Science Focus 9 Textbook - Skill Focus - Science Skills Guide

Science Skills Guide
SkillFOCUS 1 Safety Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
SkillFOCUS 2 Using Your Textbook as a Study Tool . .... .... ....... 448
Graphic Organizers: . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ..... ......... 448
Network tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ..... ......... 449
Events chain concept map . . . . . ..... ..... ......... 449
Cycle concept map . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ..... ......... 450
Spider map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ..... ......... 450
Venn diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ..... ......... 450
SkillFOCUS 3 Solving Numerical Problems (GRASP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
SkillFOCUS 4 Units of Measurement and Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
SkillFOCUS 5 Estimating and Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

Estimating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Measuring Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Measuring Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Measuring Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
SkillFOCUS 6 Scientific Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
SkillFOCUS 7 Technological Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
SkillFOCUS 8 Societal Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
SkillFOCUS 9 Using Technology in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

Using a Word Processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Using a Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Using Graphics Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Developing Multimedia Presentations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Using E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Using an Electronic Spreadsheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Using a CD-ROM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Using the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Using Probeware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
SkillFOCUS 10 Organizing and Communicating Scientific Results . . . . . . . . . . 473

Making a Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Graphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Drawing a Line Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Constructing a Bar Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Constructing a Histogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Constructing a Circle Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
SkillFOCUS 11 Scientific and Technological Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
SkillFOCUS 12 Using Models in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
SkillFOCUS 13 Using a Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
SkillFOCUS 14 Connecting and Reading Ammeters and Voltmeters . . . . . . . . 488
446 MHR • Science Skills Guide

1
SAFETY SYMBOLS WHMIS Symbols

Look carefully at the WHMIS (Workplace
The following safety symbols are used in the Hazardous Materials Information System) safety
SCIENCEFOCUS 9 program to alert you to possi- symbols shown here. The WHMIS symbols are
ble dangers. Be sure you understand each symbol used throughout Canada to identify dangerous
used in an activity or investigation before you begin. materials used in all workplaces, including schools.
Make certain you understand what these symbols
Disposal Alert mean. When you see these symbols on containers in
This symbol appears when care must be taken your classroom, at home, or in a workplace, use
to dispose of materials properly. safety precautions.
Do Not
This familiar symbol appears when a particular
action must not be taken.
Thermal Safety
This symbol appears as a reminder to use Compressed Gas Flammable and
caution when handling hot objects. Combustible Material
Sharp Object Safety
This symbol appears when a danger of cuts or
punctures caused by the use of sharp objects
exists.
Fume Safety Oxidizing Material Corrosive Material
This symbol appears when chemicals or chem-
ical reactions could cause dangerous fumes.
Electrical Safety
This symbol appears when care should be tak-
en when using electrical equipment. Poisonous and Infectious Poisonous and
Material Causing Infectious Material
Skin Protection Safety Immediate and Serious Causing Other
This symbol appears when use of caustic Toxic Effects Toxic Effects
chemicals might irritate the skin or when
contact with micro-organisms might transmit
infection.
Clothing Protection Safety
A lab apron should be worn when this symbol Biohazardous Infectious Dangerously Reactive
appears. Material Material
Fire Safety
This symbol appears when care should be
taken around open flames.
Instant Practice
1. Find four of the SCIENCEFOCUS 9
Eye Safety
safety symbols in activities or investigations in
This symbol appears when a danger to the
this textbook. What are the possible dangers in
eyes exists. Safety goggles should be worn
when this symbol appears.
the activity or investigation that relate to each
symbol?
Poison Safety
This symbol appears when poisonous 2. Using a word processsor program or hypertext
substances are used. editor, create a web page that you could use to
Chemical Safety
instruct a student in grade 3 or 4 about the
This symbol appears when chemicals used can importance of one of the safety symbols.
cause burns or are poisonous if absorbed
through the skin.
Skill Focus 1 • MHR 447

2
USING YOUR TEXTBOOK AS A STUDY TOOL

SCIENCEFOCUS 9 contains a great deal of useful Look, as well, at any terms that are in bold (dark,
information. How can you read your textbook heavy) type. These terms will provide important defi-
effectively in order to add information to your nitions that you will need in order to understand and
existing store of knowledge, and to identify areas of write about the information in each Topic. Make
inquiry that you might like to pursue? This Skill sure that you understand these terms and how they
Focus will give you some ideas for remembering are used. Each boldfaced term appears in the Glossary
what you read. at the back of this book.
The ability of plants plant cell
Organizing the Information and mycorrhizae to
in Your Textbook live in symbiosis is
mycorrhizae
an adaption.
Look at all of the suggestions presented here. Use
the learning strategies that work for you, but try
others as well. Doing something in a different way
often helps you see ideas more clearly and under-
stand them better.
1. When you are starting a new unit, read the Unit
Contents, the Focussing Questions, and the Topic
cluster descriptions beside each photograph on
the Unit Preview page. They will help you to
focus on what each Topic cluster presents.
Think about how the ideas fit into the “big pic-
ture” or main theme of the unit. Try to predict
Making Sure You Understand
some ideas you might learn about in each Topic At the end of every section and every Topic cluster,
cluster. Write some of your own questions you will find review questions. If you are unable to
about each Topic. answer them, reread the material to find the answers.
2. Try rewriting the Topic headings and subhead-

ings as questions. Then look for the answer to
Instant Practice
each question as you read. 1. Go to the unit your teacher has told you that
you will be studying, and try strategy number 1
3. Think about what you are reading, and write (under “Organizing the Information in Your
brief notes to help you remember the informa- Textbook”).
tion in each paragraph.
2. In the first Topic of the unit, try out strategy
number 2.
Using Your Textbook Visuals 3. Find any terms that are in bold in the introduc-
As you read each page, look at any photographs, tion and in the first section of the first Topic of
illustrations, or graphs that appear on the page. the unit. Record the terms and their meanings.
Read the captions and labels that accompany the
photographs, as well as the titles of graphs. Think
about the information each visual provides, and Graphic Organizers
note how it helps you to understand the ideas pre- A good way to organize information you are learning
sented in the text. For example, look closely at the is to use a graphic organizer. One kind of graphic
illustration on this page. What information does it organizer you will find useful is a concept map.
convey to you?
448 MHR • Science and Technology Skills Guide

A concept map is a diagram that represents visu- another tool for you to use. There is no single
ally how ideas are related. Because the concept map “correct” concept map, only the connections that
shows the relationships among concepts, it can clar- make sense to you. Make your map as neat and clear
ify the meaning of the ideas and terms and help you as possible and make sure you have good reasons for
to understand what you are studying. suggesting the connections between its parts.
Study the construction of the concept map below When you have completed the concept map, you
called a network tree. Notice how some words are may have dozens of interesting ideas. Your map is a
enclosed while others are written on connecting record of your thinking. Although it may contain
lines. The enclosed words are ideas or terms called many of the same concepts as other students’ maps,
concepts. The lines in the map show related con- your ideas may be recorded and linked differently. You
cepts, and the words written on them describe can use your map for study and review. You can refer
relationships between the concepts. to it to help you recall concepts and relationships. At a
As you learn more about the Topic, your concept later date, you can use your map to see what you have
map will grow and change. Concept maps are just learned and how your ideas have changed.
MATTER
SOLID, LIQUID,
OR GAS
MIXTURES PURE SUBSTANCES
HETEROGENEOUS HOMOGENEOUS
(MECHANICAL (SOLUTIONS)
MIXTURES)
An events chain map describes ideas in order. Water in a river or lake moves through a screened
In science, an events chain can be used to describe intake pipe which keeps out debris and fish.
a sequence of events, the steps in a procedure, or
the stages of a process. When making an events Pumps move water to the treatment plant.
chain, you must first find out the one event that
starts the chain. This event is called the initiating Chemicals are added which stick to suspended
event. You then find the next event in the chain materials and most bacteria.
and continue until you reach an outcome. Here is
an events chain concept map showing the stages The suspended solids settle to the bottom
of a huge settling tank.
involved in the treatment of drinking water.
Sand and gravel, through which the water is pumped,
trap smaller particles of suspended material,
leaving clear, drinkable water.
Chlorine or ozone may be added to kill remaining germs,

and some communities add fluoride for tooth protection.
The clean, safe drinking water is delivered through

underground pipes to homes and businesses.
SkillFocus 2 • MHR 449

A cycle concept map is a special type of events Another method to help you solidify your learn-
chain map. In a cycle concept map, the series of ing is comparing and contrasting. When you
events do not produce a final outcome. There is no compare, you look for similarities between two
beginning and no end to a cycle concept map. things. When you contrast, you look for differ-
To construct a cycle map, you first decide on a ences. This method can involve listing the ways in
starting point and then list each important event in which two things are similar or ways in which they
order. Since there is no outcome and the last event are different. You can also use a graphic organizer
relates back to the first event, the cycle repeats called a Venn diagram to do this, using two circles.
itself. Look at the cycle map below of the processes The following Venn diagram can help you distin-
involved in photosynthesis. guish the similarities and differences between cows
and cats.
plants undergoing
photosynthesis
which has been use

released by
• large body •have hair • small body
• herbivore •4-legged • carnivore
oxygen carbon
• has horns • produce milk • doesn’t have
dioxide
• has hooves • placental horns
• doesn’t climb mammals • has claws
in the which is trees • have tail • climbs trees
presence of released by
C
respiration in O T
animals and plants W CA
A spider map is a concept map that you may find Instant Practice
useful for brainstorming. You may, for example, have 1. Use the following words to produce a network
a central idea and a jumble of related concepts, but tree concept map (see Unit 1). Human charac-
they may not necessarily be related to each other. By teristics, continuous variation, discrete
placing these related ideas outside the main concept, variation, height, dermal ridge count, brown
you may begin to group these ideas so that their eyes, blue eyes.
relationships become easier to understand. Examine
the following spider map of the circulatory system to 2. Make a Venn diagram to compare and contrast
see how various concepts related to this organ sys- solutions and mixtures (see Unit 2).
tem may be grouped to provide clearer 3. Produce an events chain to describe yourself
understanding. setting up a garbology research project (i.e., a
project in which students bring in garbage bags
heart disease open full of household refuse and go through it to
sort out the recyclables). Add the word “fortu-
hypertension closed nately” or “unfortunately” to alternating lines.
Example: Unfortunately, I had to set up a gar-
bology project. Fortunately, I knew my
circulatory system classmates would help. Unfortunately …
heart oxygen 4. Produce a cycle concept map about recharging
a rechargeable battery (see Unit 4).
blood nutrients
blood vessels wastes

