DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

OBSERVATION NOTE BOOK

EE18611 POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION

LABORATORY
(R2018A)
NAME OF THE STUDENT :
REGISTER NUMBER :
NAME OF THE LABORATORY : POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION LABORATORY

YEAR / SEMESTER / SECTION : III / VI /

ACADEMIC YEAR : 2023 - 2024
BRANCH : EEE
 EE18611-Power System Simulation Laboratory

INDEX
EXPT. DATE MARKS SIGNATURE
EXPERIMENT NAME
NO. OF FACULTY
Computation of Transmission Line
1
Parameters
Modeling and performance analysis of
2
transmission lines
Formation of Bus Admittance and
3 Impedance Matrices and Solution of
Networks
Load Flow Analysis - I: Solution of load
4 flow and related problems using Gauss-
Seidel Method
Load Flow Analysis - II: Solution of load
5 flow and related problems using Newton
Raphson Method
Load Flow Analysis - III: Solution of load
6 flow and related problems using Fast
Decoupled Method
Fault analysis using Thevenin’s theorem
7
and Z bus building algorithm
Transient and Small Signal Stability
8
Analysis
Electromagnetic Transients in Power
9 Systems – simulation using
PSCAD/ETAP
Load – Frequency Dynamics of Single-
10
Area and Two-Area Power Systems
11 Economic Dispatch in Power Systems
Solution for Unit Commitment problem
12
using Priority List method
Simulation study of any one of above
13
analysis for Standard Test System
 EE18611-Power System Simulation Laboratory

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 DATE:

COMPUTATION OF TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS

AIM
To determine the positive sequence line parameters L and C per phase per kilometer of a
three phase single and double circuit transmission lines for different conductor arrangements.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
AU Power lab, MATLAB

FORMULAE
(i) Inductance
L = 0.2 ln Dm/Ds (H)
where
Dm = Geometric Mean Distance (GMD)
Ds = Geometric Mean Radius (GMR)
The expression for GMR and GMD for different conductor arrangements are:
I. Single Phase - 2 Wire System

GMD = D, GMR = re-1/4

II. Three Phase - Symmetrical Spacing

GMD = D, GMR = re-1/4

III. Three Phase - Asymmetrical Transposed

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GMD =
GMR = re-1/4

Composite Conductor Lines

The inductance of composite conductor X., is given by, Lx = 0.2 ln GMD/GMRx

Conductor X-with n strands Conductor Y with m strands

GMD =

GMRx =
r’ a = r ae-1/4
Bundle Conductors

GMR for two sub conductor

GMR for three sub conductor
GMR for four sub conductor

Fig. Bundled conductor arrangement

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Three phase - Double circuit transposed

L = 0.2 ln (GMD/GMRL)

GMRL =
DSA =
DSB =
DSC =
GMD =
DAB =
DBC =

DCA =
(ii) Capacitance
C=
Where,
GMD is the same as that defined for inductance under various cases.
Single phase two wires system (for diagram see Inductance):
GMD = D
GMR = r
Three phase - symmetrical spacing (for diagram see Inductance):
GMD = D
GMR = r in the case of solid conductor
Three phase – Asymmetrical – transposed (for diagram see Inductance):

GMD =
GMR = r for solid conductor
GMR = Ds for stranded conductor and

= for bundled conductor

Where for 2 conductor bundle

for 3 conductor bundle

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for 4 conductor bundle

Three phase - Double circuit – transposed

GMD is the same as for inductance

GMRc =

Where rb = GMR of bundle conductor

PROBLEM STATEMENT

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VERIFICATION:

Simulation Results
Theoretical Results
AU Power lab MATLAB

RESULT:

Thus the positive sequence line parameters L and C per phase per kilometer of a three phase
single and double circuit transmission lines for different conductor arrangements are calculated and
verified with software.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 2 DATE:

MODELLING AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

AIM
To understand the modeling and performance of short, medium and long transmission lines.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
AU Power lab, MATLAB

FORMULAE
The following nomenclature is adopted in modelling:
z = series impedance per unit length per phase
y = shunt admittance per unit length per phase to neutral.
L = inductance per unit length per phase
C = capacitance per unit length per phase
r = resistance per unit length per phase
l = length of the line
Z = zl = total series impedance
Y = yl = total shunt admittance per phase to neutral.
Short line Model and Equations (Lines Less than 80km)

Vs = VR + ZI R
IS = IR

|V | _ |V |
R( NL) R( FL)
Percentage regulation =  100
|V |
R( FL)

Receiving end power in MW PR (3 )

Transmission efficiency of the line = =
Sending end power in MW PS (3 )

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Medium Line Model and equations (Lines above 80km):

Fig. Nominal π model

ZY
Vs = (1 + )V + ZI R
2 R
ZY ZY
Is = Y (1 + )V R + (1 + )I
2 2 R
Long line Model and Equations (lines above 250 km):

The relation between sending and receiving end quantities is given by

Vs = V R cosh l + Z C I R sinh l
V
Is = R sinh l + I R cosh l
ZC

Fig. Equivalent π model

Lossless Line
For a lossless line, the equations for the rms voltage and currents along the line is given by
V ( x) = VR cos x + jZ C I R sin x
1
I ( x) = j VR sin x + I R cos x
ZC
For solid short circuit at the receiving end VR = 0
VS = jZ C I R Sin 1
I S = I R Cos 1

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L
For a loss less line the surge impedance (SIL) =
C
SIL = 3V R I R 

3 | VR |2
= , for Lossless line Zc is purely resistive
ZC

PROBLEM STATEMENT

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VERIFICATION:

Simulation Results
Theoretical Results
AU Power lab MATLAB

RESULT:

Thus the modeling and performance of short, medium and long transmission lines are performed
and verified with software.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3 DATE:

