lem as 5120 + 42 = 5 # 20 + 5 # 4 = 100 + 20 = 120.
3. Rename each of the following using the distributive prop- a. What property is being used?
erty of multiplication over addition so that there are no b. Use this technique to mentally compute 8 # 34.
parentheses in the final answer. Simplify when possible. 13. The distributive property of multiplication over subtrac-
a. 31x + y + 52 tion is
b. 1x + y21x + y + z2 a1b - c2 = ab - ac
c. x1 y + 12 - x
Use this property to find each of the following:
4. Place parentheses, if needed, to make each of the follow-
a. 15110 - 22 b. 3019 - 22
ing equations true:
a. 4 + 3 # 2 = 14
14. Show that if b 7 c, then a1b - c2 = ab - ac using:
a. an area model suggested by the given figure (express
b. 9 , 3 + 1 = 4
the shaded area in two different ways).
c. 5 + 4 + 9 , 3 = 6
d. 3 + 6 - 2 , 1 = 7 b – c c
5. The generalized distributive property for three terms
states that for any whole numbers a, b, c, and d,
a1b + c + d2 = ab + ac + ad. Justify this property using
the distributive property for two terms. a
6. Using the distributive property of multiplication over
addition, we can factor as in x2 + xy = x1x + y2. Use
the distributive property and other multiplication prop-
erties to factor each of the following:
a. 47 # 99 + 47
b. 1x + 12y + 1x + 12
b
c. x2y + zx3
7. For each of the following, find whole numbers to make b. the definition of subtraction in terms of addition
the statement true, if possible: and the distributive property of multiplication over
a. 27 , 9 = n b. n , 52 = 1 addition.
c. 13 , n = 13 15. Show that the left-hand side of the equation is equal to
8. A new car comes in 5 exterior colors and 3 interior colors. the right-hand side and give a reason for every step.
How many different-looking cars are possible? a. 1ab2c = b1ac2 b. a1b + c2 = ac + ab
9. What multiplication is suggested by the following models? 16. Factor each of the following:
a. a. xy - y
XX XX XX XX b. 1x + 12y - 1x + 12
X X X X
c. a2b3 - ab2
17. Rewrite each of the following division problems as a
b. multiplication problem:
a. 48 , x = 16 b. x , 5 = 17
10. Which property of whole numbers is illustrated in each 18. Think of a number. Multiply it by 2. Add 2. Divide by 2.
of the following: Subtract 1. How does the result compare with your orig-
a. 15 # 420 = 0
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

inal number? Will this work all the time? Explain your
b. 713 # 42 = 714 # 32 answer.
c. 713 # 42 = 13 # 427 19. Show that, in general, each of the following is false if a,
d. 13 + 421 = 3 + 4 b, and c are whole numbers:
e. 13 + 425 = 3 # 5 + 4 # 5 a. a , b = b , a
f. 11 + 2213 + 42 = 11 + 223 + 11 + 224 b. a - b = b - a
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 3-3 Multiplication and Division of Whole Numbers 159

20. Find the solution for each of the following: a. Use the keys 1 , 9 , and 7 exactly once each in
a. 5x + 8 = 28 b. 5x + 6 = x + 14 any order and use any operations available to write as
c. 51x + 32 = 35 many of the whole numbers as possible from 1 to 20.
21. String art is formed by connecting evenly spaced nails For example, 9 - 7 - 1 = 1 and 1 # 9 - 7 = 2.
on the vertical and horizontal axes by segments of string. b. Use the 4 key as many times as desired with any
Connect the nail farthest from the origin on the vertical operations to display 13.
axis with the nail closest to the origin on the horizontal c. Use the 2 key three times with any operations to
axis. Continue until all nails are connected, as shown in display 24.
the figure that follows. How many intersection points d. Use the 1 key five times with any operations to
are created with 10 nails on each axis? display 100.
25. In each of the following, tell what computation must be
done last:
a. 5 # 6 - 3 # 4 + 2
b. 19 - 3 # 4 + 9 , 3
c. 15 - 6 , 2 # 4
d. 5 + 18 - 223
26. Find infinitely many whole numbers that leave remain-
3 nails per axis der 3 upon division by 5.
3 intersections 27. The operation } is defined on the set S = 5a, b, c6, as
shown in the following table. For example, a } b = b
22. Students were divided into eight teams with nine on and b } a = b.
each team. Later, the same students were divided into
teams with six on each team. How many teams were } a b c
there then? a a b c
23. Jonah has a large collection of marbles. He notices b b a c
that if he borrows 5 marbles from a friend, he can c c c c
arrange the marbles in rows of 13 each. What is the
remainder when he divides his original number of a. Is S closed with respect to } ?
marbles by 13? b. Is } commutative on S?
24. In the following problems, use only the designated num- c. Is there an identity for } on S? If yes, what is it?
ber keys on the calculator. You may use any function keys. d. Try several examples to investigate the associative
property for } on S.

Mathematical Connections 3-3

Communication Cooperative Learning

1. A number leaves remainder 6 when divided by 10. What 9. Multiplication facts that most children have memorized
is the remainder when the number is divided by 5? Jus- can be stated in the table that is partially filled:
tify your reasoning.
2. Can 0 be the identity for multiplication? Explain why or
why not. ⫻ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3. Suppose you forgot the product of 9 # 7. Give several 1
ways that you could find the product using different
multiplication facts and properties. 2
4. Is x , x always equal to 1? Explain your answer. 3
5. Is x # x ever equal to x? Explain your answer.
6. Describe all pairs of whole numbers whose sum and 4 16
product are the same. 5 35
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Open-Ended 6
7. Describe a real-life situation that could be represented 7
by the expression 3 + 2 # 6.
8. How would you explain to a child that an even number 8 72
has the form 2q and an odd number has the form 9 81
2q + 1, where q is a whole number?
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
160 Whole Numbers and Their Operations

a. Fill out the table of multiplication facts. Find as many Third International Mathematics and Science Study
patterns as you can. List all the patterns that your (TIMSS) Questions
group discovered and explain why some of those In Toshi’s class there are twice as many girls as boys.
patterns occur in the table. There are 8 boys in the class. What is the total number
b. How can the multiplication table be used to solve of boys and girls in the class?
division problems? a. 12
c. Consider the odd number 35 shown in the multiplica- b. 16
tion table. Consider all the numbers that surround it. c. 20
Note that they are all even. Does this happen for all d. 24
odd numbers in the table? Explain why or why not.
TIMSS 2003, Grade 4
Questions from the Classroom
A piece of rope 204 cm long is cut into 4 equal pieces.
10. Suppose a student argued that 0 , 0 = 0 because Which of these gives the length of each piece in centi-
“nothing divided by nothing” is “nothing.” How would meters?
you help that person? a. 204 + 4
11. Sue claims the following is true by the distributive law, b. 204 * 4
where a and b are whole numbers: c. 204 - 4
31ab2 = 13a213b2 d. 204 , 4
TIMSS 2003, Grade 4
How might you help her?
12. a. A student claims that for all whole numbers National Assessment of Educational Progress
1ab2 , b = a. How do you respond? (NAEP) Question
b. The student in part (a) claims that 0 , 0 = 0. The
student’s reasoning is, “If a = 0 and b = 0 are substi- N
tuted in the equation in part (a), the result is 3 3 3 3 3 3
0 # 0 , 0 = 0. But because 0 # 0 = 0, it follows that
0 , 0 = 0.” How do you respond?
13. A student asks if division on the set of whole numbers is
distributive over subtraction. How do you respond?
14. A student says that 1 is the identity for division. How do
you respond? The weights on the scale above are balanced. Each cube
weighs 3 pounds. The cylinder weighs N pounds. Which
Review Problems number sentence best describes this situation?
15. Give a set that is not closed under addition. a. 6 + N = 12
16. Is the operation of subtraction for whole numbers com- b. 6 + N = 4
mutative? If not, give a counterexample. c. 2 + N = 12
17. What is wrong in each of the following? d. 2 + N = 4
a. 137 b. 35 c. 56 d. 46 NAEP, 2007, Grade 4
+ 56 + 47 - 29 - 17
183 712 33 39

LABORATORY ACTIVITY Enter a natural number less than 20 on the calculator. If the number is
even, divide it by 2; if it is odd, multiply it by 3 and add 1. Next, use the number on the display. Follow
the given directions. Repeat the process.
1. Will the display eventually reach 1?
2. Which number less than 20 takes the most steps before reaching 1?
3. Do even or odd numbers reach 1 more quickly?
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

4. Investigate what happens with numbers greater than 20.

3-4 Algorithms for Whole-Number Multiplication and Division

In the grade 4 Focal Points, we find the following with respect to multiplication and division
and the use of algorithms for doing computations:

Students use understandings of multiplication to develop quick recall of the basic multiplication facts
and related division facts. They apply their understanding of models for multiplication (i.e., equal-
sized groups, arrays, area models, equal intervals on the number line), place value, and properties of
operations (in particular, the distributive property) as they develop, discuss, and use efficient,
accurate, and generalizable methods to multiply multidigit whole numbers. They select appropriate
methods and apply them accurately to estimate products or calculate them mentally, depending on
the context and numbers involved. They develop fluency with efficient procedures, including the
standard algorithm, for multiplying whole numbers, understand why the procedures work (on the
basis of place value and properties of operations), and use them to solve problems. (p. 16)

In this section, multiplication and division algorithms will be developed using various
models.

Multiplication Algorithms
To develop algorithms for multiplying multidigit whole numbers, we use the strategy of
examining simpler computations first. Consider 4 # 12. This computation could be pictured as
in Figure 3-33(a) with 4 rows of 12 blocks, or 48 blocks. These blocks in Figure 3-33(a) can
also be partitioned to show that 4 # 12 = 4110 + 22 = 4 # 10 + 4 # 2. The numbers 4 # 10
and 4 # 2 are partial products.