3
SOLVING NUMERICAL PROBLEMS (GRASP)

Problem-solving skills are important in everyday phrases. A single phrase may contain important
life, in the workplace, and in school. Whether you information. You can use the following strategies to
realize it or not, you solve many problems every help you analyze the problem:
day. For example, one of the first problems you • Look at the given data and the required value.
solve each day is deciding what to wear. The “giv- Write down any relationships between these
en” information that you use to make your decision quantities. For example, if you are given values
is a knowledge of what items of clothing you own for area and pressure and you need to determine
and which ones are clean. Then you have to think the force, write down: P F/A.
about what is required of you on that day. If you are • If possible, make a sketch or a diagram. A good
going to a job interview, you dress differently than diagram can often provide the key to solving a
you would if you were going to play soccer or soft- problem.
ball. After you have analyzed all of the information,
• Ensure that the units in the given data are consis-
you make a decision, get dressed, and go out to
tent with each other and with the units you will
start your the day.
use in your final answer. If the units are not con-
Although solving numerical problems seems more
sistent, make the necessary conversions.
difficult than deciding what to wear, you can use the
same methods to solve both types of problems. • Analyze the problem statement to determine if
Solving any problem is easier when you establish a you need any information that can be found in a
logical, step-by-step procedure. One excellent method table, appendix, or other reference. For example,
for solving numerical problems includes five basic the densities of many substances are listed in
steps called: Given, Required, Analysis, Solution, and tables in science textbooks. The masses of many
Paraphrase. You can easily remember these steps objects, from an electron to the Sun can be found
because the first letter of each word spells the word in reference materials, both print, and electronic.
GRASP. The following steps will help you get a Look up and record any numerical values that you
“grasp” on quantitative or numerical problem solving. will need.
• Write down any assumptions you will have to
The GRASP method make in order to solve the problem.
Given Solution
The first step in solving a numerical problem is to In the fourth step, use all of the data and information
organize the given data. Read the problem carefully you have accumulated to find the solution. Convert
and make a list of all of the numerical quantities all units to the units required in your final answer.
given in the problem statement, as well as any other Then substitute the given values into the relation-
important, qualitative information. Include the sym- ships you have written down and carry out the
bols, numerical values, and units for each numerical mathematical operations. Include units in every step.
quantity. For example, if you are told that the mass
Paraphrase
of a rock is 3.5 kg, you would list: Mass of rock,
m 3.5 kg. The purpose of the fifth and final step is to clarify the
meaning of the calculations you have done. The word
Required “paraphrase” means to restate in a different way.
The second step in the GRASP method is to identify Paraphrase your solution, including the quantity,
exactly what information the problem requires you to value, and units, in the form of a sentence.
find. Write the name of the quantity, the symbol, and
the units. For example, if you are asked to find the Example of the GRASP
velocity of an object, write: Velocity, v (m/s). Problem-Solving Method
Analysis A small, shiny, gold-coloured, metallic crown was
uncovered at an excavation site. To determine
To carry out the third step, analyze the problem
whether the crown was made of either pure gold or
statement by breaking it down into individual
copper, the excavators decided to calculate its density

and compare it to the published densities of the two Instant Practice
metals. They measured the mass of the crown and Use the GRASP method to solve the following
found it to be 2.00 kg. The measured volume was problems.
225 cm3. Was the crown made of copper or gold? 1. A cube of aluminum has a mass of 2.0 kg and a
Given volume of 741 cm3. What is the density of the
aluminum in g/cm3?
Mass of crown, m 2.00 kg
Volume of crown, V 225 cm3 2. An armoured vehicle can carry a maximum
mass of 10 000 kg. The security safe in the
Required vehicle has an inside volume of 0.600 m3. Can
Density, D (g/cm3) this safe hold 10 000 kg of gold? Explain your
answer.
Analysis
Units are not consistent. 3. On March 24, 1989 an oil tanker called the
Convert mass in kilograms to grams. Exxon Valdez ran aground on Blight Reef off
Prince William Sound along the Alaskan
Use the conversion factor 1 kg 1000 g.
1000 g Coastline. Breaks in the hull of this ship released
Write it in the form 1 an estimated 50 108 000 L of Alaska North
1 kg
D m/V Slope crude into the ocean. Use the GRASP
Densities of copper and gold are needed for method to solve the following problems.
comparison. Published values are: (a) To describe this spill in terms that a
Density of copper, DCu 8.90 g/cm3 younger grade might understand, how
many classrooms full of oil is this equivalent
Density of gold, DAu 19.30 g/cm3
to? (Typical classrooms are about 10 m
Assume that any dirt was removed from the crown wide, 10 m long and 3 m high, or you can
before its mass and volume were determined. measure your own classroom.)
(b) If the mass of the spill is 45 147 809 kg how
Solution
many of thes ocean creatures could that
1. Convert units. equal?
1000 g – blue whale 135000 kg
m 2.00 kg
1 kg – harbour seal 93 kg
2000 g – sea otter (male) 45 kg
m – sea otter (female) 27 kg
2. D
V – silver salmon “coho” 5 kg
2000 g
2 (c) The residue from oil forms a layer of about
225 cm
8.89 g/cm3 1 mm in thickness. According to the
Canadian Football League, the regulation
The density of the crown is almost the same as the size of a football field is 100.6 m by 59.4 m.
published density of copper. What area of the surface of the ocean could
Paraphrase this slick cover if ideal conditions resulted
in uniform coverage? How many football
The density of the gold-coloured crown is
fields would fit in that area?
8.89 gm/cm3, almost the same as the published den-
sity of copper. Since the published density of gold, 4. This problem concerns Canadians, especially if
19.30 g/cm3, is much larger than the calculated an oil spill occurred in one of the Great Lakes.
density of the crown, the crown could not be made The Alaska North Slope oil floated in saltwater
of gold. The colour and the density of the crown at a density of 1.025 g/cm3, but could it float and
are consistent with the colour and density of cop- be cleaned off fresh water that is at a density of
per. However, more tests should be done to confirm 0.997 g/cm3? (Recall that the mass of the spill
this conclusion. was 45 147 809 kg, and D m/V).

4
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Sometimes when you’re working with numbers, you Frequently Used Metric Quantities, Units, and Symbols
just need an approximate idea about a quantity. At
other times, you need to be very precise. For exam- Quantity Unit Symbol
ple, what size shoes do you wear? Your answer is *SI
probably very precise. Imagine how uncomfortable length nanometre nm
you would be if you wore shoes only generally micrometre µm
approximated to your size. Obviously you need
millimetre mm
shoes that are carefully measured to fit your foot.
centimetre cm
*metre m
The Metric System
kilometre km
When you take measurements in science, you use
the metric system, which is a decimal system of mass gram g
measurement. *kilogram kg
In the metric system, all units are multiples of tonne t
10. Therefore, if you need to express a quantity area square metre m2
using a larger unit, you multiply by a multiple of
square centimetre cm2
10. To express a quantity using a smaller unit, you
hectare ha (10 000 m2)
divide by a multiple of ten. For example, the prefix
kilo- means multiplied by 1000; thus, one kilogram volume cubic centimetre cm3
equals one thousand grams. cubic metre m3
1 kg = 1000 g millilitre mL
litre L
The prefix milli- means divided by 1000; thus, one
time *second s
milligram equals one one thousandth of a gram.
1 temperature degree Celsius °C
1 mg = g
1000 force newton N
The table on the right lists some frequently used energy joule J
units of measurement in the metric system.
kilojoule kJ
pressure pascal Pa
kilopascal kPa
electric current ampere A
quantity of coulomb C
electric charge
frequency hertz Hz
power watt W

The following table shows the most commonly used SI Units
metric prefixes. (Adding metric prefixes to a base
In science classes, you will often be instructed to
unit is a way of expressing powers of ten.)
report your measurements and answers in SI units.
The term, SI, is taken from the French name Le
Metric Prefixes Système international d’unités. SI uses the metre as
Prefix Symbol Relationship to the base unit the basic unit of length, the kilogram as the basic
unit of mass, and the second as the basic unit of
giga- G 109 = 1 000 000 000
time. Most other units are related to the basic units.
mega- M 106 = 1 000 000
kilo- k 103 = 1 000 Example
cm
hecto- h 102 = 100
Convert 42.5 to SI Units.
s
deca- da 101 = 10 Solution
– – 100 = 1 cm 1m m
42.5 0.425
deci- d 10–1 = 0.1 s 100 cm s
centi- c 10–2 = 0.01

Instant Practice
milli- m 10–3 = 0.001
Convert the following to SI Units
micro- µ 10–6 = 0.000 001 1. 275 cm
nano- n 10–9 = 0.000 000 001
2. 22 min
km
3. 21
h
Example 1 4. 6937 g
The distance across Canada is 5514 km. How
would you express this distance in metres?
Solution
5514 km ? m
1000 m
5514 km 5 514 000 m
1 km
Example 2
You have 10.5 g of salt. To express this mass in kilo-
grams, remember that 1000 g 1 kg.
Solution
10.5 g ? kg
1 kg
10.5 g 0.0105 kg
1000 g
Instant Practice
1. 35 cm ? m 5. 6.5 L ? mL
2. 20 m ? mm 6. 1750 cm3 ? m3
3. 55 g ? mg 7. 750 mL ? L
4. 0.5 kg ? g 8. 1250 kg ? t