FORMATION OF BUS ADMITTANCE AND IMPEDANCE MATRICES AND
SOLUTION OF NETWORKS
AIM
To form the network matrices, the bus admittance matrix Y and the bus impedance matrix Z
for the given power system network.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
AU Powerlab, MATLAB

FORMULAE
(i) FORMATION OF BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

Fig.1
Consider a three-bus power system and the equivalent power network for the system is shown
in Fig.1 in which the generator is replaced by Norton equivalent, the loads by
equivalent admittance and lines by π equivalent circuits. In above figure, the admittances of
the generator, loads and transmission lines are given in per unit to system MVA base. The
ground is taken as reference node.
n
Yii =  Yij i=1,2,3,……,n
j =1
Yij = Yij = −Yji i=1,2,3,….,n

j=1,2,3,….,n and i≠j

Where, n is the total no. of buses excluding the reference bus.
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(ii) FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

A building algorithm for bus impedance matrix can be developed by first studying the rules
required for modifying an existing Z matrix for addition of new elements. Let us start
with a given partial power network with r nodes whose bus impedance matrix Z is known.
It is proposed to add new elements, one at a time, to this network and get the modified matrix
Z m. Any one of the following four rules can be used depending upon the type of
modification.
Modification 1: Add an element with impedance z, connected between the reference node of
the partial network and a new node (r+1).
Rule 1 : The modified matrix Z m of dimension (r+1) x (r+1) is given by

Where, Z is the bus impedance matrix of the partial network.

Modification 2: Add an element with impedance z, connected between an existing node i and
a new node (r+1).
Rule 2 : The modified matrix Z m of dimension (r+1) x (r+1) is given by

Where, Zi is the ith column of Z

ZiT is the transpose of Zi
Zii is the iith element of Z
Modification 3: Add an element with impedance z, connected between an existing node i and
the reference node of the partial network.
Rule 3 : The modified matrix Z m of dimension r x r is obtained through a two step
process. In the first step, assume that the added element is between the existing node i and a
fictitious node (r+1) (instead of the reference node) and obtain the modified matrix Z’
of dimension (r+1) x (r+1) by augmenting Z with an extra row and column as in (2.14).
The second step is to connect the fictitious node (r+1) by zero impedance link to the reference
node whose voltage is zero and to obtain the final matrix Z m of dimension r x r by applying
Kron’s -reduction to the last row and column to obtain
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Modification 4: Add an element with impedance z, connected between existing nodes i and j.
Rule 4 : The modified matrix Z m of dimension r x r is given by
Zm = Z – c b bT
Where, b = Zi - Zj
c= (z + Zii +Zjj–2Zij) -1
Zi , Zj : ith and jth columns of Z
Zii , Zjj , Zij : ii th , jj th and ij th elements of Z
Note

Building Algorithm for Z

The above rules are built into the following step wise procedure to build Z matrix:
Step 1: Start with a partial network composed only of those elements connected directly to
reference node. Let the number of these elements be r. The corresponding bus impedance
matrix Z (1) is of dimension r x r and is diagonal with the impedance values of the elements
appearing on the diagonal. This process is equivalent to the repeated use of rule 1.
Step 2: Add a new element which brings a new node and modify Z (1) using rule 2. Continue
until all the nodes of the complete network are brought in.
Step 3: Add a new element connected between existing nodes i and j using rule 4. Continue
until all the elements are connected.

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PROBLEM STATEMENT
Construct the YBUS and ZBUS for the power system network given below:

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VERIFICATION:
Simulation Results
Theoretical Results
AU Power lab MATLAB
YBUS matrix in page ___ YBUS matrix in page ___ YBUS matrix in page ___

Eg. Y44: Y44: Y44:

ZBUS matrix in page ___ ZBUS matrix in page ___ ZBUS matrix in page ___

Eg. Z44: Z44: Z44:

RESULT:
Thus the network matrices, the bus admittance matrix Y and the bus impedance matrix Z for
the given power system network are formed and verified with AU power lab and MATLAB
software solution.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 4 DATE:

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS - I: SOLUTION OF LOAD FLOW AND RELATED
PROBLEMS USING GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD
AIM
To solve the load flow and related problems of small sized power system using Gauss-Seidel
iterative algorithm.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
AU Powerlab, MATLAB

FORMULA
GSLF Algorithm
The algorithm for GSLF is given in the flow chart (Fig. 1).
Convergence Check
Referring to flow chart of Fig. 1 during every iteration h, the maximum change in bus
voltage that has occurred is stored in  VMAX as given below.

The convergence is checked by comparing  VMAX with the specified tolerance ɛ.

Additional Computation for P-V Bus
The flow chart in Fig.3.3 does not have provision for voltage – controlled buses. However, if
the link between X and Y in Fig 1 is removed and the P-V bus module in Fig.2 is introduced,
then P-V buses can be handled.
Referring to Fig.1 and Fig.2, for each P-V bus during the hth iteration, before updating bus
voltage, the following computations are made:

Step 1: Adjusting the complex voltage to correct the voltage

magnitude to the scheduled value, |V k | sch as follows:

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Fig. 1 Flow chart for GSLF Algorithm

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Fig. 2 Flow chart for GSLF Algorithm

Step 2: Compute the reactive power generation using the as

If the inequality is satisfied, then go to step 3.

If then set go to step 3.

If then set go to step 3.