(a) (b) Tens Ones 10 + 2 12 12

1 2 : * 4 : * 4 : * 4
4
* 4 40 + 8 :8 : 48
: 40
10 2 48

Figure 3-33

Figure 3-33(a) illustrates the distributive property of multiplication over addition on the
set of whole numbers. The process leading to an algorithm for multiplying 4 # 12 is seen in
Figure 3-33(b). Notice the similarity between the multiplication in Figure 3-33 and the
following algebra multiplication:
41x + 22 = 4x + 4 # 2
= 4x + 8
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Similarly, notice the analogy between the product

23 # 14 = 12 # 10 + 3211 # 10 + 42 and 12x + 3211x + 42

The analogy is continued as shown below:

2 # 10 + 3 2x + 3
* 11 # 10 + 42 * 11x + 42
12 8x + 12
8 # 10
2
2x + 3x
3 # 10 2x2 + 11x + 12
2 # 10 2

2 # 102 + 11 # 10 + 12
Multiplication of a three digit number by a one-digit factor will be explored after we dis-
cuss multiplication by a power of 10.

Multiplication by 10n
Next we consider multiplication by powers of 10. First consider what happens when we
multiply a given number by 10, such as 10 # 23. If we start out with the base-ten block
representation of 23, we have 2 longs and 3 units. To multiply by 10, we must replace each
piece with a base-ten piece that represents the next higher power of 10. This is shown in
Figure 3-34. Notice that the 3 units in 23 when multiplied by 10 become 3 longs or 3 tens.
Therefore, after multiplication by 10 there are no units and hence we have 0 in the units place.
In general, if we multiply any natural number by 10, we append a 0 at the end of the number.

23
Hundreds Tens Ones
2 3
× 1 0
2 3 0

× 10

230

Figure 3-34

The computation 23 # 10 from Figure 3-34 can be justified as follows:

23 # 10 = 12 # 10 + 3210
= 12 # 10210 + 3 # 10
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

= 2110 # 102 + 3 # 10
= 2 # 102 + 3 # 10
= 2 # 102 + 3 # 10 + 0 # 1
= 230

To compute products such as 3 # 200, we proceed as follows:

3 # 200 = 312 # 1022
= 13 # 22102
= 6 # 102
= 6 # 102 + 0 # 10 + 0 # 1
= 600
We see that multiplying 6 by 102 results in appending two zeros to the right of 6. This idea
can be generalized to the statement that multiplication of any natural number by 10n, where n
is a natural number, results in appending n zeros to the right of the number.

R E M A R K The appending of n zeros to a natural number when multiplying by 10n can

also be explained as follows. We first multiply by 10, resulting in appending of one zero
1as in 23 # 10 = 2302. When we multiply by another 10, another zero is appended
1as in 230 # 10 = 23002. Since we multiply n times by 10, n zeros are appended to the
natural-number factor.

When multiplying powers of 10, the definition of exponents is used. For example,
102 # 101 = 110 # 10210 = 103, or 102 + 1. In general, where a is a natural number and m and
n are whole numbers, am # an is given by the following:
am # an = 1a # a # a # Á # a2 # 1a # a # a # Á # a2
m factors n factors
# # #
= a a a Á a = a # m+n

m + n factors
Consequently, am # an = am + n.

NOW TRY THIS 3-15 Use the fact that am # an = am + n along other multiplication properties to
explain why the computations in the cartoon are both true.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Multiplication by a power of 10 is helpful in calculating the product of a one-digit number

and a three digit number. In the following example, we assume the previously developed

algorithm for multiplying a one-digit numeral times a two-digit numeral:

4 # 367 = 413 # 102 + 6 # 10 + 72 367

= 413 # 1022 + 416 # 102 + 4 # 7 : * 4
= 14 # 32102 + 14 # 6210 + 4 # 7 28
= 1200 + 240 + 28 240
1200
= 1468
1468

NOW TRY THIS 3-16 Use expanded notation and an approach similar to the preceding to calculate
7 # 4589.

Multiplication with Two-Digit Factors

Consider 14 # 23. Model this computation by first using base-ten blocks, as shown in Fig-
ure 3-35(a), and then showing all the partial products and adding, as shown in Figure 3-35(b).
(10 ⴛ 20 ⴝ 200) (10 ⴛ 3 ⴝ 30)
20 3

23
× 14
10 12 (4 × 3)
80 (4 × 20)
30 (10 × 3)
+ 200 (10 × 20)
322 (12 + 80 + 30 + 200)

(a) (4 ⴛ 20 = 80) (4 ⴛ 3 ⴝ 12) (b)

Figure 3-35

This last approach leads to an algorithm for multiplication:

23 23
* 14 110 + 42 * 14
92 (4 # 232 or 92
230 110 # 232 23
322 322
We are accustomed to seeing the partial product 230 written without the zero, as 23. The
placement of 23 with 3 in the tens column obviates having to write the 0 in the units column.
But when children are first learning multiplication algorithms, we should encourage them to
include the zero. This promotes better understanding and helps to avoid errors.
The distributive property of multiplication over addition can be used to explain why the
algorithm for multiplication works. Again, consider 14 # 23.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

14 # 23 = 110 + 4223
= 10 # 23 + 4 # 23
= 230 + 92
= 322
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 3-4 Algorithms for Whole-Number Multiplication and Division 165

Because algorithms are powerful, there is sometimes a tendency to overapply them or to

use paper and pencil for a task that should be done mentally. For example, consider
213
* 1000
000
000
000
213
213000
This application is not wrong but is inefficient. Mental math and estimation are important
skills in learning mathematics and should be practiced in addition to paper-and-pencil com-
putations. Children should be encouraged to estimate whether their answers are reasonable.
In the computation 14 # 23, we know that the answer must be between 10 # 20 = 200 and
20 # 30 = 600 because 10 6 14 6 20 and 20 6 23 6 30.

Lattice Multiplication
Lattice multiplication has the advantage of delaying all additions until the single-digit
multiplications are complete. Because of this, it is sometimes referred to as a “low-stress
algorithm.” Low-achieving students especially seem to like this algorithm, perhaps because
of the structure provided by the lattice. The lattice multiplication algorithm for multiply-
ing 14 and 23 is shown in Figure 3-36. (Determining the reasons why lattice multiplication
works is left as an exercise.)

1 4
0
2
8

1
3 This computation is 4 . 3. The tens go above the
2 diagonal and the units below. Continue this proce-
dure for all the blocks.

1 4
0 01
2
2 8
Once the multiplication is complete, add along the
3 0 1 3 diagonals. It is necessary in this example to “regroup”
1 to the hundreds diagonal.
3 2
2 2

Figure 3-36

▲
Historical Lattice multiplication dates back to tenth-century India. This algorithm was imported to
▲
Note Europe and was popular in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Napier’s rods (or bones),
developed by John Napier in the early 1600s, were modeled on lattice multiplication.
▲
Napier’s rods can be used in a multiplication procedure. ▲
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Division Algorithms
Using Repeated Subtraction to Develop the Standard Division Algorithm
One algorithm for division of whole numbers was developed in an earlier section using
repeated subtraction. However, it could have been done more efficiently. Consider the
following:

A shopkeeper is packaging juice in cartons that hold 6 bottles each. She has 726 bottles. How
many cartons does she need?

We might reason that if 1 carton holds 6 bottles, then 10 cartons hold 60 bottles and 100
cartons hold 600 bottles. If 100 cartons are filled, there are 726 - 100 # 6, or 126, bottles
remaining. If 10 more cartons are filled, then 126 - 10 # 6, or 66, bottles remain. Similarly,
if 10 more cartons are filled, 66 - 10 # 6, or 6, bottles remain. Finally, 1 carton will hold the
remaining 6 bottles. The total number of cartons necessary is 100 + 10 + 10 + 1, or 121.
This procedure is summarized in Figure 3-37(a). A more efficient method is shown in
Figure 3-37(b).

(a) 6 冄 726 (b) 6 冄 726

- 600 100 sixes - 600 100 sixes
126 126
- 60 10 sixes - 120 20 sixes
66 6
-60 10 sixes -6 1 six
6 0 121 sixes
-6 1 six
0 121 sixes
▲▲
Research Note Figure 3-37
Many students never
master the standard
Divisions such as the one in Figure 3-38 are usually shown in elementary school
long-division algo-
texts in the most efficient form, as in Figure 3-38(b), in which the numbers in color
rithm. Even fewer
in Figure 3-38(a) are omitted. The technique used in Figure 3-38(a) is often called
gain a reasonable
understanding of
either the algorithm (a) 121 (b) 121
or the answers it 1 6 冄 726
produces. A major 20 -6
reason underlying 100 12
this difficulty is the 6 冄 726 - 12
fact that the - 600 6
standard algorithm 126 - 6
(as usually taught)
- 120 0
asks students to
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

6
ignore place value
-6
understandings
0
(Silver et al.
1993). ▲ ▲ Figure 3-38

“scaffolding” and may be used as a preliminary step to achieving the standard algorithm,
as in Figure 3-38(b). Notice that scaffolding takes the numbers on the right in Fig-
ure 3-37(b), and places them on the top as in Figure 3-38(a). Note that the scaffolding
shows place value and, as indicated in the Research Note, place value is important to
understanding the standard algorithms.

Using Base-Ten Blocks to Develop the Standard Division Algorithm

As pointed out in the Research Note, students need to see why each move in an algorithm
is appropriate rather than just what sequence of moves to make. Next we use base-ten
blocks to justify why each move in the standard algorithm is appropriate. In Table 3-4,
the base-ten model is on the left with the corresponding steps in the standard algorithm
on the right.