Exponents of Example 2
Scientific Notation The electron in a hydrogen atom is, on the
An exponent is the symbol or number denoting the average, 0.000 000 000 053 m from the nucleus.
power to which another number or symbol is to be Write 0.000 000 000 053 in scientific notation.
raised. The exponent shows the number of repeated Solution
multiplications of the base. In 102, the exponent is 2
To write the number in the form x 10n, move the
and the base is 10. The place table below shows the
decimal point to the right until there is one, non-
powers of 10 as numbers in standard form and in
zero number to the left of the decimal point.
exponential form.
The decimal point starts here. 0.000 000 000 053
Move the decimal point
Standard Exponential 11 places to the right.
Form Form = 5.3 0.000 000 000 01
= 5.3 10-11
ten thousands 10 000 104
thousands 1000 103 Notice that, when you move the decimal point to
hundreds 100 102 the left, the exponent of ten is positive. When you
move the decimal point to the right, the exponent
tens 10 101
of ten is negative. The number of places you move
ones 1 100
the decimal point is the number in the exponent.
1
tenths 0.1 1
10
1
Instant Practice
hundredths 0.01 2
10 1. Express each of the following in scientific
1 notation.
thousandths 0.001 3
10
(a) Our galaxy, the Milky Way, contains more
1 than 400 000 000 000 stars.
ten thousandths 0.0001 4
10
(b) The distance of the Andromeda Galaxy
Why use exponents? Consider this. Mercury is from Earth is about:
about 58 000 000 km from the Sun. If a zero were 23 000 000 000 000 000 000 km
accidentally added to this number, the distance (c) The distance across the universe has been
would appear to be ten times larger than it actually estimated at:
is. To avoid mistakes when writing many zeros, sci- 800 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 km
entists express large numbers in scientific notation. (d) The mass of a proton is about:
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 0017 g
Example 1
2. Change the following to standard notation.
Mercury is about 58 000 000 km from the Sun.
Write 58 000 000 in scientific notation. (a) 9.8 105 m
(b) 2.3 109 kg
Solution
(c) 5.5 10–5 L
In scientific notation, a number has the form
x 10n, where x is greater than or equal to 1 but (d) 6.5 10–10 s
less than 10, and 10n is a power of 10.
58 000 000. The decimal point starts here.
Move the decimal point 7 places
to the left.
= 5.8 10 000 000
= 5.8 107

5
ESTIMATING AND MEASURING

The gathering of scientific data often involves the
measurement of different quantities. Special tools
and techniques have been developed to take accurate
measurements. Accuracy refers to how close a mea-
surement is to the true value of a particular quantity,
such as the length or volume of an object. Some of
the measurements scientists need to make are more
complex than others. Whether complex or simple,
measurements must be taken properly. In this
SkillFocus, you will learn and practise some of these
techniques so that you may gather your own data. Measuring Area
As you know, length is the distance between two
Estimating points. Area is the number of square units required
In some cases, it may not be essential or possible to to cover a surface. Area can be calculated easily for
take exact measurements. In such cases, scientists a square or rectangular shape: measure the lengths
make estimates. For example, suppose you were an of two neighbouring sides (in other words, the
ecologist and needed to know the number of indi- length and width) and multiply them together. For
viduals of a tree species in a large provincial park. example, the area of a rectangle with a length of 5 cm
It would not be practical to count every single tree and a width of 4 cm is
of that species. It would take too much time and 5 cm 4 cm 20 cm2
money, and you probably would not need to know
the exact number. If you define a study area, say Notice that the values for area are expressed in
100 m2 and if you know the total area of the park, square units.
then you could obtain a good estimate by multiplying The area of a right-angled triangle is obtained by
the number of trees in your study area by the number multiplying the base and height (which are the
of 100 m2 blocks in the total area of the park. neighbouring sides joined at the right angle) and
dividing by 2. In other words:
Instant Practice 1
Area of triangle height base
1. You need to estimate the number of micro- 2
organisms on a petri dish. It is impractical to A special formula is required to calculate the area of
examine the whole dish with a microscope, but a circle. Measure the radius, r — the distance
you can easily count the micro-organisms in a between the centre of the circle and its circumfer-
1 mm 1 mm square. Suppose you count 15 ence — (or halve the diameter instead), square this
micro-organisms in this area, and you know value, and multiply by the special number pi (3.14),
that the area of the dish is 20 cm2. Estimate the which is symbolized by .
number on the whole dish. Remember that you
Area of a circle = r2
must use the same units in your estimate.
2. Suppose you are an ornithologist studying Instant Practice
parental behaviour in American robins. You
1. What is the area of a rectangle with a width of
observe that in an 8 h period, a robin visits its
2 cm and a length of 3.5 cm?
nest 29 times. Estimate how many times per
hour the robin visits the nest. 2. What is the area of a square with sides of 1 cm?
3. Examine the photograph (top right) How 3. The area of a square or a rectangle is calculated
might you make a good estimate of the number by multiplying length by width. Why is a trian-
of animals in this herd? gle’s area half the area of a rectangle? To find out,
draw a rectangle and create two triangles from it
by drawing a line between two opposite corners.

4. You are responsible for supervising the renova- The volume of solids can be measured in several
tion of your classroom into a laboratory. An end ways, depending on shape and form. A solid that
wall will serve as the sink area, and it needs to pours, such as sugar, can be measured like a liquid,
be tiled to a height of 1.5 m. Standard laborato- but the surface of the substance being measured
ry tiles, 10 cm in height and 20 cm in width, must be as flat as possible.
will be used. How many tiles will you need?
(a) First, decide what kind of measurement graduated
would be most practical for the area — cylinder
mm2, cm2, or m2.
line of sight
(b) Measure the length of the wall.
(c) Calculate the area of the wall to be tiled.
(d) How many tiles would you need to cover
meniscus
1 m2?
(e) Multiply that number by the number of slight upward
square metres of wall area. curve where
(f) Remember to use the same units. Using liquid liquid meets
sides of
centimetres and metres in the same calcula- cylinder
tion will lead to incorrect calculations.
Take a reading from the bottom of the meniscus with your
line of sight at the level of the meniscus.
Measuring Volume
The volume of an object is the amount of space that For a rectangular solid, measure the length,
the object occupies. Volume involves three dimen- width, and height, then multiply the values togeth-
sions: height, length, and width. The units for er. You may also calculate the volume of a cylinder.
measuring the volume of a solid are called cubic Calculate the area of its circular base (see the for-
units (for example, cm3). The units used to measure mula on page 456) and multiply it by the height of
the volume of liquids are called capacity units. The the cylinder.
basic unit for liquids is the litre (L), but in this The volume of irregularly shaped objects may be
course, you will probably be working in millilitres determined by the amount of liquid they displace.
(mL). Cubic units and capacity units are inter- The displacement for a small object, such as a coin
changeable, as indicated below: or a pebble, may be determined with a graduated
cylinder. The water displaced equals the volume of
1 cm3 = 1 mL the object, as shown in the diagram below.
1 dm3 = 1 L
1 m3 = 1 kL
To measure the volume of a liquid, you need a grad- 100 100

uated cylinder. Once you have poured in the liquid
90 90
sample, place the cylinder on a flat surface. Read the
level at the top of the column of the liquid, but 80 level 80
make sure that your eye is level with the top — do 70
of water 70
not measure from above or below. Finally, you need and
60 pebble 60
to consider the meniscus, the slight curve at the top volume of
of a liquid where the liquid meets the sides of the 50 level 50 pebble
of water = 62 mL – 5
cylinder. For most liquids, such as water, the sides 40 40
curve slightly upward, so measure at the lowest level = 12mL
30 30
of the meniscus, as shown in the diagram above.
In a mercury thermometer, the edges of the 20 20
mercury curve slightly downward. In this case, read 10 10
from the top of the meniscus.

The volume of larger objects can be determined
20 20
by displacement as well, by using an overflow can. 100 100
The spout allows water displaced by an object to be

caught and measured in a graduated cylinder, as 10 10
90 90
shown in the two diagrams directly below.
overflow
can
A 1 2 3 4
water level 100
90
height = 2 cm length = 4 cm
80
desk 70 B width = 3 cm
60 r radius = 2 cm
50
graduated
cylinder 40
height = 4 cm
30
20
sink 10 C
4. To measure the volume of an object, follow

these steps:
water level (a) Place a carefully measured amount of water,
say 50 mL, into a 100 mL graduated cylinder.
To do this, fill the cylinder to just under
100
50 mL and use a medicine dropper to bring
90
the level to 50 mL.
object 80 (b) Tilting the cylinder slightly, gently immerse
immersed 70 an object. The object will displace the water
in water
60 by an amount equal to its volume, and the
50 level of the water (50 mL) in the cylinder
40 will rise by this amount.
water 30 (c) Read the new volume level and subtract the
displaced 20 original amount of water from this new val-
by object
equals 10 ue. This will give you the volume of the
volume of object.
object
5. You can use an overflow can and a graduated
cylinder to measure the volume of an object.
Instant Practice
(a) Place your finger over the spout and fill the
Refer to the diagrams on the top right.
can above the level of the spout. Position
1. What is the volume indicated by each of the
the can on a level surface and remove your
graduated cylinders in diagram A?
finger to allow the excess water to drain
2. Calculate the volume of the object in diagram B. into a sink.
3. Calculate the volume of the cylinder in diagram C. (b) Place a graduated cylinder beneath the
spout and carefully immerse the object in
the water. Be careful that you do not
immerse your fingers. The volume of the
water displaced into the cylinder equals the
volume of the object.