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Acceleration Factor
Experience has shown that the number of iterations required for convergence can be
considerably reduced if the correction in bus voltage computed at each iteration is
multiplied by a factor greater than unity (termed as acceleration factor) to bring the voltage
closer to the value to which it is converging.
For example, during the hth iteration the accelerated value of the voltage at kth bus is
calculated using

Where, α = acceleration factor

= accelerated value obtained in the (h-1) th iteration

= value computed during h th iteration

Then set

PROBLEM STATEMENT:
Draw the one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system with generators at buses 1 and
3. The magnitude of voltage at bus 1 is adjusted to 1.05 pu. Voltage magnitude at bus 3 is fixed
at 1.04 pu with a real power generation of 200 MW. A load consisting of 400 MW and 250
MVAR is taken from bus 2. Line impedances in per unit on a 100 MVA base are given in Table
below. Line charging susceptances are neglected. Obtain the power flow solution by Gauss-
Seidal method including line flows and losses.
Line data:
From bus To bus Impedance
1 2 0.02+j0.04
1 3 0.01+j0.03
2 3 0.0125+j0.025

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VERIFICATION:
Simulation Results
Theoretical Results
AU Power lab MATLAB
Bus voltages: Bus voltages: Bus voltages:
V1: V1: V1:
V2: V2: V2:
V3: V3: V3:
Line flows: Line flows: Line flows:
S12: S12: S12:
S21: S21: S21:
S23: S23: S23:
S32: S32: S32:
S13: S13: S13:
S31: S31: S31:
Losses: Losses: Losses:
S12: S12: S12:
S23: S23: S23:
S13: S13: S13:

RESULT:
Thus the load flow and related problems of small sized power system are solved using Gauss-
Seidel iterative algorithm and hand-run results verified with AU power lab and MATLAB
software.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 5 DATE:

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS - II: SOLUTION OF LOAD FLOW AND RELATED
PROBLEMS USING NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD
AIM
To solve the load flow and related problems using Newton-Raphson and Fast Decoupled load
flow methods.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
AU Powerlab, MATLAB

FORMULAE

This equation can be written as,

The voltage correction scheme for NRLF method can be obtained by expanding the above
equation as

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FLOW CHART
Start

Read linear data, bus data tolerance for ΔP and ΔQ

Compute Y Matrix

Bus No i=1

.i=i+1

Calculate
Pical=Σ|Vi||Vj||Yij|cos(θij-δi+δj)
Qical=- Σ |Vi||Vj||Yij|sin(θij-δi+δj)

Is I refer to PV Calculate
bus ΔPi =Pi(spec) – Pi
ΔQi =Qi(spec) – Qi
Calculate
ΔPi =Pi(spec) – Pi cal

Check for Q

If Qi(min) < Qi cal< Qi(max),

If Qical>Qi (max) ,Qi(spec) = Qi(max), If Qical< Qi (min) ,Qi(spec) = Qi(min),
ΔQi =Qi(spec) – Qi

Is i<N

Form J = ƏPi/ ƏδƏQi/ Ə|V|

ƏQi/ ƏδƏQi/ Ə|V|

Δδ = [ J ]-1 ΔP
Δ|V| ΔQ

Update state vector using

V new = V old + ΔV
Δnew = δ old + Δδ

Check For Calculate line flow Slack bus power

Iter=iter+1 tolerance Total line losses
Reactive power generator at pv bus

Print

Stop 21
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PROBLEM STATEMENT:
Draw the one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system with generators at buses 1 and
3. The magnitude of voltage at bus 1 is adjusted to 1.05 pu. Voltage magnitude at bus 3 is fixed
at 1.04 pu with a real power generation of 200 MW. A load consisting of 400 MW and 250
MVAR is taken from bus 2. Line impedances in per unit on a 100 MVA base are given in Table
below. Line charging susceptances are neglected. Obtain the power flow solution by Gauss-
Seidal method including line flows and losses.
Line data:
From bus To bus Impedance
1 2 0.02+j0.04
1 3 0.01+j0.03
2 3 0.0125+j0.025

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VERIFICATION:
Simulation Results
Theoretical Results
AU Power lab MATLAB
Bus voltages: Bus voltages: Bus voltages:
V1: V1: V1:
V2: V2: V2:
V3: V3: V3:
Line flows: Line flows: Line flows:
S12: S12: S12:
S21: S21: S21:
S23: S23: S23:
S32: S32: S32:
S13: S13: S13:
S31: S31: S31:
Losses: Losses: Losses:
S12: S12: S12:
S23: S23: S23:
S13: S13: S13:

RESULT:
Thus the load flow and related problems of small sized power system are solved using Newton-
Raphson method and hand-run results verified with AU power lab and MATLAB software.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 6 DATE:

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS - III: SOLUTION OF LOAD FLOW AND RELATED

PROBLEMS USING FAST DECOUPLED METHOD
AIM
To solve the load flow and related problems using Fast Decoupled load flow method.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
AU Powerlab, MATLAB

FORMULAE
 Load flow analysis is performed on a symmetrical steady state operating condition of
power system under normal mode of operation
 The solution of load flow gives bus voltages and line/transformer power flow for a
given load condition.
 This information is essential for long term planning and operational planning.

Long Term Planning

Load flow analysis helps in investigating the effectiveness of alternative plans and
choosing the bus best pan for system expansion to meet the projected operating state

Operational planning

It helps in choosing the best unit commitment plan and generation schedules to run
the plan and generation schedules to run the system efficiently for the next day’s load
condition without violating the bus voltages and line flow operating limits.

Steps for load flow study:

The following work has to be performed for a load flow study

 Representation of the system by single line diagram

 Determining the impedance diagram using the information in single line diagram
 Formulation of network equation
 Solution of network equation

P+jQ = (PGi – Pdi) + j(QGi-QDi)

I=Yij Vj

P-jQ = V*I = Σ Vi Vj Yij

= Σ |Vi||Vj||Yij|<(θij-δi+δj)

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Equating real and imaginary part

Pical=Σ |Vi||Vj||Yij|cos(θij-δi+δj)

Qical=- |Vi||Vj||Yij|sin(θij-δi+δj)

The quation constitute a set of non linear algebraic equation in terms of the independent
variables V in p.u. and phase angle in radians

Pi(δ,V) – Pii=0

Qi(δ,V) – Qii=0

 For every bus whose bus phase angle δ is unknown include the respective real power
balance equation
 For every bus whose bus voltage magnitude V is unknown, include respect power
balance equation.