▲
Research
▲
Students constructing meanings underlying an operation such as long division need to focus
Note on understanding why each move in an algorithm is appropriate rather than on which moves
to make and in which sequence. Also, teachers should encourage students to invent their own
personal procedures for the operations but expect them to explain why their inventions are
▲
legitimate (Lampert 1992). ▲

Table 3-4
Base-Ten Blocks Algorithm
1. First we represent 726 with base-ten blocks.

6 冄 726

2. We next determine how many sets of 6 flats (hundreds) there are in the representation. 1 set of 6 flats
There is 1 set of 6 flats with 1 flat, 2 longs (tens), and 6 units (ones) left over. 1
6 冄 726
-6
1
1 flat
2 longs
6 units left over

3. Next, we convert the one leftover flat to 10 longs (tens). Now we have 12 longs (tens) and 1 set of 6 flats
6 units (ones). 1
1 flat = 10 longs 6 冄 726
-6
12
12 longs
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

6 units left over

(continued)

Base-Ten Blocks Algorithm

4. Next we determine how many sets of 6 longs (tens) there are in 12 longs and 6 units. 1 set of 6 flats
We have 2 sets of 6 longs and 6 units left over. 2 sets of 6 longs
12
6 冄 726
- 6
12
- 12
6
6 units left over

5. Next we determine how many sets of 6 units (ones) there are in the 6 remaining units. There 1 set of 6 flats
is 1 set of 6 units with no units left over (the remainder is 0). 2 sets of 6 longs
1 set of 6 units

121
6 冄 726
-6
12
- 12
6
-6
0
0 remainder

Therefore, we see that in the base-ten block representation of 726, there is 1 group of
6 flats (hundreds), 2 groups of 6 longs (tens), and 1 group of 6 units (ones) with none left
over. Hence, the quotient is 121 with a remainder of 0. The steps in the algorithm are
shown alongside the work with the base-ten blocks.

Short Division
The process used in Figure 3-38(b) is usually referred to as “long” division. Another tech-
nique, called “short” division, can be used when the divisor is a one-digit number and
most of the work is done mentally. An example of the short division algorithm is given in
Figure 3-39.

Decide where to Divide the hun- Divide the tens. Divide the ones.
start. dreds. Write the Write the
remainder by remainder by
the tens. the ones.

5 5 57 57 6
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

5冄 2 8 8 0 5 冄 2 838 0 5 冄 2 83830 5 冄 2 83830

28 , 5 28 , 5 = 5 R3 38 , 5 = 7 R3 30 , 5 = 6 R0

Figure 3-39
A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Tenth Edition, by Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind, and Johnny W. Lott.
Published by Addison-Wesley. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 3-4 Algorithms for Whole-Number Multiplication and Division 169

Division in many elementary texts is taught using a four-step algorithm: estimate, multi-
ply, subtract, and compare. This is demonstrated in the student page on page 170. Notice that
students check the division by using the inverse operation of multiplication. Study the stu-
dent page and answer the question at the bottom of the page.

Division by a Two-Digit Divisor

An example of division by a divisor of more than one digit is given next. Consider 32 冄 2618.
1. Estimate the quotient in 32 冄 2618. Because 1 # 32 = 32, 10 # 32 = 320, 100 # 32 = 3200,
we see that the quotient is between 10 and 100.
2. Find the number of tens in the quotient. Because 26 , 3 is approximately 8,
26 hundreds divided by 3 tens is approximately 8 tens. We then write the 8 in the
tens place, as shown:
80
32 冄 2618
- 2560 132 # 802
58
3. Find the number of units in the quotient. Because 5 , 3 is approximately 1, 5 tens
divided by 3 tens is approximately 1. This is shown on the left, with the standard
algorithm shown on the right.
81
1
80 81 R26
32 冄 2618 32 冄 2618
- 2560 : - 256
58 58
- 32 132 12
# - 32
26 26
4. Check: 32 # 81 + 26 = 2618.
Normally in grade-school books, we see the format shown on the right, which places
the remainder beside the quotient.

Multiplication and Division in Different Bases

In multiplication, as with addition and subtraction, we need to identify the basic facts of
single-digit multiplication before we can develop any algorithms. The multiplication facts
for base five are given in Table 3-5. These facts can be derived by using repeated addition.

Table 3-5 Base-Five

Multiplication Table
x 0 1 2 3 4
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4
2 0 2 4 11 13
3 0 3 11 14 22
4 0 4 13 22 31

School Book Page DIVIDING THREE–DIGIT NUMBERS

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Source: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley Math, Grade 4, 2008 ( p. 386).

There are various ways to do the multiplication 21five # 3five:

Fives Ones 120 + 12five 21five 21five
2 1 : * 3five : * 3five : * 3five
* 1110 + 32five
f
3 :3 : 113five
: 110
113five
The multiplication of a two-digit number by a two-digit number is developed next:
23five 23five
* 14five 110 + 42five *14five
22 14 # 32five : 202
130 14 # 202five : 230
30 110 # 32five 432five
200 110 # 202five
432five
Lattice multiplication can also be used to multiply numbers in various number bases.
This is explored in Assessment 3-4.
Division in different bases can be performed using the multiplication facts and the definition
of division. For example, 22five , 3five = c if, and only if, c # 3five = 22five. From Table 3-5, we
see that c = 4five. As in base ten, computing multidigit divisions efficiently in different bases
requires practice. The ideas behind the algorithms for division can be developed by using
repeated subtraction. For example, 3241five , 43five is computed by means of the repeated-
subtraction technique in Figure 3-40(a) and by means of the conventional algorithm in Fig-
ure 3-40(b). Thus, 3241five , 43five = 34five with remainder 14five.

43five 冄 3241five 34five R14five

(a) - 430 110 # 432five (b) 43five 冄 3241five
2311 - 234
- 430 110 # 432five 401
1331 - 332
- 430 110 # 432five 14five
401
- 141 12 # 432five
- 210
- 141 12 # 432five
14 134 # 432five

Figure 3-40

Computations involving base two are demonstrated in Example 3-4.

Example 3-4 a. Multiply: b. Divide:

▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼

101two 101two 冄 110110two

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

* 11two

Solution a. 101two b. 1010two R100two

* 11two 101two 冄 110110two
101 - 101
101 111
1111two - 101
100 two

▲ ▲
Assessment 3-4A

1. Fill in the missing numbers in each of the following: 7. Consider the following:
a. 4_6 b. 327
* 9_1 476
* 783
12 # 4762
327 * 293
1_78
19 # 4762
1_08 952
3408
13 # 4762
_9_3 4284
_982
30_ _07 1428
3335_8
139468
2. Perform the following multiplications using the lattice
multiplication algorithm: a. Use the conventional algorithm to show that the an-
a. 728 b. 306 swer is correct.
* 94 * 24 b. Explain why the algorithm works.
3. Explain why the lattice multiplication algorithm works. c. Try the method to multiply 84 * 363.
4. Simplify each of the following using properties of expo- 8. The Russian peasant algorithm for multiplying 27 * 68
nents. Leave answers as powers. follows. (Disregard remainders when halving.)
a. 57 # 512 b. 610 # 62 # 63
296 #
c. 10 1017
d. 27 # 105 # 57 Halves Doubles
5. a. Which is greater, 2 + 280 or 2100? Why?
80

b. Which is greatest, 2101, 3 # 2100, or 2102? Why? : 27 * 68

6. The following model illustrates 22 # 13: Halve 27 : 13 136 Double 68
Halve 13 : 6 272 Double 136
20 2 Halve 6 : 3 544 Double 272
Halve 3 : 1 1088 Double 544

In the “Halves” column, choose the odd numbers. In

10 the “Doubles” column, circle the numbers paired with
the odds from the “Halves” column. Add the circled
numbers.
3 68
136
544
a. Explain how the partial products are shown in the
1088
1836 This is the product of 27 # 68.
figure.
b. Draw a similar model for 15 # 21.
c. Draw a similar base-five model for the product Try this algorithm for 17 # 63 and other numbers.
43five # 23five. Explain how the model can be used to 9. Answer the following questions based on the activity
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

find the answer in base five. chart given next:

Activity Calories Burned per Hour to read at these rates, how much longer would it take
Karly to read the book than Molly?
Playing tennis 462 16. Dan has 4520 pennies in three boxes. He says that there
Snowshoeing 708 are 3 times as many pennies in the first box as in the third
Cross-country skiing 444 and twice as many in the second box as in the first. How
Playing volleyball 198 much does he have in each box?
17. Gina buys apples from an orchard and then sells them at
a. How many calories are burned during 3 hr of cross- a country fair in bags of 3 for $1 a bag. She bought 50
country skiing? boxes of apples, 36 apples in a box, and paid $452. If she
b. Jane played tennis for 2 hr while Carolyn played sold all but 18 apples, what was her total profit?
volleyball for 3 hr. Who burned more calories, and 18. Discuss possible error patterns in each of the following:
how many more? a. 35 b. 53
c. Lyle went snowshoeing for 3 hr and Maurice went * 26 5 冄 2515
cross-country skiing for 5 hr. Who burned more calo- 90 - 25
ries, and how many more? 15
10. On a 14-day vacation, Glenn increased his caloric intake - 15
by 1500 calories per day. He also worked out more than 0
usual by swimming 2 hr a day. Swimming burns 666 calo- 19. a. Give reasons for each of the following steps:
ries per hour, and a net gain of 3500 calories adds 1 lb of
weight. Did Glenn gain at least 1 lb during his vacation? 56 # 10 = 15 # 10 + 62 # 10
11. Perform each of the following divisions using both the = 15 # 102 # 10 + 6 # 10
repeated-subtraction and standard algorithms: = 5 # 110 # 102 + 6 # 10
a. 8 冄 623 b. 36 冄 298 = 5 # 102 + 6 # 10
c. 391 冄 4001 = 5 # 102 + 6 # 10 + 0 # 1
12. Using a calculator, Ralph multiplied by 10 when he = 560
should have divided by 10. The display read 300. What b. Give reasons for each step in computing 34 # 102.
should the correct answer be? 20. To transport the complete student body of 1672 students
13. The following figure shows four operation machines. to a talk given by the governor, the school plans to rent
The output from one machine becomes the input for the buses that can hold 29 students each. How many buses
one below it. Complete the accompanying chart. are needed? Will all the buses be full?
Input
21. Place the digits 7, 6, 8, and 3 in the boxes to obtain
Input Output