Measuring Mass (b) Slide the largest rider along until the
pointer falls below zero. Then move it
The mass of an object is the measure of the amount
back one notch.
of material that makes up the object, but not the
space occupied by the objects. For example, which (c) Repeat with the next heaviest rider, and
has more mass: a cube of wood or a cube of lead of then with the lightest rider. Adjust the last
the same size? In this case, you know that the cube rider until the pointer swings equally above
of lead has more mass because lead is much more and below zero.
dense than wood. What about a marble and a quar- (d) Add the readings of the three beams to find
ter? This comparison is not as easy to make. To the mass.
measure the mass of each object accurately, you need 2. What is the mass of half a cup of sugar?
to use a balance or a scale. You will probably use a
triple beam balance similar to the one shown below. (a) Place an empty beaker (or cup) on the pan
The balance has a pan on one side and a set of of the balance. Determine the mass of the
three beams on the other. Each of the beams has a beaker and record it.
scale marked off and a rider or weight that can be (b) Remove the beaker and half-fill it with sug-
moved along the beam. You can find the mass of an ar. Place the beaker on the pan of the
object by placing it directly on the pan. What if you balance and determine the mass of the sug-
needed to determine the mass of one cup of sugar? ar and the beaker together.
There is an easier way than dumping the sugar on the (c) Determine the mass of the sugar only.
pan! Learn how to find mass by doing the following.
3. You may use the balance “in reverse” to mea-
sure out a known quantity. Suppose you needed
Instant Practice to measure out 100 g of sugar (see the diagrams
1. Before you begin, set the balance to zero by slid- below).
ing all three riders back to their zero points, at (a) Place an empty beaker on the pan and
the left side of the beams. The pointer at the determine its mass.
right side of the beams should swing slowly an
(b) Now move the appropriate slider along and
equal amount above and below the zero. If it
add 100 g to the right side of the scale. The
does not, turn the adjusting screw until it does so.
pointer will fall below zero.
(a) Place your object on the pan. The pointer (c) Carefully pour sugar into the beaker until
will rise above the zero mark. the pointer begins to move. You need to add
exactly 100 g to balance the scales again.
A Determine the mass of the empty B Add 100 g to the mass measure- C Carefully add the solid to the beaker
beaker. ment by moving the appropriate rider on the pan of the balance. The scales
along the beam. will be balanced again when 100 g of
solid have been added to the beaker.

6
SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
Science is a way of explaining the objects and events
in the natural world. Scientists want to know how
and why things happen. As you know from previous
science studies, you too can answer these questions
scientifically. The inquiry processes you have
learned to use result in scientific knowledge that
allows you to predict and explain such events as the
lightning flash in this photograph.
A scientific inquiry involves several different
processes. These are reviewed here to assist you in
getting the most out of studying this textbook. As
you know, some of these processes have to be fol-
lowed in order. Scientific inquiry can be initiated,
though, at any step in the idealized sequence shown
in this diagram.
How might you proceed to develop scientific

observations and understanding about the lightning strike in the
curiosity stimulate photograph? Here is an example of a phenomenon
questions similar to lightning, one that you might have
experienced in everyday life. Notice that the devel-
opment of a scientific law has made use of the idea
identify the problem of specific "charges."
Imagine walking across a carpeted room in winter.
gather information You touch the metal door pull and zap! you get a
shock. Why does it happen? Why doesn’t it happen
if the door pull is made of wood or plastic? Why
form a hypothesis doesn’t it happen in summer? Is the cause of the
make a prediction shock still there in summer? Why don’t you feel it?
perform an experiment /
investigation
revise prediction analyze data repeat several

or hypothesis times
draw conclusions
prediction or hypothesis prediction or hypothesis

not supported supported
communicate results

Questions such as these have led scientists to conduct experiments that have result-
ed in their formulating the Laws of Charges which state:
1. Unlike charges attract.
2. Like charges repel.
3. Charged objects attract uncharged (neutral) objects.
law: an action or condition that has been observed so consistently that scientists
are convinced it will always happen. A law does not explain events, but summarizes
their regularity. In previous studies, you probably learned about the two laws of
reflection, for example.
By using the law of charges, you might begin to understand how the lightning strike
occurs. Also, now that you know something about charges, you can formulate your own
question about how you can identify like and unlike charges. In what substances can you
observe like charges? To answer this question, you will need to state the problem clearly
and narrow the investigation down to one, specific object that you can control. Even
when you study one object, many characteristics of the object might influence its behav-
iour. These characteristics are called the variables of the investigation.
You must control all of the variables except one when you make observations. The
one factor or variable that you change is called the manipulated variable. The factor
or variable that changes as a result of the manipulated variable is called the responding
variable. If you change two different variables at the same time, you will not know
which one was responsible for the effect that you observed. If your investigation is to
be valid and unbiased (a fair test), you must carry out the procedure in precisely the
same way more than once, changing only the variable you are measuring. Many experi-
ments have a control — a treatment or experiment that you can compare with the
result of your test groups.
variable: any factor that will influence the outcome of an experiment
In an investigation of like charges, the substance with which you test all other
substances is a variable.
Next, review all of the information that you already have about the object. You have
acquired this information through your observations.
Qualitative observations: describe something using only words; for example, a

yellow short-haired dog. Quantitative observations: use numbers as well as
words to describe something; for example, a dog with a mass of 14 kg, a height of
46 cm, an ear length of 10 cm, and an age of 150 days.
Through careful observation, you may notice patterns in natural events, or you may
suspect that a relationship exists between certain events and outcomes. Use the infor-
mation obtained through your observations to formulate a hypothesis. Design an
experiment to test your hypothesis. Carry out the investigation, then record your data
and analyze the results. Did your results support or contradict the hypothesis? If the
data you recorded during the investigation did not support your hypothesis, review the
results and formulate a new hypothesis, then start the testing process again. Even if the
data did support your hypothesis, you must repeat the experiment at least once more.
Scientific evidence must be reproducible.

hypothesis: statement of a proposed relationship, based on background informa-
tion or an observed pattern of events, and stated in a way that makes it testable.
Example: An organism that is deprived of water will fail to thrive.
experiment: an activity or procedure designed to falsify a hypothesis. It may
seem strange to attempt to prove something wrong. However, it is not possible to
prove something to be absolutely true because there might always be one more
experiment that would reveal a flaw. It takes only one experiment to falsify a
hypothesis. If you do not falsify a hypothesis, then the results support it.
Experimental results and conclusions can contribute to the growing body of scien-
tific knowledge only if they are communicated. Scientists communicate their findings
by submitting articles to scientific journals, by presenting papers at conferences, and by
discussing their work with colleagues. Before an article is published in a print resource,
other scientists review it to ensure that the research and conclusions are based on
proper methods of science inquiry.
conclusion: an interpretation of the results of an experiment as it applies to the

hypothesis being tested. Example: Based on quantitative data for gasoline con-
sumption, we found that regular gasoline is more efficient than premium gasoline.
As a final step in the science inquiry process, you write a report on your experiment,
presenting the procedural results clearly so that someone else who reads your report
could repeat the experiment. End your report with a discussion of your interpretation
of the results and the conclusion.
This example of science inquiry is the first phase in a broader process. As various
scientists replicate (copy) the investigations of others, they may find that their conclu-
sions always support a specific hypothesis. The hypothesis may then be accepted in the
scientific community as a theory.
A model helps you to explain an event or observation for yourself or others. For
example, think about the electrical charges we discussed earlier. The model being used
is that electricity behaves as if it comes in tiny bundles called charges. At one time, sci-
entists worked with a model that electricity came in two kinds of fluids. As they
worked with the model, they found that it didn’t explain everything that they were
learning about energy. The bundle-of-charge model has been found to be more satis-
factory for explaining electricity.
model: a mental image, used as a building block that helps to explain an event.
Often, for clarity scientists diagram, make physical representations, or treat math-
ematically the features of a model. A physical representation of the solar system
can be constructed from balls of different sizes. Software is available for building
models on a computer.
theory: an explanation of an observation or event that has been supported by
consistent, repeated experimental results, and has therefore been accepted by a
majority of scientists. An example in this textbook is Dalton’s atomic theory.

Now that you have reviewed the key processes of 2. Write a hypothesis. Based on what your own
science inquiry, you are ready to use the processes experience and observations tell you, what
yourself as you do the following Instant Practice general statement can you make based on
and carry out activities and investigations your question?
throughout this book. 3. Write a procedure. What will your variables be?
4. Check your procedure with your teacher, and
Instant Practice then carry out the procedure.
Suppose you wanted to find out if you could touch
5. Record your observations. Should they be
a metal door pull in winter without getting a shock.
recorded in sentence form, or would a chart be
Reread the third law of charges. It describes what
more efficient and easier to read?
happens when an electrical charge moves from a
charged object (you) to an uncharged object (the 6. Explain what happened during your experimen-
door pull). tal procedure, referring to your hypothesis.
Write a conclusion, and be prepared to share it
1. With your group develop a question that you
with the class.
could investigate.