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FLOWCHART

Start

Read linear data, bus data tolerance for ΔP and ΔQ

Compute Y Matrix

Bus No i=1

.i=i+1

Calculate
Pical=Σ|Vi||Vj||Yij|cos(θij-δi+δj)
Qical=- Σ |Vi||Vj||Yij|sin(θij-δi+δj)

Is I refer to PV bus Calculate

ΔPi =Pi(spec) – Pi
ΔQi =Qi(spec) – Qi
Calculate
ΔPi =Pi(spec) – Pi
cal

Check for Q limit

If Qi(min) < Qi cal < Qi(max),

If Qi cal >Qi (max) , Qi(spec) = Qi(max), Qi, spec = Qi cal If Qi cal < Qi (min) , Qi(spec) = Qi(min),

ΔQi =Qi(spec) – Qi

Is i<N

Calculate Δδ and Δ|V| by using

Δδ = - | B’| -1 | ΔP/V |
Δ|V| = - | B”| -1 | ΔQ/V |

Update state vector using

V new = V old + ΔV
Δnew = δ old + Δδ

Check For tolerance Calculate line flow Slack bus power

Iter=iter+1 |ΔP|<ε and |ΔQ| <ε,
Total line losses
Reactive power generator at pv bus

Print

Stop
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PROBLEM STATEMENT
Draw the one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system with generators at buses 1 and
3. The magnitude of voltage at bus 1 is adjusted to 1.05 pu. Voltage magnitude at bus 3 is
fixed at 1.04 pu with a real power generation of 200 MW. A load consisting of 400 MW and
250 MVAR is taken from bus 2. Line impedances in per unit on a 100 MVA base are given in
Table below. Line charging susceptances are neglected. Obtain the power flow solution by
Fast Decoupled load flow method including line flows and losses.
Line data:
From bus To bus Impedance
1 2 0.02+j0.04
1 3 0.01+j0.03
2 3 0.0125+j0.025

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VERIFICATION:
Simulation Results
Theoretical Results
AU Power lab MATLAB
Bus voltages: Bus voltages: Bus voltages:
V1: V1: V1:
V2: V2: V2:
V3: V3: V3:
Line flows: Line flows: Line flows:
S12: S12: S12:
S21: S21: S21:
S23: S23: S23:
S32: S32: S32:
S13: S13: S13:
S31: S31: S31:
Losses: Losses: Losses:
S12: S12: S12:
S23: S23: S23:
S13: S13: S13:

RESULT:
Thus the load flow and related problems of small sized power system are solved using Fast
Decoupled load flow method and hand-run results verified with AU power lab and MATLAB
software.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 7 DATE:

FAULT ANALYSIS USING THEVENIN’S THEOREM AND ZBUS BUILDING
ALGORITHM
AIM
To compute the fault level, post-fault voltages and currents for different types of
faults using Thevenin’s theorem, both symmetrical and unsymmetrical.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
AU Power lab, MATLAB

COMPUTATIONS
USING THEVENIN’S THEOREM
(i) Single Line- to Ground Fault
Ia0=Ia1= Ia2= Ia/3;
Ea
Ia1=
Z1 + Z 2 + Z o
Fault Current IF = Ia = Ia0+Ia1+ Ia2=3 Ia1;
Single Line- to-Ground Fault with Zf
Ia0=Ia1= Ia2= Ia/3;
Ea
I a1 =
Z1 + Z 2 + ( Z go + 3Z n ) + 3Z f

Fault Current IF= Ia =3Ia1

(ii) Line- to-Line Fault
Ia0=0; Ia1= - Ia2
Ea
Ia1=
Z1 + Z 2
Fault Current IF= Ib = - Ic
Line- to-Line Fault with Zf
Ia1=-Ia2; Ia0=0;
Ea
I a1 =
Z1 + ( Z 2 + Z f )

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(iii) Double Line- to-Ground Fault

Ia = 0; Va0=Va1= Va2=Va/3; Ia0=Ia1= Ia2= 0;
Ea
I a1 =
Z Z
Z1 + 0 2
Z0 + Z2

Ia0 = -Va0 / Z0 or -Va1 / Z0 and Va1 = Ea – Ia1Z1

Fault Current IF= In = Ib + Ic = 3 Ia0
Double Line- to-Ground Fault with Zf
Ia = 0;
Ea − I a1 Z1 Ea
I a0 = − I a1 =
Z g 0 + 3Z n + 3Z f Z 2 ( Z 0 + 3Z f )
Z1 +
Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f

Where, Z0 = Zg0 + 3Zn

Fault Current IF= 3 Ia0
(iv) Three Phase Fault
Va0=Va1= Va2=0; Ia0=Ia2= 0
Fault Current If = Ia = Ia1 = Ea / Z1

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USING ZBUS BUILDING ALGORITHM

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PROBLEM STATEMENT

For the power system shown above, conduct fault analysis for L-G, L-L, L-L-G and 3-phase fault
at bus-4. Determine the fault current and MVA at the faulted bus and post fault voltages.

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VERIFICATION:
Simulation Results
Theoretical Results
AU Power lab MATLAB

RESULT
Thus fault level, post-fault voltages and currents for different types of faults, both
symmetrical and unsymmetrical are computed using Thevenin’s theorem and ZBUS building
algorithm by hand-run and verified with the of results of AU power lab and MATLAB coding.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 8 DATE:

TRANSIENT AND SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SINGLE
MACHINE INFINITE BUS SYSTEM
AIM
To examine the transient and small signal stability state following a disturbance in Single
Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) system.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
AU Power lab, MATLAB

THEORY
Stability
Stability is concerned with the behaviour of power system when it is subjected to the
disturbances. If the disturbances are small it results into small signal stability problem.
Small Signal Stability
When a power system is under steady state, normal operating condition, the system may
be subjected to small disturbances such as variation in load and generation, change in
field voltage, change in mechanical torque etc. The nature of system response to small
disturbances depends on the operating condition, the transmission system strength, types
of controllers etc. Instability that may result from small disturbances may be of two forms
(i) Steady increase in rotor angle due to lack of synchronizing torque
(ii) Rotor oscillations of increasing magnitude due to lack of sufficient damping torque.
Fig. shows the instability of a synchronous machine through oscillations of increasing
amplitude.