2 11 nnn
+5 * n
4
a. the greatest product.
0
×4 b. the least product.
19 22. For what possible bases are each of the following com-
31 putations correct?
–6
a. 213 b. 213
+ 308 * 32
÷2 522 430
1043
Output 11300
14. Consider the following multiplications. Notice that when 23. a. Use lattice multiplication to compute 323five # 42five.
the digits in the factors are reversed, the products are the b. Find the smallest values of a and b such that
same. 32a = 23b.
36 63 24. Perform each of these operations using the bases shown:
* 42 * 24 a. 32five # 4five
b. 32five , 4five
c. 43six # 23six
1512 1512
a. Find other multiplications where this procedure works. d. 143five , 3five
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

b. Find a pattern for the numbers that work in this way. e. 10010two , 11two
15. Molly read 160 pages in her book in 4 hr. Her sister f. 10110two # 101two
Karly took 4 hr to read 100 pages in the same book. If
the book is 200 pages long and if the two girls continued

Assessment 3-4B

1. Fill in the missing numbers in the following: a. Explain how the partial products are shown in the
figure.
b. Draw a similar model for 12 # 22.
4_4
7. a. Use base-five blocks to compute 14five # 23five.
* 327
3_8 8
b. Use the distributive property of multiplication over
968
addition to explain why multiplication of a natural
_4 5 2 number in base five by 10five results in annexation of
1 5 8 2_8 0 to the number.
2. Perform the following multiplications using the lattice c. Explain why multiplication of a natural number in
multiplication algorithm: base five by 100five results in annexation of two 0s to
a. 327 b. 2618 the number.
* 43 * 137 d. Use the distributive property of multiplication over
addition and part (b) to compute 14five # 23five.
3. The following chart gives average water usage for one
8. Complete the following table:
person for one day:

Use Average Amount

a b a#b aⴙb
Taking bath 110 L (liters)
56 3752
Taking shower 75 L
Flushing toilet 22 L 32 110
Washing hands, face 7L 270 33
Getting a drink 1L
Brushing teeth 1L
Doing dishes (one meal) 30 L 9. Sue purchased a $30,000 life-insurance policy at the
Cooking (one meal) 18 L price of $24 for each $1000 of coverage. If she pays the
premium in 12 monthly installments, how much is each
a. Use the chart to calculate how much water you use installment?
each day. 10. Perform each of the following divisions using both the
b. The average American uses approximately 200 L of repeated-subtraction and the standard algorithms:
water per day. Are you average? a. 7 冄 392
c. If there are 310,000,000 people in the United States, b. 37 冄 925
on average approximately how much water is used in c. 423 冄 5002
the United States per day? 11. Place the digits 7, 6, 8, and 3 in the boxes n 冄 n n n to
4. Simplify each of the following using properties of expo- obtain
nents. Leave answers as powers. a. the greatest quotient.
a. 38 # 34 b. 52 # 54 # 52 b. the least quotient.
2# 2# 2
c. 6 2 3 12. Twenty members of the band plan to attend a festival. The
5. a. Which is greater, 220 + 220 or 221? Why? band members washed 245 cars at $2 per car to help cover
b. Which is greatest, 331, 9 # 330, or 333? Why? expenses. The school will match every dollar the band
6. The following model illustrates 13 # 12: raises with a dollar from the school budget. The cost of
10 3 renting the bus to take the band is 72¢ per mile and the
round-trip is 350 mi. The band members can stay in the
dorm for two nights at $5 per person per night. Meals for
the trip will cost $28 per person. Has the band raised
10 enough money yet? If not, how many more cars do they
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

have to wash?
13. The following figure shows three operation machines.
The output from one machine becomes the input for the
2 one below it. Complete the accompanying chart.

Input Input Output 19. a. Find all the whole numbers that leave remainder
2 22 1 upon division by 4. Write your answer using set
+7 builder notation.
4
b. Write the numbers from part (a) in a sequence
0 starting from the smallest.
×3
34
c. What kind of sequence is the one in part (b)?
20. Perform each of these operations using the bases shown:
–5
31 a. 42five # 3five
b. 22five , 4five
Output
c. 32five # 42five
14. Choose three different digits. d. 1313five , 23five
a. Create all possible two-digit numbers from the e. 101two # 101two
numbers you chose. Each number can be used only f. 1001two , 11two
once. 21. For what possible bases are each of the following com-
b. Add the six numbers. putations correct?
c. Add the three digits you chose. a. 322 b. 101
d. Divide the answer in (b) by the answer in (c). - 233 11 冄 1111
e. Repeat (a) through (d) with three different digits. 23 - 11
f. Is the final result always the same? Why? 11
15. Xuan saved $5340 in 3 years. If he saved $95 per month - 11
in the first year and a fixed amount per month for the 0
next 2 years, how much did he save per month during 22. a. Use lattice multiplication to compute 423five # 23five.
the last 2 years? b. Find the smallest values of a and b such that
16. A group of fourth-grade children had to cut four pieces 41a = 14b.
of ribbon each 4 ft long from a ribbon of 44 yd. What is 23. Place the digits 7, 6, 8, 3, and 2 in the boxes to obtain
the length of the remaining ribbon?
17. Discuss possible error patterns in each of the following: nnn
a. 34 b. 34 * nn
* 8 *6 a. the greatest product. b. the least product.
2432 114 24. Find the products of the following and describe the pat-
18. Give reasons for each of the following steps: tern that emerges:
35 # 100 = 13 # 10 + 52100 a. 1 * 1 b. 99 * 99
= 13 # 10 + 52102 11 * 11 999 * 999
= 13 # 102102 + 5 # 102 111 * 111 9999 * 9999
= 3110 # 1022 + 5 # 102 1111 * 1111
= 3 # 103 + 5 # 102 c. Test the patterns discovered. If the patterns do not con-
= 3 # 103 + 5 # 102 + 0 # 10 + 0 # 1 tinue as expected, determine when the patterns stop.
= 3500

Mathematical Connections 3-4

Communication 4. Do you think it is valuable for students to see more than

1. How would you explain to children how to multiply one method of doing computation problems? Why or
345 # 678, assuming that they know and understand multi- why not?
plication by a single digit and multiplication by a power 5. Choose what you consider the “best” algorithm studied
of 10? in this section. Explain the reasoning behind your
2. What happens when you multiply any two-digit number choice.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

by 101? Explain why this happens. 6. Tom claims that long division should receive reduced
3. Pick a number. Double it. Multiply the result by 3. Add attention in elementary classrooms. Do you agree or
24. Divide by 6. Subtract your original number. Is the disagree? Defend your answer.
result always the same? Write a convincing argument for 7. Prove that all numbers of the form abba (a and b are
your answer. digits in base ten) leave remainder 0 upon division by 11.

Is the same true for all the numbers of the form abccba? b. Another student says that he knows that 39 # 41 Z
Why or why not? 40 # 40 but he found that 39 # 41 = 40 # 40 - 1. He
also found that 49 # 51 = 50 # 50 - 1. He wants to
Open-Ended
know if this pattern continues. How would you
8. If a student presented a new “algorithm” for computing respond?
with whole numbers, describe the process you would
recommend to the student to determine if the algorithm Review Problems
would always work. 16. Illustrate the identity property of addition for whole
numbers.
Cooperative Learning
17. Rename each of the following using the distributive
9. The traditional sequence for teaching operations in the property of multiplication over addition:
elementary school is first addition, then subtraction, a. ax + bx + 2x
followed by multiplication, and finally division. Some b. 31a + b2 + x1a + b2
educators advocate teaching addition followed by multi- 18. At the beginning of a trip, the odometer registered
plication, then subtraction followed by division. Within 52,281. At the end of the trip, the odometer registered
your group prepare arguments for teaching the opera- 59,260. How many miles were traveled on this trip?
tions in either order listed. 19. Write each of the following division problems as a mul-
Questions from the Classroom tiplication problem:
a. 36 , 4 = 9
10. A student divides as follows. How would you help? b. 112 , 2 = x
4 5 c. 48 , x = 6
3 冄 1215 d. x , 7 = 17
- 12 Third International Mathematics and Science Study
15 (TIMSS) Question
- 15
Each student needs 8 notebooks for school. How many
0
notebooks are needed for 115 students?
11. A student divides as follows. How do you help?
Use the tiles 1 , 4 , and 5 . Write the numbers on the
15 tiles in the boxes below to make the largest answer when
6 冄 36 you multiply.
-6
nn
30
30 * n

12. A student asks how you can find the quotient and the 37 * . = 703.
remainder in a division problem like 592 , 36 using a What is the value of 37 * . + 6?
calculator without an integer division button. TIMSS, 2003, Grade 4
13. A student claims that to divide a number with the units
digit 0 by 10, she just crosses out the 0 to get the answer. National Assessment of Educational Progress
She wants to know if this is always true and why and if (NAEP) Question
the 0 has to be the units digit. How do you respond? There will be 58 people at a breakfast and each person
14. A student claims that if the remainder when m is divided will eat 2 eggs. There are 12 eggs in each carton. How
by n is 0, then the dividend (m) and the divisor (n) can many cartons of eggs will be needed for the breakfast?
each be multiplied by the same nonzero whole number c a. 9
and the answer to the division stays the same. That is, b. 10
m , n = 1mc2 , 1nc2. She wants to know why. How c. 72
would you respond, assuming the student does not know d. 116
anything about fractions? NAEP 2007, Grade 4
15. a. A student asks if 39 + 41 = 40 + 40, is it true that
39 # 41 = 40 # 40. How do you reply?
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

BRAIN TEASER For each of the following, replace the letters with digits in such a way that the
computation is correct. Each letter may represent only one digit.
a. LYNDON b. MA
* B MA
JOHNSON + MA
EE L

LABORATORY ACTIVITY
1. Messages can be coded on paper tape in base two. A hole in the tape represents 1, whereas the absence
of a space represents 0. The value of each hole depends on its position; from left to right, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1
(all powers of 2). Letters of the alphabet may be coded in base two according to their position in the
alphabet. For example, G is the seventh letter. Since 7 = 1 # 4 + 1 # 2 + 1, the holes appear as they do
in Figure 3-41:

16 8 4 2 1

Figure 3-41
a. Decode the message in Figure 3-42.