7
TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEM SOLVING

Engineers, architects, computer specialists (information technologists), and
designers are experts at using technological problem-solving skills to find solutions
to practical problems. Everybody else uses these skills too, including you. You have
learned about using these skills in earlier science studies, and they are reviewed
here to assist you in getting the most out of studying this textbook.
Technological problem solvers are interested in such questions as, “Will it work?”
and “How long will it last?” and “How efficient is it?” Often they develop devices
that are used to solve the practical problem, or challenge, with which they are deal-
ing. Technological devices can be simple or complex. For example, a shovel is a
simple technological device that makes digging a hole easier. Precision lasers are
complex devices that specially trained physicians can use to perform delicate brain
or eye surgery. Sometimes technology is developed or improved by applying scien-
tific knowledge. Sometimes successful technology comes first, though, and scientific
knowledge advances as a result of trying to understand why the technology works.
The following flow chart diagrams the process as explained and used in this
textbook to represent technological problem solving.
identify the problem

or challenge
decide on design criteria
plan and construct

revise • sketch revise
design • draw a complete plan the
criteria • build a model plan
test and
evaluate
design criteria product or technique excellent plan had

were inadequate solution to the problem identifiable flaws
use the product patent the product or technique

or technique for possible mass production

Technological Problem Solving (d) Have your design approved by your teacher,
then build and test your periscope.
in This Course
(e) Evaluate your design and discuss with your
You will use technological problem-solving skills in
group how it might be improved.
this course in Problem-Solving Investigations. This
kind of investigation asks you to develop strategies 2. Read the following excerpt from an article
for meeting a challenge. You will be asked to develop about Canadian scientist, Ursula Franklin. Do
and carry out a plan based on specific design criteria. you agree or disagree with the thoughts
You will also be asked to evaluate the plan, and to expressed by Franklin? Discuss her comments
reflect on and communicate the results. with your group, using what you know about
various modern technologies to agree or dis-
agree with Franklin. What other universal laws
Instant Practice might initially prevent people from fulfilling a
1. In Unit 5 of this text, you will learn about tele- dream? How does the idea expressed relate to
scopes (see pages 366-370) and you will also have the fact that technologies are sometimes devel-
an opportunity to construct a telescope. Suppose oped without the scientific knowledge that
you were going to a parade and wanted to be able underlies them?
to see the parade from the back of the crowd.
How could you construct a periscope that would People wanted to fly. And so in the beginning they
help you see above the heads of the crowd? strapped birds’ feathers to their arms, jumped off
cliffs, flapped mightily — and fell to the ground.
(a) Work with your group to define the prob- “Because it doesn’t work,” Franklin said. “You
lem facing you and how you will solve it. can’t opt out of the universal law of gravity.”
What alternate solutions can you find?
“But it doesn’t mean an end to the dream of flying.
(b) Suppose you have chosen to construct a
It just means you study the problem. You put your
periscope. Develop and design a prototype
resources into finding a solution. You discover, even-
(you might want to read about telescopes
tually, that while pigs can’t fly, they can be flown.
on page 370, to get some ideas).
That while people can’t fly, they can be flown.”
(c) List the materials you will need and the
design criteria your periscope must meet.
This design for a flying machine

was conceptualized and sketched
by Leonardo da Vinci, the great
Italian inventor and artist of the
fifteenth century.

8
SOCIETAL DECISION MAKING
In your science course this year, you will often be the space program, what new knowledge, discover-
asked to think about interactions among science, ies, and possibilities might we deny ourselves?
technology, and society. In other words, you will be Clearly, we need to weigh the decision carefully.
examining issues that arise because science and Whenever we have a choice of this sort, decision
technology are part of a social and environmental makers are facing an issue.
context. Complex issues frequently arise as a result, What is the best way to approach a complex issue
requiring a good grasp of scientific principles and a such as this? What information do we need? How
careful approach to the decisions they demand. For can we use our scientific knowledge and our under-
example, the photograph above was taken by astro- standing of the processes of science to fully
nauts who were orbiting the Moon. At the time comprehend the issue and to find ways to make the
(1968), the use of technology for space travel best choice? In this instance, we could carefully
seemed new and exciting. Seeing the world from monitor the kinds of problems that occur. We could
space gave humans a whole new perspective on our observe environmental changes over time to under-
planet. We saw it in a new way and began to form stand the full impact. We might start thinking about
different opinions about it. new technology to counteract the environmental
Our ability to orbit the Moon resulted from our problems. We could establish criteria that any reso-
use of technology to solve the problem of defying lution of the issue must meet. We could then
gravity and leaving Earth’s atmosphere. That use of suggest solutions and, if appropriate, build models
technology has in turn led to problems of its own: that could be used to test future environmental
space junk. Older nonworking satellites may break impacts. We could use these models to evaluate
apart and spiral to Earth, causing environmental alternatives, consider consequences, and to choose
damage and requiring costly cleanup efforts. This the best alternative. We might decide that none of
problem raises the question: should we continue our solutions meets all (or most) of our criteria and
with the space program? It costs huge amounts of decide to come up with new solutions, using what
money that could be used elsewhere. It causes envi- we have learned throughout the process. You can
ronmental problems. On the other hand, if we end see that such decision-making processes are cyclical.

Even when a seemingly ideal resolution to an issue and economic background that the process requires.
is found, circumstances and technology change, and All viewpoints should be examined with respect.
the issue may need to be revisited. This textbook’s content will help you to appreciate
Issues like these can be addressed more effective- and understand the science underlying many soci-
ly by societies made up of scientifically literate etal issues that will arise in the future, and will also
citizens: those able to sort information from misin- provide you with critical skills and concepts you
formation and to evaluate whether claims made in need to succeed in future science courses.
the name of science are valid or invalid. Your SCIENCEFOCUS 9 textbook, in general, pro-
This textbook is designed to help you progress motes an understanding of issue analysis, but three
toward scientific literacy. special features will be especially useful in helping
Science can provide basic information to help you to develop your decision-making skills.
you evaluate risks. Indeed, how science helps us Many of the Think & Link Investigations in this
make decisions is a major focus of this book. But textbook examine issues. All of the Decision-Making
science alone is not enough to make final decisions Investigations and the Unit Issue Analysis activities
about either public or personal issues. Throughout provide issues to debate, simulations to role-play, or
the decision-making process input is required from case studies giving you experience in developing
organizations, groups, and individuals, who can your critical thinking and decision-making skills.
provide the social, aesthetic, evironmental, ethical,
How can scientific knowledge and processes help?
Identify the Issue

What scientific questions need to be investigated?
Errors of judgment may have been made at any

Which scientific methods and data-collecting and
of these steps in the Decision-making Process

Gather Relevant Information
recording tools are most appropriate?
Identify All the Alternatives
Weigh Each Alternative by

Clarifying its Consequences
Make a Decision
Evaluate the Decision
The decision is the One or more of the steps

best alternative based in the Decision-making
on risks/benefits and, Process was/were faulty.
thus, probable No action should be taken
consequences. and the process should
be repeated to ensure
that the faulty steps are
eliminated and replaced by
improved thinking.
Take Action/Communicate the Decision

Instant Practice 4. Clearly identify how you can use your knowl-
In many of the experiments and investigations in edge of science and its processes to obtain
this text, you need to use chemicals that are environ- information that will help you to make your
mentally harmful if you are to learn your chemistry. decision.
How will you dispose of these chemicals? Should 5. Consider who might be involved in the conse-
you be using them at all? What other questions does quences of chemical disposal. What are the
this issue raise, and how can you best answer them risks and benefits of this action? You might
and find and evaluate useful alternatives? have to do some information-gathering outside
1. With your group, examine the example of a your own school.
decision-making flow chart shown on page 467. 6. When you have reached the end of the process
2. Use it to reach a decision about the use of and are satisfied with the decision you have
chemicals in your classroom. reached, share your thoughts and the process
you followed with other groups.
3. Make sure you work with every step in the
flowchart. Identify the issue clearly, and then
identify as many sources as you can for your
information-gathering.

9
USING TECHNOLOGY IN SCIENCE

Technology includes the designing and use of Instant Practice
devices, processes, and materials to solve practical Using a Word Processor
problems.
1. Copy a scientific or factual quote (one sentence
The computer is an important technological
should do), out of the newspaper or an ency-
advance. In your science lab you may also be able to
clopaedia. For example, a fact about adult
use other advances in technology, such as electronic
African bull elephants is that they have a mass
balances, scientific calculators, electronic probes,
of 5 400 kg.
and other electronic tools. Your teacher can explain
their use to you. 2. Write a sentence response to the quote stating
Technology tools can be used to make why you chose it.
more accurate measurements, collect and store
3. Box or highlight (using a different font) your
information, and display the data in a colourful
main block of textual quote so that it is differ-
and exciting manner.
ent in appearance form the response.
4. Add a questionnaire below this block. You can
limit the questions to three or four requiring
yes/no answers. In the case of the bull elephant
above, you might ask if the person thinks this is
the heaviest species of elephant on the planet
(yes or no).
5. Spellcheck, proofread, and print out your
These tools can also make the sharing of data questionnaire.
easier between partners. However, the advances in
technology can be expensive, can reduce the need
for human input, and can destroy natural resources.
Using a Database
Science and technology must work together to cre- How do you keep track of all the information you
ate a balance between human needs and the needs gather for a project? A good tool to use is the data-
of a sustainable environment. base. You can think of a database as a file cabinet
within your computer that can sort information into
a variety of categories. If you use shortcuts, such as
Using a Word Processor tabbing between entry fields and using your soft-
Word processing software allows you to write, ware’s automatic formatting, the task becomes even
change, store, and print information. You may faster. When you search for information within
already be familiar with editing functions, such your database, use “and,” “or,” and “not” to narrow
as cut and paste, find and replace, and copy. your search.
Formatting features let you change the font, style,
size, and alignment of print. The word processor
can also be used to create tables and columns, insert
Instant Practice
art, add page numbers, and check spelling and Using a Database
grammar. Remember that the spell check does not Using your questionnaire, from above:
catch those words that are spelled correctly but are 1. Ask the questions of at least ten people
the wrong words (such as “date” instead of “data”). (classmates or others).
If you are uncertain about how to use certain fea-
2. Enter the information into a database and sort
tures, check the Help menu for instructions.
to determine the number of respondents who
answered yes to the first question but not the
remainder. Then sort to determine the number
who answered yes to the first two, etc.