Fig. Non-Oscillatory instability

Fig. Oscillatory instability

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FORMULA
Modelling for Small Signal Stability
The electrical power output of the generator in p.u. is

In p.u. the air-gap torque is equal to air-gap power, Hence

Where called synchronising co-efficient.

The characteristic equation is given by

Where, ώn = Undamped natural frequency

ξ = Damping ratio
The roots of the characteristic equation are

Where ώd is the damped frequency of oscillation given by

Transient Stability
When a power system is under steady state, the load plus transmission loss equals to the
generation in the system. The generating units run at synchronous speed and system
frequency, voltage, current and power flows are steady. When a large disturbance such as
three phase fault, loss of load occurs the power balance is upset and the generating units
rotors experience either acceleration or deceleration. The system may come back to a steady
state condition maintaining synchronism. Then the system is in stable condition.

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Transient stability analysis is essential both for power system planning and operation. The
ability of the generators to remain in synchronism under conceivable disturbance scenario
must be assessed. Also, transient stability simulations are essential for proper design of
protection system. This calls for accurate modeling of the components such as generators and
their control systems, static VAR compensators etc., involved in the dynamics triggered by a
disturbance. The machines and their control systems are characterized by differential
equation while the transmission system is represented by algebraic equations.

FORMULA
Mathematical Modelling for Transient Stability
Consider a single machine connected to an infinite bus shown in fig. An infinite
bus is a source of invariable frequency and voltage.

Fig. Single machine connected to infinite bus system

Fig. Equivalent circuit

Where, E’ = e.m.f behind machine transient reactance

o = synchronous speed of rotor

Pe = electrical power output of generator in p.u
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Swing Equation
The fundamental equation of motion of the rotor of the synchronous machine is given by

Stability Margin in MW
Consider that the machine connected to infinite bus delivers Po MW and a fault is specified
at the end of line no. 1 with a clearing time tc = 0.3 seconds.
Suppose the MW output of the machine is increased in steps and stability is checked for each
step of load with the same clearing time and fault, then the system becomes just stable at a
loading say Pm and a small increase in load beyond Pm causes instability; then the
MW stability margin is defined as Ps = Pm - Po

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Critical Creating Angle and Time

Swing Equation for multi machine power systems is given by,

(8.1)

(8.2)

(8.3)

(8.1) (8.3)

(8.4)

(8.5)

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PROBLEM STATEMENT
A power system comprising a thermal generating plant with four 555 MVA, 24kV, 60HZ units
supplies power to an infinite bus through a transformer and two transmission lines is shown
below:

The data for the system in per unit on a base of 2220 MVA, 24 kV is given below:
An equivalent generator representing the four units, characterized by classical model:

Xd' = 0.3 p.u H= 3.5 MW-s/MVA

Transformer : X = 0.15 p.u
Line 1 : X = 0.5 p.u
Line 2 : X = 0.93 p.u

Plant operating condition:

P = 0.9 p.u ; Power factor: 0.9 lagging; Et = 1.0 p.u

Problem statement for Small-signal Stability analysis
It is proposed to examine the small-signal stability characteristics of the power system given
above about the steady-state operating condition following the loss of line 2; Assume the
damping coefficient KD = 1.5 p.u torque / p.u speed deviation.

Write the linearized swing equation of the system. Obtain the characteristic equation, its roots,
damped frequency of oscillation in Hz, damping ratio and undamped natural frequency. Obtain
also the force-free response, Δδ(t) for an initial condition perturbation Δδ(0)=50 and Δώ(0)=0.

Problem statement for Transient Stability analysis

It is proposed to examine the transient stability of the system for a three-phase-to-ground ault at
the end of line 2 near H.T bus occurring at time t= 0 sec. The fault is cleared at 0.07 sec. by
simultaneous opening of the two circuit breakers at both the ends of line 2.
(a) Calculate the initial conditions necessary for the classical model of the machine for the above
pre-fault operating condition, determine the critical clearing angle and time for the fault using
“Equal Area Criterion” and hence comment on the stability of the system for this fault.
(b) Simulate the above sequence of fault occurrence and clearance using the software available
and plot the swing curve (rotor angle versus time) as well as the curves showing angular velocity
and real power delivered by the plant versus time.
(c) Determine the critical clearing angle and time for the above fault through trial and error
method by repeating the simulation in (b) for different fault clearing times and compare the
critical clearing angle and time obtained with that obtained by Equal Area Criterion in (a).

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VERIFICATION:
Simulation Results
Theoretical Results
AU Power lab MATLAB

RESULT
Thus the transient and small signal stability analysis following a disturbance in Single
Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) system is examined and the results are verified with software.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 9 DATE:

ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS IN POWER SYSTEMS – SIMULATION
USING PSCAD/ETAP
AIM
To study and understand the electromagnetic transient phenomena in power systems caused
due to switching and fault by using Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) of AU
power lab and PSCAD/ETAP.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
AU Power lab, PSCAD/ETAP

THEORY
Electromagnetic Transients Analysis
Intentional and inadvertent switching operations in EHV systems initiate over voltages,
which might attain dangerous values resulting in destruction of apparatus. Accurate
computation of these over voltages is essential for proper sizing, coordination of
insulation of various equipment’s and specification of protective devices. Meaningful design
of EHV systems is dependent on modelling philosophy built into a computer program.
The models of equipment’s must be detailed enough to reproduce actual conditions
successfully – an important aspect where a general purpose digital computer program scores
over transient network analyzers.