Figure 3-42
b. Write your name on a tape using base two.
2. Consider the cards in Figure 3-43 that are modeled on base-two arithmetic.

Card E Card D Card C Card B Card A

16 24 8 24 4 20 2 18 1 17
17 25 9 25 5 21 3 19 3 19
18 26 10 26 6 22 6 22 5 21
19 27 11 27 7 23 7 23 7 23
20 28 12 28 12 28 10 26 9 25
21 29 13 29 13 29 11 27 11 27
22 30 14 30 14 30 14 30 13 29
23 31 15 31 15 31 15 31 15 31
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Figure 3-43
a. Suppose a person’s age appears on cards E, C, and B, and the person is 22. Can you discover how
this works and why?
b. Design card F and redesign cards A to E so that the numbers 1 through 63 can be used.

3-5 Mental Mathematics and Estimation

for Whole-Number Operations

In the Principles and Standards we find the following:

Part of being able to compute fluently means making smart choices about which tools to use and
when. Students should have experiences that help them learn to choose among mental computa-
tion, paper-and-pencil strategies, estimation, and calculator use. The particular context, the ques-
tion, and the numbers involved all play roles in those choices. Do the numbers allow a mental
strategy? Does the context call for an estimate? Does the problem require repeated and tedious
computations? Students should evaluate problem situations to determine whether an estimate or
an exact answer is needed, using their number sense to advantage, and be able to give a rationale
for their decision. (p. 36)

In addition, we find in the Focal Points the following statements with respect to estimation
at the various grade levels. Notice that as the grade level advances, additional operations
are included until all four operations are covered.
In the grade 2 Focal Points:
They (students) select and apply appropriate methods to estimate sums and differences or calcu-
late them mentally, depending on the context and numbers involved. (p. 14)
In the grade 4 Focal Points:
They [students] select appropriate methods and apply them accurately to estimate products or
▲▲
Research Note calculate them mentally, depending on the context and numbers involved. (p. 16)
Good estimators tend In the grade 5 Focal Points:
to have strong self- They [students] select appropriate methods and apply them accurately to estimate quotients or
concepts relative to calculate them mentally, depending on the context and numbers involved. (p. 17)
mathematics,
attribute their success
In the previous sections in this chapter, we focused mainly on paper-and-pencil strategies.
in estimation to their
Next we focus on mental mathematics and computational estimation. Mental mathematics
ability rather than
is the process of producing an answer to a computation without using computational aids.
mere effort, and be-
Computational estimation is the process of forming an approximate answer to a numerical
lieve that estimation
problem. Facility with estimation strategies helps to determine whether or not an answer is
is an important tool.
In contrast, poor esti-
mators tend to have a
weak self-concept
relative to mathemat-
ics, attribute the
success of others to
effort, and believe
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

that estimation is nei-

ther important nor
useful ( J. Sowder
▲
1989).
▲

▲ reasonable. In the Calvin and Hobbes cartoon, we see that Calvin is a poor estimator and may
▲
Research Note very well believe, as mentioned in the Research Note on page 178, that estimation is neither
Mental computation important nor useful.
becomes efficient Proficiency in mental mathematics can help in your everyday estimation skills. It is essen-
when it involves tial that you have these skills even in a time when calculators are readily available. You must
algorithms different be able to judge the reasonableness of answers obtained on a calculator. Mental mathematics
from the standard makes use of a variety of strategies and properties. As mentioned in the Research Note on
algorithms done us- the left, mental computation becomes efficient when it involves algorithms different from
ing pencil and paper. standard paper-and-pencil algorithms. We consider next several of the most common algo-
Also, mental compu- rithms for performing operations mentally on whole numbers. Note that the trading off
tational strategies are algorithm is just the equal additions algorithm discussed earlier.
quite personal, being
dependent on a
student’s creativity,
Mental Mathematics: Addition
flexibility, and
1. Adding from the left
understanding of
number concepts and a. 67 60 + 30 = 90 (Add the tens.)
properties. For + 36 7 + 6 = 13 (Add the units.)
example, consider 90 + 13 = 103 (Add the two sums.)
the skills and think-
b. 36 30 + 30 = 60 (Double 30.)
ing involved in
+ 36 6 + 6 = 12 (Double 6.)
computing the sum
60 + 12 = 72 (Add the doubles.)
74 + 29 by mentally
representing the 2. Breaking up and bridging
problem as
67 67 + 30 = 97 (Add the first number to the tens in the second number.)
70 + 129 + 12 + 3
+ 36 97 + 6 = 103 (Add this sum to the units in the second number.)
= 103
( J. Sowder 3. Trading off
▲
1989).
▲
a. 67 67 + 3 = 70 (Add 3 to make a multiple of 10.)
+ 36 36 - 3 = 33 (Subtract 3 to compensate for the 3 that was added.)
70 + 33 = 103 (Add the two numbers.)

b. 67 67 + 30 = 97 (Add 30 (next multiple of 10 greater than 29).)

+ 29 97 - 1 = 96 (Subtract 1 to compensate for the extra 1 that was added.)

4. Using compatible numbers

Compatible numbers are numbers whose sums are easy to calculate mentally.
130 130 + 70 = 200
50 200 50 + 50 = 100
70 100 + 200 = 300
20 100 300 + 20 = 320
+ 50

5. Making compatible numbers

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

25 25 + 75 = 100 (25 + 75 adds to 100.)

+ 79 100 + 4 = 104 (Add 4 more units.)

Mental Mathematics: Subtraction

1. Breaking up and bridging
67 67 - 30 = 37 (Subtract the tens in the second number from the first number.)
-36 37 - 6 = 31 (Subtract the units in the second number from the difference.)
2. Trading off
71 71 + 1 = 72; 39 + 1 = 40 (Add 1 to both numbers. Perform the
-39 72 - 40 = 32 subtraction, which is easier than the
original problem.)
Notice that adding 1 to both numbers does not change the answer. Why?
3. Drop the zeros
8700 87 - 5 = 82 (Notice that there are two zeros in each number. Drop
- 500 82 : 8200 these zeros and perform the computation. Then replace
the two zeros to obtain proper place value.)
Another mental-mathematics technique for subtraction is called “adding up.” This
method is based on the missing addend approach and is sometimes referred to as the
“cashier’s algorithm.” An example of adding up or the cashier’s algorithm follows.

Example 3-5 Noah owed $11 for his groceries. He used a $50 check to pay the bill. While handing Noah
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼

the change, the cashier said, “11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 30, 50.” How much change did Noah
receive?

Solution Table 3-6 shows what the cashier said and how much money Noah received each
time. Since $11 plus $1 is $12, Noah must have received $1 when the cashier said $12. The
same reasoning follows for $13, $14, and so on. Thus, the total amount of change that
Noah received is given by $1 + $1 + $1 + $1 + $5 + $10 + $20 = $39. In other
words, $50 - $11 = $39 because $39 + $11 = $50.

Table 3-6
What the Cashier Said $11 $12 $13 $14 $15 $20 $30 $50
Amount of Money Noah
Received Each Time 0 $1 $1 $1 $1 $5 $10 $20
▲ ▲

NOW TRY THIS 3-17 Perform each of the following computations mentally and explain what
technique you used to find the answer:
a. 40 + 160 + 29 + 31
b. 3679 - 474
c. 75 + 28
d. 2500 - 700
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Mental Mathematics: Multiplication

As with addition and subtraction, mental mathematics is useful for multiplication. For ex-
ample, consider 8 * 26. Students may think of this computation in a variety of ways, as
shown here.
26 = 20 + 6 26 = 25 + 1 26 = 30 - 4
8 * 20 is 160 and 8 * 25 is 200, then 8 * 30 is 240, then
8 * 6 is 48, so 8 * 1 is 8 more, so take off 8 * 4 = 32,
8 * 26 is 160 + 48, 8 * 26 is 200 + 8, so 8 * 26 is
or 208. or 208. 240 - 32 = 208.
Next we consider several of the most common strategies for performing mental mathe-
matics using multiplication.
1. Front-end multiplying
64 60 * 5 = 300 (Multiply the number of tens in the first number by 5.)
*5 4 * 5 = 20 (Multiply the number of units in the first number by 5.)
300 + 20 = 320 (Add the two products.)
2. Using compatible numbers
2 * 9 * 5 * 20 * 5 Rearrange as 9 * 12 * 52 * 120 * 52 =
9 * 10 * 100 = 9000.
3. Thinking money
a. 64 Think of the product as 64 nickels, which can be thought
* 5 of as 32 dimes, which is 32 * 10 = 320 cents.
b. 64 Think of the product as 64 half-dollars, which is 32 dollars,
*50 or 3200 cents.
c. 64 Think of the product as 64 quarters, which is 32 half-dollars,
*25 or 16 dollars. Thus we have 1600 cents.