Using Graphics Software Instant Practice
Have you discovered your computer’s graphics soft- Developing Multimedia Presentations
ware? You can use it to arrange clip-art, change Use multimedia software such as Powerpoint™
scanned images, create illustrations, and integrate or Hyperstudio™ to create a short presentation
text into your diagrams. You might find it easier to about yourself. Include graphics and text in your
start by studying and manipulating existing draw- presentation. Make a section about your personal
ings. The more you practise using graphics software, information (age, where you live, etc.) and a
the easier it will be to make your own illustrations. section about your interests.
Keep in mind that your final product should effec-
tively represent your message. Consider the balance
of text and visuals, and the use of colour, style, and
font. Avoid cluttering your final product with too
many elements.
Instant Practice
Using Graphics Software
1. Import an image into a graphics software. Play
with the image (resize, crop, etc.), and add text
to relay a message.
2. Use a scanner or pieces of clip art to create a
message. Add text to the graphic you created to
improve the message.
Using E-mail
If you want to correspond with a scientist, contact a
relative who might be able to help you with your
project, or send your homework to your teacher, an
electronic mail system can quickly get your message
on its way. Before sending an e-mail message,
Developing Multimedia remember to check it carefully for both spelling
Presentations and grammar. Make sure you have correctly entered
the e-mail address. If you receive frequent e-mail
A multimedia presentation can make your informa-
messages, keep them organized. Delete messages
tion come alive for your audience. You might
you no longer need, and save others in folders.
integrate visuals, such as posters, charts, slides, or
photographs, with sound. Or you might produce a
video and represent information from an Internet Instant Practice
site. Software programs, such as PowerPoint™ and Using E-mail
HyperStudio™ can help you create your multimedia Find a short, interesting article in the newspaper, in a
presentation. Consider what medium will best com- magazine, or an interesting portion of a book you are
municate the information you want to share. reading. Key the information into your computer,
Whatever your choices, make sure you know how to and e-mail it to friends, relatives, and/or teachers you
use the equipment. Practise your presentation several think might be interested. Ask for their comments.
times and ask for feedback from friends or family.

Using an Electronic Spreadsheet a form of compact disc that stores information as
well as sounds and videos. Encyclopedias, atlases,
Electronic spreadsheets can be used to keep track
and other valuable references are available as
of, and make calculations with, scientific data.
CD-ROMs. Some science CD-ROMs include
Information is entered in both rows and columns.
interactive tutorials so that you can learn about
Calculations can be made with any combination of
volcanoes by watching them explode, or discover
numbers. For instance, you might enter the time
deep sea vents by viewing them in action. Be sure to
and distance various fluids travelled in an investiga-
include a reference to the CD-ROM in your bibli-
tion. To calculate the speed of each, you could enter
ography if you are preparing a research project.
the formula speed = distance ÷ time. Once the cal-
culations are complete, the results can be graphed.
Spreadsheets speed calculations when the volume Instant Practice
of numbers is large or when a calculation requires Using a CD-ROM
multiple steps. This form of entering data gives a 1. Use an encyclopaedia CD-ROM to find a map
quick way to modify a body of numbers and receive of North America, or a continent in which you
a calculation when time is a critical factor in finding are interested. Print a copy of the map.
a solution.
2. Return to the CD-ROM and search for over-
lays that demonstrate the population density
Instant Practice and average yearly precipitation for that conti-
Each astronaut is allotted a maximum mass of per- nent. Use a different colour to sketch each on
sonal items that may be taken on a flight into outer your map.
space. The flight commander (your teacher) will be
announcing at the last minute the limit for the 3. Investigate the range of an animal of your
flight on which you are booked. It will be up to you choosing that is native to that continent or a
to select what you will take when the limit is biome, and add that data to your map with
announced. Using a scale, determine the mass of cross-hatching or a third colour.
personal items that you and/or your classmates are
carrying. List each item under columns that include
the name, mass, quantity selected, and mass subtotal
Using the Internet
of the item. Then, under the mass subtotal column The Internet can be an invaluable research tool for
insert a function that will calculate the sum of all homework, investigations, and research projects.
the masses selected. You can find sites that offer virtual tours of muse-
ums and the very latest information about a subject
— sometimes just a few hours old! However, you
can also find incorrect and outdated information.
Always be sure to verify the origin of the site and
check your facts with several sources. Take a few
minutes to think about key words before you begin
your search. Make a list of several possibilities for
key words. Limit your search with terms such as
“and,” “or,” and “not.” If you place an “and”
between two words in your search, the database will
look for any entries that have both the words. If you
place an “or” between the two words, the database
will show entries that have at least one of the words.
If you place a “not” between two words, the data-
base will look for entries that have the first word
but do not have the second word.
Using a CD-ROM Always record the information that identifies any
When you are researching information for a material you use. You will need to let your audience
science project or just wanting to know more about know where you obtained your information, and
a topic, consider using a CD-ROM. A CD-ROM is

you may need to go back to it. Make sure that non-electronic methods. Measurements such as
you record temperature, pressure, motion, and pH can be taken
• the author’s name (or the name of the group that by a probe hooked to the computer. Once all the
provided the information) measurements have been collected, the probeware
• the name of the resource can be used to graph and analyze the data. When
using probes, be sure all cables are solidly connect-
• the name of the publisher or information source
ed. Consider doing many trials in your investigation
• the city where the resource was published so that your data are strengthened.
• the publishing date
• the URL, if the information is from an Internet site Instant Practice
™ 9: Using Probeware
EFOCUS 1. Use probeware to determine how long hot tap
a l. S CIENC water takes to cool in a glass versus a metal
et
q ueline . container of equal volume.
a r t in, J a c
y , S o ciety
M log
e chno d, 2. Determine the pH of runoff water from soil or
Scien
c e , T
s o n Limite a potted plant.
ye r
r a w -Hill R 3. Using photo gates, measure
McG .
n t o , 2002 the time it takes for an object
Toro to fall one metre. For greater
accuracy, repeat the experiment
several times and average
At the end of every research project, record each source of the times.
information you used. Here is an example of the proper way
to list a source in a bibliography. List your sources by
author’s last name, in alphabetical order.
Most of this information can be found on the copy-
right page at the beginning of a book. The URL
can be found in the address bar at the top of an
Internet page. (Some URLs are very long and
complex. Get a partner’s help to make sure that you
have copied the URL correctly.) www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/
Above is an example of how to cite your source. sciencefocus9
(NOTE: et al. means “and others.”) You have looked at animal adaptations, and the
photographs here show some plant adaptations. Find
Instant Practice out about the special adaptations of cacti for their dry
Using the Internet environments by going to the web site above. Go to
the web site above, and click on Web Links to
1. Use an Internet search engine to locate
find out where to go next. Write and
information on the population of Alberta.
sketch your findings.
2. Narrow your search to determine the
population for your city or town.
This recurring feature in SCIENCEFOCUS™ 9 will take you to
interesting web sites.
Using Probeware
Some scientific investigations involve taking
measurements over a long period of time. The task
of collecting and storing the data is made easier by
using probeware. In many cases, the probeware pro-
vides more accurate quantitative measurements than

10
ORGANIZING AND COMMUNICATING

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS
In your investigations, you will collect information,
For example, if you enter the approximate size — up
often in numerical form. To analyze and report the to 300 m — and speed — 108 000 km/h — of YB5, the
information, you will need a clear, concise way to calculator informs you that if the asteroid was largely
organize the data. You may choose to organize the rock, it would make a crater five kilometres across and
half a kilometre deep. Upon impact, it would release the
data in the form of a table, line graph, bar graph, or energy equivalent of 3 764 megatons of TNT, a figure
circle graph. roughly equal to the explosion of a third of all of the
world's nuclear weapons at once.
If the impact's energy release was translated into an
Making a Table earthquake scale, it would be a Magnitude 8 — with the
largest quake ever recorded measuring a 9.6. A collision
A data table is usually a good way to start organiz- that size would probably occur only once in every
ing information. The table may be the final form in 28 000 years.
which you present the data or you may use it to Surprisingly, lesser-sized asteroids can cause consider-
able damage as well. If you calculate the devastation from
help construct a graph or a diagram. an asteroid that is less than a third of the size of YB5 it
can create an impact crater almost two kilometres wide in
Example an explosion equivalent to sixty megatonnes of TNT.
That earth-shaking hit is similar to the San Francisco
Read the article below, then examine Table 1. What earthquake caused by movement of Earth's crust in 1906.
information do the article and table The frequency of these lesser asteroids colliding is
approximately one every 4 400 years.
present? Which one makes the data easier
Much smaller rocks from space, only about two metres
to analyze? in diameter, can make an impression about thirty five
metres wide. The fact that they are striking the Earth at
such great speeds allows such small pebbles to produce
Noooo!!! Kabooooom!!! Silence. enough energy to match the use of 500 tonnes of TNT —
The above are the sounds of what did not happen on not unlike the Canadian explosion of 1964 called
January 7, 2002 when a smallish asteroid passed near, in “Snowball” that was the largest chemical explosion
astronomical terms, to Earth. recorded. These very small asteroids are also very numer-
For example, the nearness of Monday's near-miss ous; therefore we can expect one on average every 4 years.
was extremely relative. Part of what probably caught the All of which raises the larger question of how many
attention of reporters was that Asteroid 2001 YB5 was collisions are likely to occur any time soon.
described as missing Earth by an apparently minuscule
0.0056 Astronomical Units. But an AU is the average Source: The Globe and Mail, Saturday, January 12, 2002, page F7.
distance of Earth to the Sun, or 149 597 871 km.
Size has a huge effect when scientists try to compute
what will happen to the surface of our planet when rogue
rocks actually strike the Earth.
Anyone with access to the Internet can check the Look through your textbook to find some examples
effect by using the Solar Systems Collisions Calculator — of data tables. Note why you think the information
http://janus.astro.umd.edu/astro/impact.html — created
by University of Maryland astronomer Doug Hamilton. is presented in a table.
Table 1 Force of Space Debris Impact Craters on Earth compared to Historical Events
Projectile diameter 2 m 6m 90 m 155 m 350 m

Crater diameter 35 m 120 m 1.8 km 3.1 km 6.9 km
Energy (= TNT) 500 t 20000 t 60 MT 310 MT 3600 MT
Average frequency 4 years 35 years 4400 years 12000 years 51000 years
Comparable Minimum Atomic bomb San Francisco Mount St. Helens, Largest recorded
terrestrial event earthquake explosion earthquake, Washington earthquake, Chile,
(M5), largest Hiroshima Japan, 1906 (M8.4), eruption, 1981 1960 (M9.6).
chemical explosion 1945. largest hydrogen (total energy
"Snowball," Canada, bomb detonation. including thermal).
1964.