Figure.1 Part of the Network around a Node of Large System

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Modelling Details:

L and C are inductance and capacitance per unit length,

X = distance from the sending end

PROBLEM STATEMENT
Case Study – I
Energization of a single phase 0.95 pf load from a non ideal source and a more realistic
line representation (lumped R,L,C )

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Case Study – II
Transient Fault over voltages for a SLG fault at bus 2, phase a – Symmetrical PI model
(coupled) And distributed line parameter

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RESULT
Thus the electromagnetic transient phenomena in power systems caused due to switching and
fault is studied by using Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) of AU power lab and
PSCAD/ETAP.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 10 DATE:

LOAD-FREQUENCY DYNAMICS OF SINGLE AND TWO-AREA
POWER SYSTEMS
AIM
To model and analyze load-frequency and tie-line flow dynamics of a power system
with load-frequency controller (LFC) under different control modes and to design improved
controllers to obtain the best system response.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
AU Power lab, MATLAB

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Active power control is one of the important control actions to be performed during
normal operation of the system to match the system generation with the continuously
changing system load in order to maintain the constancy of system frequency to a fine
tolerance level. This is one of the foremost requirements in providing quality power supply.
A change in system load causes a change in the speed of all rotating masses (Turbine –
generator rotor systems) of the system leading to change in system frequency. The speed
change from synchronous speed initiates the governor control (Primary control) action
resulting in all the participating generator – turbine units taking up the change in load,
stabilizing the system frequency. Restoration of frequency to nominal value requires
secondary control action which adjusts the load-reference set points of selected
(regulating) generator – turbine units. The primary objectives of automatic generation
control (AGC) are to regulate system frequency to the set nominal value and also to regulate
the net interchange of each area to the scheduled value by adjusting the outputs of
the regulating units. This function is referred to as load – frequency control (LFC).
Load-Frequency Control in an Interconnected Power System
An interconnected power system is divided into a number of “control areas” for the purpose
of load- frequency control. When subjected to disturbances, say, a small load change,
all generator – turbine units in a control area swing together with the other groups of
generator – turbine units in other areas.

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Fig. Multi- Area Power System

Area Load-Frequency Mechanism

Fig. Two- Area Power System

Tie – line flow model

Modelling of Governor and Turbine

Governor with speed – droop characteristics

Fig. Steady-State Speed-Load Characteristics of a Governor with Speed Droop

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Modelling and Analysis of Single-Area Load-Frequency Control

Fig. Block Diagram for Single-Area Load – Frequency Control

Steady-state analysis with governor control

Where  is the Area Frequency Response Coefficient (AFRC)

Steady-state analysis with governor control

Steady-state analysis with integral control

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Transient analysis
State variable model is

Modelling and Analysis of Two-Area Load-Frequency Control

Fig. Block Diagram for Two-Area Load Frequency Control

Where, B1 and B2 are frequency-bias parameters, which should be selected optimally to

achieve the better dynamic response.

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PROBLEM STATEMENT
1. It is proposed to simulate using the software available the load-frequency dynamics of
a single-area power system whose data are given below:
Rated capacity of the area = 2000 MW
Normal operating load = 1000 MW
Nominal frequency = 50 Hz
Inertia constant of the area = 5.0 s
Speed regulation (governor droop)
of all regulating generators = 4 percent
Governor time constant = 0.08 s
Turbine time constant = 0.3 s
Assume linear load–frequency characteristics which means the connected system load
increases by one percent if the system frequency increases by one percent.
The area has a governor control but not a load-frequency controller. The area is subjected to a
load increase of 20 MW.
(a) Simulate the load-frequency dynamics of this area using available software and check the
following:
(i) Steady – state frequency deviation fs in Hz. Compare it with the hand-calculated
value using “Area Frequency Response Coefficient” (AFRC).
(ii) Plot the time response of frequency deviation f in Hz and change in turbine
power PT in p.u MW upto 20 sec. What is value of the peak overshoot in f?
(b) Repeat the simulation with the following changes in operating condition, plot the time
response of f and compare the steady-state error and peak overshoot.
(i) Speed regulation = 3 percent
(ii) Normal operating load = 1500 MW

2. Consider a two-area power system with unequal areas. A 2-GW control area (1) is
interconnected with a 10- GW area (2). The 2-GW area has the system parameters given in
problem statement 1. The 10 GW area has the following data: Nominal operating load =
5000MW; H = 5 sec ; D = 1.0 % ; R = 4% ; TG = 0.08 sec ; TT = 0.3 sec. Design an integral
load frequency controller for the system by considering a disturbance of 20 MW load
increase in area 1. Determine the best controller parameters KI1, KI2, B1 and B2 after
checking the time responses of f1(t), f2(t) and P12(t) for different values of the controller
parameters.

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VERIFICATION:
Simulation Results
Theoretical Results
AU Power lab MATLAB

RESULT
Thus the load-frequency and tie-line flow dynamics of single and two-area power systems are
obtained and verified with software.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 11 DATE:

ECONOMIC DISPATCH IN POWER SYSTEMS
AIM
To perform economic dispatch without and with losses and to obtain the solution of the
equations using direct and iterative methods.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
AU Power lab, MATLAB

THEORY
Mathematical Model for Economic Dispatch without Transmission Losses
Statement of Economic Dispatch Problem
In a power system, with negligible transmission losses and with N number of spinning
thermal generating units the total system load PD at a particular interval can be met by
different sets of generation schedules

Minimizes the total production cost

Operating limits are PGi,min ≤ PGi ≤ PGi,max

The unit production cost function is usually approximated by a quadratic function
Fi (PGi) = ai PG2i + bi Pgi+ ci i = 1,2,….N
Where, ai, bi and ci are constants.
Necessary conditions for a solution to ED problem

Economic Dispatch with Transmission Losses Considered

Where Li = penalty factor of ith unit

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The term ðPL/ðPGi is called the incremental transmission loss with reference to unit i

PROBLEM STATEMENT
1. Determine the economic generation schedules of three generating units in a power system
to meet the system load of 925 MW. The operating limit and cost function is given below:

Operating limits:
250MW ≤ PG1 ≤ 400MW
200MW ≤ PG2 ≤ 350MW
125MW ≤ PG3 22 ≤ 5MW
Cost function:
F1(PG1) = 0.0045PG12+5.2PG1+580
F2(PG2) = 0.0056PG22+4.5PG2+640
F3(PG3) = 0.0079PG32+5.8PG3+820
Assume the losses being neglected.