Mental Mathematics: Division

1. Breaking up the dividend
7 冄 4256 7 冄 42 ƒ 56 (Break up the dividend into parts.)
600 + 8
7 冄 4200 + 56 (Divide both parts by 7.)
600 + 8 = 608 (Add the answers together.)
2. Using compatible numbers
a. 3 冄 105 105 = 90 + 15 (Look for numbers that you recognize as divisible
30 + 5 by 3 and having a sum of 105.)
= 35
3 冄 90 + 15 (Divide both parts and add the answers.)
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

b. 8 冄 232 232 = 240 - 8 (Look for numbers that are easily divisible by 8
30 - 1 and whose difference is 232.)
= 29
8 冄 240 - 8 (Divide both parts and take the difference.)

NOW TRY THIS 3-18 Perform each of the following computations mentally and explain what
technique you used to find the answer:
a. 25 # 32 # 4 b. 123 # 3
c. 25 # 35 d. 5075 , 25

Computational Estimation
Computational estimation may help determine whether an answer is reasonable or not. This
is especially useful when the computation is done on a calculator. Some of the common
estimation strategies for addition are given next.
1. Front-end with adjustment
Front-end with adjustment estimation begins by focusing on the lead, or front, digits
of the addition. These front, or lead, digits are added and assigned an appropriate place
value. At this point we may have an underestimate that needs to be adjusted. The
adjustment is made by focusing on the next group of digits. The following example
shows how front-end estimation works:
423 20 Steps: (1.) Add front-end digits
4 + 3 + 5 338 120 4 + 3 + 5 = 12.
100 (2.) Place value = 1200.
12 hundred + 561
(3.) Adjust 61 + 38 L 100
and 20 + 100 is 120.
(4.) Adjusted estimate is
1200 + 120 = 1320.
2. Grouping to nice numbers
The strategy used to obtain the adjustment in the preceding example is the grouping to
nice numbers strategy, which means that numbers that “nicely” fit together are grouped.
Another example is given here.
23
39
About 100 32 About 100 Therefore, the sum is about
64 100 + 100, or 200.
+ 49

3. Clustering
Clustering is used when a group of numbers cluster around a common value. This
strategy is limited to certain kinds of computations. In the next example, the numbers
seem to cluster around 6000.
6200 Estimate the “average”—about 6000
5842
Multiply the average by the number of values
to obtain 5 # 6000 = 30,000.
6512
5521
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

+ 6319

4. Rounding
Rounding is a way of cleaning up numbers so that they are easier to handle. Rounding
enables us to find approximate answers to calculations, as follows:
4724 5000 (Round 4724 to 5000.)
+ 3192 + 3000 (Round 3192 to 3000.)
8000 (Add the rounded numbers.)

1267 1300 (Round 1267 to 1300.)

- 510 - 500 (Round 510 to 500.)
800 (Subtract the rounded numbers.)

Performing estimations requires a knowledge of place value and rounding tech-

niques. We illustrate a rounding procedure that can be generalized to all rounding sit-
uations. For example, suppose we wish to round 4724 to the nearest thousand. We may
proceed in four steps (see also Figure 3-44).
4000 4724 5000 a. Determine between which two consecutive thousands the number lies.
b. Determine the midpoint between the thousands.
c. Determine which thousand the number is closer to by observing whether it is
4000 4500 4724 5000
greater than or less than the midpoint. (Not all texts use the same rule for rounding
when a number falls at a midpoint.)
4000 4500 4724 5000 d. If the number to be rounded is greater than or equal to the midpoint, round the
Figure 3-44 given number to the greater thousand; otherwise, round to the lesser thousand. In
this case, we round 4724 to 5000.
5. Using the range
It is often useful to know into what range an answer falls. The range is determined by
finding a low estimate and a high estimate and reporting that the answer falls in this
interval. An example follows:
Problem Low Estimate High Estimate
378 300 400
+ 524 + 500 + 600
800 1000
Thus, a range for this problem is from 800 to 1000.
The student page on page 184 shows both the rounding and front-end estimation strategies
applied to a problem.

Estimation: Multiplication and Division

Examples of estimation strategies for multiplication and division are given next.
1. Front-end
524 500 * 8 = 4000 (Start multiplying at the front to obtain a first
* 8 estimate.)
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

20 * 8 = 160 (Multiply the next important digit by 8.)

4000 + 160 = 4160 (Adjust the first estimate by adding the two numbers.)

School Book Page ESTIMATING SUMS

AND DIFFERENCES

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Source: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley Math, Grade 5, 2008 ( p. 28).

2. Compatible numbers

5 冄 4163 5 冄 4000 (Change 4163 to a number close to it that you know is

divisible by 5.)
800 (Carry out the division and obtain the first estimate of 800.
5 冄 4000 Various techniques can be used to adjust the first estimate.)

NOW TRY THIS 3-19 Estimate each of the following mentally and explain what technique you used
to find the answer:
a. A sold-out concert was held in a theater with a capacity of 4525 people. Tickets were sold for $9
each. How much money was collected?
b. Fliers are to be delivered to 3625 houses and there are 42 people who will be doing the distribution.
If distributed equally, how many houses will each person visit?

Assessment 3-5A

1. Compute each of the following mentally: c. 32 # 28

a. 180 + 97 - 23 + 20 - 140 + 26 d. 2215 + 3023 + 5967 + 975
b. 87 - 42 + 70 - 38 + 43 10. Use front-end estimation with adjustment to estimate
2. Use compatible numbers to compute each of the follow- each of the following:
ing mentally: a. 2215 + 3023 + 5987 + 975
a. 2 # 9 # 5 # 6 b. 8 # 25 # 7 # 4 b. 234 + 478 + 987 + 319 + 469
3. Use breaking up and bridging or front-end multiplying 11. a. Would the clustering strategy of estimation be a good
to compute each of the following mentally: one to use in each of the following cases? Why or
a. 567 + 38 b. 321 # 3 why not?
4. Use trading off to compute each of the following
mentally: (i) 474 (ii) 483
a. 85 - 49 b. 87 + 33 1467 475
c. 143 - 97 d. 58 + 39 64 530
5. A car trip took 8 hr of driving at an average of 62 mph. + 2445 503
Mentally compute the total number of miles traveled. + 528
Describe your method.
6. Compute each of the following using the adding up b. Estimate each part of (a) using the following strate-
(cashier’s) algorithm: gies:
a. 53 - 28 b. 63 - 47 (i) Front-end
7. Compute each of the following mentally. In each case, (ii) Grouping to nice numbers
briefly explain your method. (iii) Rounding
a. 86 + 37 12. Use the range strategy to estimate each of the following.
b. 97 + 54 Explain how you arrived at your estimates.
c. 230 + 60 + 70 + 44 + 40 + 6 a. 22 # 38
8. Round each number to the place value indicated by the b. 145 + 678
digit in bold. c. 278 + 36
a. 5280 b. 115,234 13. Suppose you had a balance of $3287 in your checking ac-
c. 115,234 d. 2,325 count and you wrote checks for $85, $297, $403, and $523.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

9. Estimate each answer by rounding. Estimate your balance and tell what you did and whether
a. 878 , 29 you think your estimate is too high or too low.
b. 25,201 - 19,987

14. A theater has 38 rows with 23 seats in each row. Estimate 17. The attendance at a World’s Fair for 1 week follows:
the number of seats in the theater and tell how you
arrived at your estimate. Monday 72,250
15. Without computing, tell which of the following have the Tuesday 63,891
same answer. Describe your reasoning. Wednesday 67,490
a. 44 # 22 and 22 # 11 Thursday 73,180
b. 22 # 32 and 11 # 64 Friday 74,918
c. 13 # 33 and 39 # 11 Saturday 68,480
16. The following is a list of the areas in square miles of Estimate the week’s attendance and tell what strategy
Europe’s largest countries. Mentally use this information you used and why you used it.
to decide if each of the given statements is true. 18. In each of the following, determine if the estimate given
in parentheses is high (higher than the actual answer) or
France 211,207
low (lower than the actual answer). Justify your answers
Spain 194,896
without computing the exact values.
a. 299 # 300 190,0002
Sweden 173,731
b. 6001 , 299 1202
Finland 130,119
c. 6000 , 299 1202
Norway 125,181

a. Sweden is less than 40,000 mi2 larger than Finland. d. 999 , 99 1102
b. France is more than twice the size of Norway. 19. Use your calculator to calculate 252, 352, 452, and 552 and
c. France is more than 100,000 mi2 larger than Norway. then see if you can find a pattern that will let you find 652
d. Spain is about 21,000 mi2 larger than Sweden and 752 mentally.