Instant Practice of fertilizer to each and charting the width of leaf
1. Organize the following data into a table. In the growth for a reasonable period of time. Assume that
table, include a column that gives the greatest you obtained the data shown in the table below.
temperature range in each province and territory. Table 2 Amount of Fertilizer Used to Promote Violet Growth
The following temperatures are the warmest Number of drops Width of leaf
ever recorded in Canada to date: of fertilizer growth (mm)
Newfoundland, 41.7ºC; Prince Edward Island,
1 0.7
36.7ºC; New Brunswick, 39.4ºC; Nova Scotia,
38.3ºC; Québec, 40.0°C; Ontario, 42.2ºC; 2 2.0
Manitoba, 44.4ºC; Saskatchewan, 45.0ºC; 3 3.1
Alberta, 43.3ºC; British Columbia, 44.4ºC; 4 4.0
Yukon Territory, 36.1ºC; Northwest Territories,
39.4ºC; Nunavut, 33.9ºC. 5 4.7
6 5.0
The following temperatures are the coldest
ever recorded in Canada: Newfoundland, 7 4.9
–51.1ºC; Prince Edward Island, –37.2ºC; New 8 4.6
Brunswick, –47.2ºC; Nova Scotia, –41.1ºC;
9 4.2
Québec, –54.4ºC; Ontario, –58.3ºC; Manitoba,
–52.8ºC; Saskatchewan, –56.7ºC; Alberta, 10 3.5
–61.1ºC; British Columbia, –58.9ºC; Yukon
Territory, –63.0ºC; Northwest Territories, Instant Practice
–57.2ºC; Nunavut, –57.8ºC. 1. With a ruler, draw an x-axis and a y-axis on a
2. Why would some of the data in this table be piece of graph paper. (The horizontal line is the
different after February 5, 2002? x-axis, and the vertical line is the y-axis.)
2. To label the axes, write “Number of drops of
fertilizer” along the x-axis and “Width of leaf
Graphing
growth” along the y-axis.
A graph is the most visual way to present data.
A graph can help you to see patterns and rela- 3. Now you have to decide what scale to use. You
are working with two numbers (number of
tionships among the data. The type of graph you
drops of fertilizer, and width of leaf growth).
choose depends on the type of data you have and
The scale on the x-axis will go from 0 to 10.
how you want to present it. Throughout the year,
You might anticipate that the greatest growth
you will be using line graphs, bar graphs, and cir- will be 5 mm. Mark the scale on the y-axis from
cle graphs (pie charts). 0 to 5. Use a “tick mark” at major intervals on
your scale, as shown in the graph below.
Drawing a Line Graph
A line graph is used to show the relationship
between two variables. The following example
Leaf growth (mm)
will demonstrate how to draw a line graph from 5

a data table. 4
3
Example
2
Suppose you are growing a large number of African
violet tropical plants to sell for a local charity. This 1
variety is new to you, so in order to determine the
ideal amount of liquid fertilizer to use you decide to 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
experiment on ten plants, adding a different amount Number of drops of fertilizer

4. On the x-axis, you want to make sure you will Instant Practice
be able to read your graph when it is complete, The data in Table 3 give the speed of a ball every
so make sure your intervals are large enough. second after it was thrown straight upward with an
5. To plot your graph, gently move a pencil up the initial speed of 49 m/s. Make a graph of the
y-axis until you reach a point just below 0.7 speed of the ball with time. Use your graph to esti-
(you are representing 0.7 mm of leaf growth). mate the speed of the ball after 3.5 s.
Now move along the line on the graph paper
Table 3 Speed of Ball Thrown Upward
until you reach the vertical line that represents
the first number of drops. Place a dot at this Time (s) Speed (m/s)
point (1 drop of fertilizer, 0.7 mm of leaf growth). 0.0 49.0
Repeat this process until you have plotted all of
1.0 39.2
the data for the various numbers of drops. Now,
draw a line from one dot to the next. 2.0 29.4
6. If it is possible, draw a line that connects all of 3.0 19.6

the points on your graph. This might not be 4.0 9.80
possible. Scientific investigations most often 5.0 0.00
involve quantities that change smoothly. On a
graph, this means that you should draw a
smooth curve (or straight line) that has the gen-
eral shape outlined by the points. This is called
a line of best fit. Such a “best fit” line often Constructing a Bar Graph
passes through many of the points, but some- Bar graphs are most useful when you have numerical
times it goes between them. Think of the dots values associated with categories of places or things.
on your graph as “clues” about where the per- In the following example, the categories are the
fect smooth curve (or straight line) should go. world’s continents.
A line of best fit shows the trend of the data. It
can be extended beyond the first and last points Example
to indicate what might happen. Table 4 on page 476 provides the data for the bar
graph shown on its right, showing the land areas of
7. Give your graph a title. Based on these data,
the world’s continents. To learn how the bar graph
what is the range in the number of drops of
was prepared, read the following steps and compare
fertilizer that will produce leaf growth greater
them to the graph.
than 4.5 mm width?
1. Draw your x-axis and y-axis on a sheet of graph
paper. Label the x-axis “Continents” and the
y-axis “Land area.” Remember to include units.
2. Select an appropriate scale. Write the numerical
values to show the scale on your y-axis. For
example, the number 10 represents:
10 000 000 km2.
3. Decide on a width for the bars that will make
the graph easy to read. Leave the same amount
of space between each bar.
4. To draw the bar representing Africa, move
along the x-axis the width of your first bar, then
go up the y-axis just above 30 to represent 30.3.
Use a pencil and a ruler to draw in the first bar
lightly. Repeat the procedure for the other
continents.

Table 4
Land area (millions of 50
Continent square kilometers)
Land Area (in millions of km2)

Africa 30.3 40
Antarctica 13.2
Asia 44.5 30
Europe 10.5
20
Oceania 7.8
North and Central America 24.2
10
South America 17.8
0
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Europe
Oceania
North and
Central America
South America
5. When you have drawn all the bars, you might
wish to colour them so that each one stands
out. If you do decide to use different colours,
you may need to make a legend or a key to
explain the meaning of the colours. Give your
graph a title. Continents
Instant Practice
Make a bar graph showing the greatest temperature
range recorded for each province and territory. Use
the data table that you prepared in the Instant
Practice for making data tables (page 474).
Constructing a Histogram Average Monthly Precipitation

How does a histogram, such as the one shown on In Vancouver, B.C.
the right, differ from a bar graph? You probably 250
noticed that there is no space between the bars.
The reason for placing the bars in contact with
200
each other is that the x-axis represents a continuous
Precipitation (mm)
quantity. In this histogram, the continuous quan-

tity is time and each group is one month. The 150
total of the data is represented by the height of a
bar. In this case, the heights of the bars represent
the total precipitation during each month. The 100
procedure for constructing a histogram is the
same as the procedure for making a bar graph.
50
0
The x-axis in this histogram represents time, which is a
Jan.
Feb.
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
continuous variable. The precipitation data have been grouped

by the month.

Instant Practice
The following data represent the masses, in grams,
of 30 mature laboratory rats that have been fed a
special test diet. Make a histogram to display the
masses of the rats. Use mass groupings of 100 g for
the bars along the x-axis. Choose an appropriate Type A
scale on the y-axis for the number of rats in each
mass group. Type B
756, 677, 811, 472, 591, 744, 714, 891, 903, 623,
767, 819, 922, 717, 858, 727, 512, 907, 537, 735,
681, 913, 836, 654, 789, 827, 638, 701, 873, 750 e AB
Typ
Constructing a Circle Graph Type O

Circle graphs are an excellent way to communicate
categories in terms of percentages of a whole.
Example
To learn how to construct a circle graph, follow the
steps below while examining the circle graph show- 3. Draw a straight line from the centre to the
ing the percentage of each blood type in the North edge of the circle. Place a protractor on this
American population. line and use it to mark a point on the edge of
the circle at 137°. Connect the point to the
Table 5 Blood Types in North America
centre of the circle. This is the “piece” that
Percentage Degrees (°) in represents the portion of the population having
Blood type of total “piece of pie” type A blood.
A 38 137 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the remaining
B 14 51 blood types.
AB 4 14
O 44 158 Instant Practice
Make a circle graph using the following data on the
1. Make a large circle on a piece of paper and put elements in the human body: hydrogen (H), 63.1%;
a dot in the centre. oxygen (O), 25.4%; carbon (C), 9.4%; nitrogen (N),
2. To determine the number of degrees in each 1.4%; calcium (Ca), 0.3%; phosphorus (P), 0.2%;
“piece of the pie” that represents each section, other, 0.2%.
use the following formula:
Degrees for Percentage of total
= × 360°
“piece of pie” 100%
Round your answer to the nearest whole number.

For example, the degrees in the section represent-
ing blood type A are:
38%
Degrees for type A = × 360° = 137°
100%

Graphing on a Computer 5. Errors can be corrected much more easily when
working with a computer. Just change the
Computers are a great tool for graph preparation
incorrect number and print again. Imagine the
for the following reasons:
time and effort involved if you had to redo your
1. Data need only be entered once. As many
graph by hand.
graphs as you need can then be prepared
without any more data entry. 6. Computer graphs can be easily inserted into
written lab reports, magazine articles, or
2. Once the data are entered, you can get the
Internet pages. It is possible to scan hand-
computer to manipulate them. You can change
drawn graphs into a computer, but it isn’t easy
the scale, zoom in on important parts of the
to do it well, and the resulting files are very
graph, graph different parts of the data in dif-
large.
ferent ways, and so on — all without doing any
calculations! 7. Once data have been entered into a computer,
the computer can determine a “best-fit” line
3. Computers prepare graphs far more quickly
and a mathematical equation that describes the
than people working carefully.
line. This helps scientists to discover patterns in
4. Computers can be hooked up to sensors (ther- their data and make predictions to test their
mometers, timers, and such) so you don’t need inferences in a very precise manner.
to read instruments and enter data by hand,
with all the resulting possibilities for error. The
computer can display the readings on a graph as Instant Practice
data are collected (in “real” time) so you can Using probeware, measure the change of tempera-
quickly get a picture of how your experiment ture as 10 mL of crushed ice melts into water. Have
is going. the computer produce a table and line graph with a
best fit curve. For best results, stir the mixture con-
tinuously from the start of the melting process.