2. The incremental costs of three units are:

dC1/dPG1=7.92+0.003124P1
dC2/dPG2=7.85+0.003884P2
dC3/dPG3=7.97+0.00964P3
Power loss is given by PL=0.00003P12 + 0.00009P22 + 0.0001P32
Determine the optimum scheduling for a load demand of 850MW.

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VERIFICATION:
Simulation Results
Theoretical Results
AU Power lab MATLAB

RESULT
Thus the economic dispatch solution for without and with losses cases using direct and
iterative methods are obtained and verified with software.

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EXPERIMENT NO.:12 DATE:

SOLUTION FOR UNIT COMMITMENT PROBLEM USING PRIORITY LIST

METHOD

Aim:

To run the Matlab program for optimum commitment of generators by using priority
list schemes approach and dynamic programming methods.

Software Required:

MATLAB

Theory:

In Power System the total generation on the system will generally be higher than total
load on the system. The total load on the system will generally be higher during the day time
and early evening and lower during the early morning and late evening.

It is not economical to run all the unit available all the time. So the commitment of a
generating unit is difficult. The cost of the system can be saved by turning off generator
whey they are not needed.

The units are 1. Thermal Unit and 2. Hydro unit

The operation of thermal unit involves both fuel and maintenance cost but no fuel cost is
required for hydro plant.

Thermal unit includes 1. Steam plants, 2. Nuclear plant, 3. Diesel and gas turbine plant

The nuclear and steam plant are used as base loads and the remaining diesel and gas turbine
plants are used as peak loads.

Need for unit commitment

i. Enough unit will be committed to supply the system load

ii. To reduce the loss or fuel cost
iii. By running the most economic unit, the load can be supplied by that unit
operating close to its best efficiency

To select the generating unit that will supply the forecasted (estimated load in advance) load
of the system over a required period of time at minimum cost as well as provide a specified
margin of the operating reserve known as spinning reserve.

Tomorrow’s unit commitment problem may be started as

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The expected system demand level for the 24 hours of tomorrow and the operating
cost, startup cost and shut down cost of the available N units.

If N generating unit, (2N-1) number of combination will be obtained from many

feasible subsets, determine the subset of unit that would satisfy the excepted demand at
minimum operating cost constrain in unit commitment.

Each individual power system may impose different rules on the scheduling of unit
depends on generation makeup and load curve characteristics.

Spinning Reserves:

Spinning reserves is the total amount of generation available from all units
synchronize on the system minus the present load and losses being supplied.

Spinning reserves = Total amount of generation – {present load + losses}

Spinning reserves must be established, so that thelosses of one or more unit does not
cause drop in system frequency. Spinning reserve is the reserve generating capacity running
at zero load or no load

 To avoid transmission system limitation or bottling of reserves.

 To allow some part of the system to run as island.

Reserve Capacity:

Capacity is excess of that required to carry peak load.

Reserved generating capacity

The amounts of power that can be produced at a given point in time by generating
units that are kept available in case of special need. This capacity may be used when
unusually high power demand occurs or when other generating unit are off line for
maintenance, repairs or refuelling.

Reserve Margin:

The percentage of initialled capacity exceeding the expected peak demand during a
specified period.

Typical Rules of spinning Reserve by regional Reliability council:

 Reserve must be given percentage of forecast peak demand

 Reserve must be capable of making up losses of the most heavily loaded unit in the
given period time

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 Calculate reserve requirement as a function of probability of not having sufficient

generation to meet the load.

Thermal unit Constrain

A thermal unit can withstand only gradual temperature changes and is required to
take some hours to bring the unit online.

Minimum up time

Once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately.

Minimum down time

Once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it can be recommitted.

Crew constraints:

If a plant consists of two or more units they cannot both be turned on at the same time. Since
there are not enough crew member to attend both unit while starting up.

Startup Cost

It dependent upon the down time of the unit. i.e., the time interval between shut down
and restart.

Start up cost =0, if unit is stopped and started immediately.

Start Up Cost when cooling

During down time period, the unit’s boiler to cool down and heat back up to operating
temperature in time for a scheduled turn on.

Start up cost 𝜶 cooling of the unit.

a. Start up cost when cooling = Cc(1 – e-t/𝛼) x F + Cf

Where Cc – Cold start cost, F- fuel cost, Cf – Fixed cost (includes crew expenses,
maintenance expresses), 𝛼 - thermal time constant for the unit, t- Time in which the
unit was cooled.
b. Start up cost when banking (shut down cost)
During shut down period, the boiler may be allowed to cool down and thus no shut
down cost will be incurred.
Banking requires that sufficient energy by input to the boiler to just maintain
operating temperature and pressure
Start up cost when banking = Ct x t x F + Cf
Cf= cost of maintaining unit at operating temperature

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Start up Vs Time duration

Up to a point P cost of banking < Cost of cooling

When shut down cost is incurred, the unit may be said to be in not hot reserve.

Other Constraints:

Unit commitment problem involves only thermal unit. In hydro scheduling to allocate
maximum hydro unit during rainy seasons and to allocate thermal unit during remaining
period.

We are not considering hydro unit for unit commitment because start up and shut
down time, operating cost are negligible so we could not get the optimal solution.