Assessment 3-5B

1. Compute each of the following mentally: 8. Round each number to the place value indicated by the
a. 160 + 92 - 32 + 40 - 18 digit in bold.
b. 36 + 97 - 80 + 44 a. 3587
2. Use compatible numbers to compute each of the follow- b. 148,213
ing mentally: c. 23,785
a. 5 # 11 # 3 # 20 d. 2,357
b. 82 + 37 + 18 + 13 9. Estimate each answer by rounding.
3. Supply reasons for each of the first four steps given here. a. 937 , 28 b. 32,285 - 18,988
c. 52 # 48
1525 + 372 + 75 = 525 + 137 + 752
d. 3215 + 3789 + 5987
525 + 175 + 372
10. Use front-end estimation with adjustment to estimate
=
1525 + 752 + 37
each of the following:
=
a. 2345 + 5250 + 4210 + 910
= 600 + 37
b. 345 + 518 + 655 + 270
= 637
11. a. Would the clustering strategy of estimation be a good
4. Use breaking and bridging or front-end multiplying to one to use in each of the following cases? Why or
compute each of the following mentally: why not?
a. 997 - 32 b. 56 # 30
(i) 318 (ii) 2350
5. Use trading off to compute each of the following
2314 1987
mentally:
57 2036
a. 75 - 38 b. 57 + 35
+ 3489 2103
c. 137 - 29 d. 78 + 49
+ 1890
6. Compute each of the following using the adding up
(cashier’s) algorithm:
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

a. 74 - 63 b. 73 - 57 b. Estimate each part of (a) using the following strategies:

7. Compute each of the following mentally. In each case, (i) Front-end with adjustment
briefly explain your method. (ii) Grouping to nice numbers
a. 81 - 46 b. 98 - 19 (iii) Rounding
c. 9700 - 600

12. Use the range strategy to estimate each of the following. c. Alberto and Juan are running for city council. They
Explain how you arrived at your estimates. receive votes from two districts. Alberto receives
a. 32 # 47 3473 votes from one district and 5615 votes from the
b. 123 + 780 other district. Juan receives 3463 votes from the first
c. 482 + 246 district and 5616 from the second. Who gets elected?
13. Tom estimated 31 # 179 in the three ways shown. d. Two rectangular parcels have dimensions 101 ft by
(i) 30 # 200 = 6000 120 ft and 103 ft by 129 ft. Which parcel has greater
(ii) 30 # 180 = 5400 area? (Recall that the area of a rectangle is length
(iii) 31 # 200 = 6200 times width.)
Without finding the actual product, which estimate do 17. In each of the following, determine if the estimate given
you think is closer to the actual product? Why? in parentheses is high (higher than the actual answer) or
14. About 3540 calories must be burned to lose 1 lb of body low (lower than the actual answer). Justify your answers
weight. Estimate how many calories must be burned to without computing the exact values.
lose 6 lb. a. 398 # 500 1200,0002
15. Without computing, tell which of the following have the b. 8001 , 398 1202
same answer. Describe your reasoning. c. 10,000 , 999 1102
a. 88 # 44 and 44 # 22 d. 1999 , 201 1102
b. 93 # 15 and 31 # 45 18. Use your calculator to multiply several two-digit numbers
c. 12 # 18 and 20 # 17 times 99. Then see if you can find a pattern that will let you
16. In each of the following, answer the question using esti- find the product of any two-digit number and 99 mentally.
mation methods if possible. If estimation is not appro-
priate, explain why not.
a. Josh has $380 in his checking account. He wants to
write checks for $39, $28, $59, and $250. Will he have
enough money in his account to cover these checks?
b. Gila deposited two checks into her account, one for
$981 and the other for $1140. Does she have enough
money in her account to cover a check for $2000 if
we know she has a positive balance to start with?

Mathematical Connections 3-5

Communication Cooperative Learning

1. What is the difference between mental mathematics and 7. Have each person in a group choose a different grade
computational estimation? (3–6) textbook and make a list of mental math or estima-
2. Is the front-end estimate for addition before adjustment tion strategies done for each grade level. How do the
always less than the exact sum? Explain why or why not. lists compare?
3. In the new textbooks, there is an emphasis on mental 8. As a group, and without actually finding the answers, find
mathematics and estimation. Do you think these topics whether 19,876 # 43 or 19,875 # 44 is greater. Prepare a
are important for today’s students? Why? group response to present to the rest of the class.
4. Suppose x and y are positive (greater than 0) whole num-
Questions from the Classroom
bers. If x is greater than y and you estimate x - y by
rounding x up and y down, will your estimate always be 9. Molly computed 261 - 48 by first subtracting 50 from
too high or too low or could it be either? Explain. 261 to obtain 211; then, to make up for adding 2 to 48,
she subtracted 2 from 211 to obtain an answer of 209. Is
Open-Ended her thinking correct? If not, how could you help her?
5. Give several examples from real-world situations where 10. A student asks why he has to learn about any estimation
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

an estimate, rather than an exact answer, is sufficient. strategy other than rounding. What is your response?
6. a. Give a numerical example of when front-end estima- 11. In order to finish her homework quickly, an elementary
tion and rounding can produce the same estimate. student does her estimation problems by using a calcula-
b. Give an example of when they can produce a differ- tor to find the exact answers and then rounds them to
ent estimate. get her estimate. What do you tell her?

Review Problems
12. Explain why when a number is multiplied by 10 we Rockville 128 miles
append a zero to the number.
13. Perform each of the following divisions using both the
repeated-subtraction and the standard algorithm.
a. 18 冄 623
b. 21 冄 493
c. 97 冄 1000
14. Write each of the answers in problem 13 in the form Mika and her mother noticed the road sign shown above
a = b # q + r, where 0 … r 6 b. while in their car on their way to Rockville. If their speed
is about 65 miles per hour, approximately how many more
National Assessment of Educational Progress hours are needed to finish the trip?
(NAEP) Questions a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 e. 5
Which of these would be easiest to solve by using mental NAEP 2007, Grade 8
math?
a. $65.12 - $28.19
b. 358 * 2
c. 1,625 , 3
d. $100.00 + $10.00
NAEP 2007, Grade 4

BRAIN TEASER The Washington School PTA set up a phone tree in order to reach all of its members.
Each person’s responsibility, after receiving a call, is to call two other assigned members until all
members have been called. Assume that everyone is home and answers the phone and that each phone
call takes 30 seconds. If one of the 85 members, the PTA president, makes the first phone call and starts
the clock, what is the least amount of time necessary to reach all 85 members of the group?

Hint for Solving the Preliminary Problem

The use of multiple 5s, such as 55 and 555, does not often come into play and the
problem can be solved using multiple 5s only twice. A major factor in solving this prob-
lem, as was shown in the example, is the use of grouping symbols.

ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Chapter Outline

I. Whole numbers D. Relations on whole numbers

A. The set of whole numbers W is 50, 1, 2, 3, Á 6. 1. a 6 b if, and only if, there is a natural num-
B. The basic operations for whole numbers are ad- ber c such that a + c = b.
dition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. 2. a 7 b if, and only if, b 6 a.
1. Addition: If n1A2 = a and n1B2 = b, where II. Algorithms for whole-number operations
A ¨ B = ⭋, then a + b = n1A ´ B2. The A. Addition and subtraction algorithms
numbers a and b are addends and a + b is 1. Concrete models
the sum. 2. Expanded algorithms
2. Subtraction: If a and b are any whole numbers, 3. Standard algorithms
then a - b is the unique whole number c 4. Addition and subtraction with regrouping
such that a = b + c. 5. Scratch addition
3. Multiplication: If a and b are any whole 6. Equal additions
numbers, and a Z 0, then 7. Addition and subtraction in different num-
ber bases
ab = b + b + b + Á + b
B. Multiplication and division algorithms
a terms 1. Concrete models
where a and b are factors and ab is the 2. Expanded algorithms
product. 3. Standard algorithms
4. Multiplication: If A and B are sets such 4. Lattice multiplication
that n1A2 = a and n1B2 = b, then ab = 5. Scaffolding with division
n1A * B2. 6. Short division
5. Division: If a and b are any whole numbers 7. Multiplication and division in different num-
with b Z 0, a , b is the unique whole number bases
ber c such that bc = a. The number a is the III. Mental mathematics and computational estimation
dividend, b is the divisor, and c is the strategies
quotient. A. Mental mathematics
6. Division algorithm: Given any whole 1. Adding from the left
numbers a and b, with b Z 0, there exist 2. Breaking up and bridging
unique whole numbers q and r such that 3. Trading off
a = bq + r, with 0 … r 6 b. 4. Using compatible numbers
C. Properties of addition and multiplication of 5. Making compatible numbers
whole numbers 6. Dropping the zeros
1. Closure: If a, b 僆 W, then a + b 僆 W and 7. Using the cashier’s algorithm (adding up)
ab 僆 W. 8. Front-end multiplying
2. Commutative: If a, b 僆 W, then a + b = 9. Thinking money
b + a and ab = ba. 10. Breaking up the dividend
3. Associative: If a, b, c 僆 W, then 1a + b2 + B. Computational estimation strategies
c = a + 1b + c2 and 1ab2c = a1bc2. 1. Front-end
4. Identity: 0 is the unique identity element for 2. Grouping to nice numbers
addition of whole numbers; 1 is the unique 3. Clustering
identity element for multiplication. 4. Rounding
5. Distributive property of multiplication over addi- 5. Range
tion: If a, b, c 僆 W, then a1b + c2 = ab + ac. 6. Compatible numbers
6. Distributive property of multiplication over
subtraction: If a, b, c 僆 W, with b Ú c,
a1b - c2 = ab - ac.
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7. Zero multiplication property: For any whole

number a, a # 0 = 0 = 0 # a.

Chapter Review

1. For each of the following, identify the properties of 11. a. Think of a number.
the operation(s) for whole numbers illustrated: Add 17.
a. 31a + b2 = 3a + 3b Double the result.
b. 2 + a = a + 2 Subtract 4.
c. 16 # 1 = 1 # 16 = 16 Double the result.
d. 6112 + 32 = 6 # 12 + 6 # 3 Add 20.
e. 31a # 22 = 312a2 Divide by 4.
f. 312a2 = 13 # 22a Subtract 20.
2. Using the definitions of less than or greater than Your answer will be your original number. Explain
given in this chapter, prove that each of the follow- how this trick works.
ing inequalities is true: b. Fill in two more steps that will take you back to
a. 3 6 13 your original number.
b. 12 7 9 Think of a number.
3. For each of the following, find all possible replace- Add 18.
ments to make the statements true for whole num- Multiply by 4.
bers: Subtract 7.
a. 4 # n - 37 6 27 #
b. 398 = n # 37 + 28 #
c. n # 13 + 42 = n # 3 + n # 4 #
d. 42 - n Ú 16 c. Make up a series of instructions such that you
4. Use the distributive property of multiplication over will always get back to your original number.
addition, other multiplication properties, and addi- 12. Use both the scratch and the traditional algorithms
tion facts, if possible, to rename each of the following: to perform the following:
a. 3a + 7a + 5a 316
b. 3x 2 + 7x 2 - 5x 2
712
c. x1a + b + y2
+ 91
d. 1x + 523 + 1x + 52y
5. How many 12-oz cans of juice would it take to give 13. Use both the traditional and the lattice multiplica-
60 people one 8-oz serving each? tion algorithms to perform the following:
6. Heidi has a brown pair and a gray pair of slacks; a
brown blouse, a yellow blouse, and a white blouse; 613
and a blue sweater and a white sweater. How many * 98
different outfits does she have if each outfit she wears
consists of slacks, a blouse, and a sweater? 14. Use both the repeated-subtraction and the conven-
7. I am thinking of a whole number. If I divide it by 13, tional algorithms to perform the following:
then multiply the answer by 12, then subtract 20, and a. 912 冄 4803 b. 11 冄 1011
then add 89, I end up with 93. What was my original c. 23five 冄 3312five d. 11two 冄 1011two
number? 15. Use the division algorithm to check your answers in
8. A ski resort offers a weekend ski package for $80 per problem 14.
person or $6000 for a group of 80 people. Which 16. In some calculations a combination of mental math
would be the less expensive option for a group of and a calculator is most appropriate. For example,
80? because
9. Josi has a job in which she works 30 hr > wk and
200 # 97 # 146 # 5 = 97 # 1461200 # 52
= 97 # 146 # 1000
gets paid $5>hr. If she works more than 30 hr in a
week, she receives $8> hr for each hour over 30 hr.
If she worked 38 hr this week, how much did she we can calculate 97 # 146 on a calculator and then
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

earn? mentally multiply by 1000. Show how to calculate

10. In a television game show, there are five questions to each of the following using a combination of men-
answer. Each question is worth twice as much as the tal math and a calculator:
previous question. If the last question was worth a. 19 # 5 # 194 # 2
$6400, what was the first question worth? b. 379 # 4 # 193 # 25

c. 8 # 481 # 73 # 125 27. Using clustering, estimate the sum 2345 + 2854 +
d. 374 # 200 # 893 # 50 2234 + 2203.
17. You had a balance in your checking account of 28. Explain how the standard division algorithm works
$720 before writing checks for $162, $158, and $33 for the following division:
and making a deposit of $28. What is your new bal-
23
ance?
14 冄 322
18. Jim was paid $320 a month for 6 mo and $410 a
month for 6 mo. What were his total earnings for - 28
the year? 42
19. A soft-drink manufacturer produces 15,600 cans of - 42
his product each hour. Cans are packed 24 to a case. 0
How many cases could be filled with the cans pro-
duced in 4 hr? 29. In some cases, the distributive property of multipli-
20. A limited partnership of 120 investors sold a piece cation over addition or distributive property of
of land for $461,040. If divided equally, how much multiplication over subtraction can be used to
did each investor receive? obtain an answer quickly. Use one of the distribu-
21. Apples normally sell for 32¢ each. They go on sale tive properties to calculate each of the following in
for 3 for 69¢. How much money is saved if you pur- as simple a way as possible:
chase 2 doz apples while they are on sale? a. 999 # 47 + 47
22. The owner of a bicycle shop reported his inven- b. 43 # 59 + 41 # 43
tory of bicycles and tricycles in an unusual way. He c. 1003 # 79 - 3 # 79
said he counted 126 wheels and 108 pedals. How d. 1001 # 113 - 113
many bikes and how many trikes did he have? e. 101 # 35
23. Perform each of the following computations: f. 98 # 35
a. 123five b. 1010two 30. Recall that addition problems like 3478 + 521 can
+ 34five -101two be written and computed using expanded notation
as shown here, and answer the questions that
c. 23five d. 1001two follow.
* 34five * 101two
24. Tell how to use compatible numbers mentally to 3 # 103 + 4 # 102 + 7 # 10 + 8
perform each of the following: + 5 # 102 + 2 # 10 + 1
a. 26 + 37 + 24 - 7 b. 4 # 7 # 9 # 25 3 # 103 + 9 # 102 + 9 # 10 + 9
25. Compute each of the following mentally. Name the
strategy you used to perform your mental math a. Write a corresponding addition algebra problem
(strategies vary). (use x for 10) and find the answer.
a. 63 # 7 b. 85 - 49 b. Write a subtraction problem and the correspond-
c. 118 # 522 d. 2436 , 6 ing algebra problem and find the answer.
26. Estimate the following addition using (a) front-end c. Write a multiplication problem and the corre-
estimation with adjustment and (b) rounding. sponding algebra problem and compute the
answer.
543
398
255
408
+ 998

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ISBN 0-558-58578-7

Baek, J. “Children’s Mathematical Understanding and Baroody, A. “Why Children Have Difficulties Master-
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for Research in Mathematics Education 1989, 20(5): Heuser, D. “Teaching without Telling: Computational
434–449. Fluency and Understanding through Invention.”
Bobis, J. “The Empty Number Line: A Useful Tool or Teaching Children Mathematics 11 (April 2005): 404–
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Broadent, F. “Lattice Multiplication and Division.” traction Strategies from Children’s Thinking: Mov-
Arithmetic Teacher 34 ( January 1987): 28–31. ing Toward Fluency with Greater Numbers.”
Brownell, W. “From NCTM’s Archives: Meaning and Teaching Children Mathematics 9 (February 2003):
Skill—Maintaining the Balance.” Teaching Children 347–353.
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Carpenter, T., and J. Moser. “The Acquisition of Addi- for Understanding in School.” In Analysis of Arith-
tion and Subtraction Concepts in Grades One metic for Mathematics Teaching, edited by G. Lein-
Through Three.” Journal for Research in Mathemat- hardt, R. Putnam, and R. Hattrup. Hillsdale, NJ:
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Crespo, S., A. Kyriakides, and S. McGee. “Nothing Postlewait, K., M. Adams, and J. Shih. “Promoting
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deGroot, C., and T. Whalen, “Longing for Division.” Randolph, T., and H. Sherman. “Alternative Algorithms:
Teaching Children Mathematics 12 (April 2006): 410– Increasing Options, Reducing Errors.” Teaching Chil-
418. dren Mathematics 7 (April 2001): 480–484.
Ebdon, S., M. Coakley, and D. Legnard. “Mathemati- Resnick, L. “From Protoquantities to Operators:
cal Mind Journeys: Awakening Minds to Computa- Building Mathematical Competence on a Foun-
tional Fluency.” Teaching Children Mathematics 9 dation of Everyday Knowledge.” In Analysis of
(April 2003): 486–493. Arithmetic for Mathematics Teaching, edited by
English, L., and G. Halford. Mathematics Education D. Leinhardt, R. Putnam, and R. Hattrup. Hills-
Models and Processes. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lau- dale, NJ: LEA, 1992.
rence Erlbaum, 1995. Reys, R. “Mental Computation and Estimation: Past,
Flowers, J., K. Kline, and R. Rubenstein. “Developing Present, and Future.” Elementary School Journal 84
Teachers’ Computational Fluency: Examples in Sub- (1984): 547–557.
traction.” Teaching Children Mathematics 9 (February ———. “Computation Versus Number Sense.” Mathe-
2003): 330–346. matics Teaching in the Middle School 4 (October 1998):
Fuson, K. “Research on Learning and Teaching Addi- 110–112.
tion and Subtraction of Whole Numbers.” In Reys, B., and R. Reys. “Computation in the Elementary
Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Curriculum: Shifting the Emphasis.” Teaching Chil-
Learning, edited by D. Grouws. New York: Mac- dren Mathematics 5 (December 1998): 236–241.
Millan, 1992. Russell, S. “Developing Computational Fluency with
———. “Toward Computational Fluency.” Teaching Whole Numbers.” Teaching Children Mathematics 7
Children Mathematics 9 (February 2003): 300–309. (November 2000): 154–158.
Ginsburg, H., A. Klein, and P. Starkey. “The Develop- Scharton, S. “I Did It My Way: Providing Opportuni-
ment of Children’s Mathematical Thinking: Con- ties for Students to Create, Explain, and Analyze
necting Research with Practice.” In Child Psychology Computation Procedures.” Teaching Children Math-
in Practice, edited by Irving E. Sigel and K. Ann ematics 10 ( January 2004): 278–283.
Renninger, pp. 401–476, vol. 4 of Handbook of Child Siegler, R. Emerging Minds: The Process of Change in
Psychology, edited by William Damon. New York: Children’s Thinking. New York: Oxford University
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John Wiley & Sons, 1998. Press, 1996.

Grant, T., J. Lo, and J. Flowers. “Shaping Prospective Silver, E., L. Shapiro, and A. Deutsch. “Sense Making
Teachers’ Justifications for Computation: Chal- and the Solution of Division Problems Involving
lenges and Opportunities.” Teaching Children Math- Remainders: An Examination of Middle School Stu-
ematics 14 (September 2007): 112–116. dents’ Solution Processes and Their Interpretations

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Sisul, J. “Fostering Flexibility with Numbers in the (August 2005): 26–33.
Primary Grades.” Teaching Children Mathematics 9 Whitenack, J., N. Knipping, S. Novinger, and G. Under-
(December 2002): 202–204. wood. “Second Graders Circumvent Addition and
Sowder, J. “Affective Factors and Computational Estima- Subtraction Difficulties.” Teaching Children Mathe-
tion Abilities.” In Affect and Problem Solving: A New matics 8 (December 2001): 228–233.
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New York: Springer-Verlag, 1989. Computational Fluency in Multiplication.” Teaching
———. “Mental Computation and Number Sense.” Children Mathematics 9 (February 2003): 318–321.
Arithmetic Teacher 37 (March 1990): 18–20.
ISBN 0-558-58578-7

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