Must Run Constraint:

Some unit like nuclear unit are given a must run status during certain times of the
year to maintain the voltage in transmission system.

Fuel Constraints:

If thermal and hydro sources are available a combined operator is economic and
advantages to minimize the fuel cost of thermal unit over a commitment period.

Priority List Method

Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution method which consists
of creating a priority list of units. The priority list can be obtained by the fuel load average
production cost of each unit.

Full load average production cost = {Net heat rate of full load} x Fuel cost
𝐶𝑖(𝑃𝐺𝑖) 𝐾.𝐻𝑖.(𝑃𝐺𝑖)
PLAPC = 𝑃𝐺𝑖
= 𝑃𝐺𝑖

Assumption:

 No load cost are zero

 Unit input – output characteristic are linear between zero output and full load
 Start up cost are a fixed amount
 Ignore minimum up time and minimum down time.

Merits:

 No need to go for N combination

 Take only one constraint

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 Ignore the minimum uptime and minimum down time.

 Complicated reduced.

Demerit:

 Start up cost are fixed amount

 No load costs are not considered.

Algorithm

 Determine the full load average production cost for each units FLAPC = k Hi (PGi) /
PGi
 Form priority order based on average production cost (ascending order)
 Commit number of unit corresponding to the priority order.

Calculate PG1, PG2,....PGn, from economic dispatch problem for the feasible combination
only.

 For the load curve, each hour load is varying

Assume load is dropping or decreasing determines whether dropping the next unit
will supply generation and spinning reserve.
o If no, Continue as it is
o If yes, go to next step
 Determine the number of hours H, before the unit will be needed again
 Check H < minimum shut down time
o If yes, go to next step
o If no, go to next step
 Calculate the costs
o Sum of hourly production cost for the next H hours with the unit up
o Recalculate the same for the unit down and start up cost for either cooling or
banking. If the second case is less expensive the unit should be on.
 Repeat this procedure until the priority list

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PROBLEM STATEMENT

Four units are to be committed to serve and 8 hour pattern data on the unit the load pattern
are given in the table. Find the optimum commitment should cover the 8 hours period use
forward dynamic programming. The unit are to be scheduled according to priority order
assume that unit 2 and 3 in operation at the start of the period.

Unit Max MW Min MW Internal No load Start up Internal

heat rate cost Rs./W cost cost Rs/hr
btu/kwhr
1 80 25 10,440 213 350 20.88
2 250 60 9000 585.62 400 18
3 300 75 8730 684.74 - 17.46
4 60 20 11900 252 0 23.8

Fuel cost of each unit is 2 Rs/btu

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Load 450 530 600 540 400 280 290 500
MW

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RESULT:

Thus the program code was written for the priority list method of Unit Commitment problem
and the results verified with the theoretical calculation.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 13 DATE:

SIMULATION STUDY OF FAULT ANALYSIS IN IEEE-14 BUS STANDARD TEST
SYSTEM
AIM
To compute the fault level, post-fault voltages and currents for different types of
faults using Thevenin’s theorem, both symmetrical and unsymmetrical as applied to IEEE-14 bus
system.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED
AU power lab, MATLAB/PSCAD

COMPUTATIONS
USING THEVENIN’S THEOREM
(i) Single Line- to Ground Fault
Ia0=Ia1= Ia2= Ia/3;
Ea
Ia1=
Z1 + Z 2 + Z o
Fault Current IF = Ia = Ia0+Ia1+ Ia2=3 Ia1;
Single Line- to-Ground Fault with Zf
Ia0=Ia1= Ia2= Ia/3;
Ea
I a1 =
Z1 + Z 2 + ( Z go + 3Z n ) + 3Z f

Fault Current IF= Ia =3Ia1

(ii) Line- to-Line Fault
Ia0=0; Ia1= - Ia2
Ea
Ia1=
Z1 + Z 2
Fault Current IF= Ib = - Ic
Line- to-Line Fault with Zf
Ia1=-Ia2; Ia0=0;

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Ea
I a1 =
Z1 + ( Z 2 + Z f )

(iii) Double Line- to-Ground Fault

Ia = 0; Va0=Va1= Va2=Va/3; Ia0=Ia1= Ia2= 0;
Ea
I a1 =
Z Z
Z1 + 0 2
Z0 + Z2

Ia0 = -Va0 / Z0 or -Va1 / Z0 and Va1 = Ea – Ia1Z1

Fault Current IF= In = Ib + Ic = 3 Ia0
Double Line- to-Ground Fault with Zf
Ia = 0;
Ea − I a1 Z1 Ea
I a0 = − I a1 =
Z g 0 + 3Z n + 3Z f Z 2 ( Z 0 + 3Z f )
Z1 +
Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f

Where, Z0 = Zg0 + 3Zn

Fault Current IF= 3 Ia0
(iv) Three Phase Fault
Va0=Va1= Va2=0; Ia0=Ia2= 0
Fault Current If = Ia = Ia1 = Ea / Z1

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Conduct fault analysis on the IEEE-14 bus system given in Annexure 13.1 and data given in
Annexure 13.2 using the available software and obtain the fault MVA at each one of the buses,
the post fault bus voltages and currents (phase components and sequence components) for
the following faults:
(i) Three phase-to-ground fault.
(ii) Line-to-ground fault
(iii) Line-to-line fault
(iv) Double-line-to-ground fault

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Annexure 13.1

Single Line Diagram IEEE-14 Bus System

Annexure 13.2

BUS DATA FOR IEEE-14 BUS SYSTEM

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LINE DATA FOR IEEE-14 BUS SYSTEM

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RESULT

Thus the simulation study of fault analysis on the IEEE-14 bus system using the available
software was performed and the fault MVA at each one of the buses, the post fault bus voltages
and currents (phase components and sequence components) for various faults are obtained.

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