11
SCIENTIFIC AND 4. Draw only what you see, and keep your draw-
ing simple. Do not try to indicate parts of the
TECHNOLOGICAL object that are not visible from the angle you
observed. If you think it is important to show
DRAWING another part of the object, do a second drawing,
and indicate the angle from which each drawing
is viewed.
A clear, concise drawing can often illustrate or replace
5. Shading or colouring is not usually used in sci-
words in a scientific explanation. In science, drawings
entific drawings. If you want to indicate a
are especially important when you are trying to
darker area, you can use stippling (a series of
explain difficult concepts or describe something that
dots). You can use double lines to indicate thick
contains a lot of detail. It is important to make scien-
parts of the object.
tific drawings clear, neat, and accurate.
6. If you do use colour, try to be as accurate as
Making a Scientific Drawing you can and choose colours that are as close as
possible to the colours in the object you are
Follow these steps to make a good scientific drawing.
observing.
1. Use unlined paper and a sharp pencil with an
eraser. 7. Label your drawing carefully and completely,
using lower-case (small) letters. Pretend you
2. Give yourself plenty of space on the paper. You
know nothing about the object you have just
need to make sure that your drawing will be
observed, and think about what you would need
large enough to show all necessary details. You
to know if you were looking at it for the first
also need to allow space for labels. Labels identify
time. Remember to place your labels to the
parts of the object you are drawing. Place all of
right of the drawing, if possible. Use a ruler to
your labels to the right of your drawing, unless
draw a horizontal line from the label to the part
there are so many labels that your drawing
you are identifying. Make sure that none of
looks cluttered.
your label lines cross.
3. Carefully study the objects that you will be
drawing. Make sure you know what you need
to include.
Front and side view of a “C” clamp
frame
fixed jaw
movable jaw frame
swivel head
adjusting screw throat
handle
front view side view

8. Give your drawing a title. Note: The drawing Instant Practice
of an amoeba shown here is from a Grade 9 1. Make a drawing of an object in your classroom
student’s notebook. The student used stippling and use stippling as a way of indicating that it
to show darker areas, horizontal labels for the has three dimensions.
cell parts viewed, and a title — all elements of
an excellent final drawing. 2. Draw a spoon in front view and back view.
Show how you can use stippling to give the
impression of the concave and convex surfaces
of the bowl of the spoon.
3. Select any mechanical system in your classroom
or at home; for example, the brakes or the gears
of a bicycle. Show two different views of the
system that would help someone else under-
stand how the system works.
The stippling on this drawing of an amoeba as observed under a

microscope shows that some areas are darker than others.

12
USING MODELS IN SCIENCE

In science, a model is anything that helps you to
better understand a scientific concept. A model can
be a picture, a mental image, a structure, or even a
E = mc 2
mathematical expression. Sometimes you need a
This equation is one of the most famous mathe-
model because the objects you are studying are too
matical models in all of science. It is part of
small to see or too large to envision. Sometimes
Einstein’s theory of relativity. The theory pro-
they are hidden from view, like the interior of Earth
poses that matter can be converted into energy.
or the inside of a living organism.
The equation allows you to calculate the
Scientists use models to help them communicate
amount of energy, E, that is produced when an
their ideas to other scientists and/or to students.
amount of matter, m, is annihilated (made to
They also use models to test an idea and to find out
disappear) and converted into energy. The c in
if it can work. Models help scientists plan new
the equation is the speed of light. Einstein’s
experiments in order to learn more about the sub-
equation has been tested extensively and has
ject they are studying. Sometimes, when scientists
never been shown to be incorrect.
learn more, they have to modify their models.
Examples
An atom is too small to see, even with the most powerful 1913
microscope. Scientists have used a variety of techniques to
learn about the atom. Bohr’s atomic model, shown here,
helped scientists describe what they had learned about
the atom.
oceanic
crust
continental
crust
lithosphere lithosphere
Scientists have used many techniques to probe Earth’s

upper mantle internal structure. They have been able to create this
asthenosphere model by combining results from many experiments
and observations.

Instant Practice 6. Loop the string around both thumbtacks.
Early astronomers believed that the paths, or orbits, 7. Put the tip of the pencil in the loop and pull
travelled by planets were circles. However, many the string taut, as shown in the diagram.
astronomical observations could not be explained by
supposing that orbits were circular. In order to loop of string
explain these observations, the famous astronomer pencil
Johannes Kepler reasoned that the orbits were
ellipses. With this knowledge, you can construct a
model that simulates the planetary orbits. Start by
constructing a circle and then use a similar method
to construct ellipses. tacks
You will need two thumbtacks, a 25 cm length of
string, pencil, paper, ruler, and cardboard. If possi- 8. Move the pencil all the way around the thumb-
ble, use a cork board under your cardboard. Carry tacks, keeping the string taut.
out the following steps. You have just drawn an ellipse. Any closed,
1. Tie the ends of the string together to form a smooth curve drawn in this manner is an
loop. ellipse. To accurately model Earth’s orbit, the
two thumbtacks would have to be very close
2. Place a blank sheet of paper on the cardboard.
together. To model the orbit of a comet, the
Insert a thumbtack near the centre of the paper.
thumbtacks would have to be very far apart.
3. Loop the string around the thumbtack. If you (Earth’s orbit is only slightly elliptical. The
have a cork board, push the thumbtack into the orbit of a comet is much more elliptical.)
cork. If you do not have a cork board, have a
9. Use what you have just learned to construct a
partner hold the thumbtacks steady.
model of Earth’s orbit.
4. Put the tip of the pencil in the loop and pull it
10. Use the information above to construct a model
taut. Move the pencil around the thumbtack,
of a comet’s orbit.
keeping the string taut, until you have drawn a
perfect circle.
5. Place a second thumbtack about 5 cm from the
first one.
orbit of Pluto
orbit of Venus
orbit of Neptune
orbit of Earth
orbit of Mercury
orbit of Uranus orbit of Saturn
orbit of Jupiter orbit of Mars
The orbits of the planets around the Sun are elliptical (drawing is not to scale).

13
USING A MICROSCOPE
Part 1 Parts of a Microscope microscope, you need to know the parts of a micro-
scope and their functions. Do the Instant Practice
The light microscope is an optical instrument that
below to familiarize yourself with your microscope.
greatly increases our powers of observation by mag-
nifying objects that are usually too small to be seen
with the unaided eye. The microscope you will use Instant Practice
is called a compound light microscope because it 1. Study the photograph of the compound light
uses a series of lenses (rather than only one as in a microscope. Learn the names and functions of
magnifying glass) and it uses light to view the the parts of the microscope.
object. A microscope is a delicate instrument, so
2. Before you go any further, close your book and
proper procedure and care must be practised. This
draw and label as many parts of a microscope as
Skillfocus reviews the skills that you will need to use
you can.
a microscope effectively. Before you use your
3. Explain to a classmate the function of each part.
A. Eyepiece (or ocular lens)

You look through this part. It has a lens
that magnifies the object, usually by
10 times (10). The magnifying power
B. Tube F. Coarse-adjustment
Holds the eyepiece and the is engraved on the side of the eyepiece.
knob
objective lenses at the proper Moves the tube up and down
working distance from each A to bring the object into focus.
other.
Use it only with the low-
C. Revolving nosepiece power objective lens.
Rotating disk holds two or
more objective lenses. Turn it G. Fine-adjustment knob
to change lenses. Each lens B Use with medium- and high-
clicks into place. F power magnification to bring
the object into sharper focus.
D. Objective lenses G
Magnify the object. Each lens H. Stage
C
has a different power of mag- Supports the microscope
E
nification, such as 4, 10, slide. Stage clips hold the slide
40. (Your microscope may D in position. An opening in the
instead have 10, 40, and centre of the stage allows light
H
100 objective lenses). For from the light source to pass
convenience, the objective J through the slide.
lenses are referred to as low, I. Condenser lens
I
medium, and high power. The Directs light to the object
magnifying power is engraved K being viewed.
on the side of each objective
lens. Be sure you can identify J. Diaphragm
each lens. Controls the amount of
K. Light source light reaching the object
E. Arm Shining a light through the object being being viewed.
Connects the base and the
viewed makes it easier to see the details.
tube. Use the arm for carrying
Your microscope might have a mirror
the microscope.
instead of a light. If it does, it must be
adjusted to direct the light source through
the lenses. CAUTION: Use an electric light,
not sunlight, as the light source for
focussing your mirror.

Part 2 Now, practise!
You are now ready to practise proper use of your
microscope to view an object. In this activity, you
will also practise calculating magnification and the
field of view — the size of the area that can be seen
using your microscope. By doing these calculations,
you will be able to estimate the actual size of the
objects you have magnified using the microscope.
What You Need

microscope, lens paper, prepared microscope slide,
plastic ruler
Safety Precautions
• Be sure your hands are dry when you plug in or

disconnect the cord of the microscope.
• Handle microscope slides carefully so that they do
not break or cause cuts or scratches. When you rotate the nosepiece on a microscope, watch from
the side to make sure the objective lenses do not hit the slide.
The medium- and high-power objective lenses are long
What to Do enough to touch the slide if they are lowered too much.
Therefore, only the fine-adjustment knob is used when
1. Obtain a microscope and carry it to your work
observing specimens under these lenses.
area. Use both hands to carry the microscope
upright and support it properly. One hand
3. Place a prepared slide on the stage. Make sure
should hold the arm of the microscope firmly
the object to be viewed is centred over the
and the other should support the base.
opening.
(a) Do not turn any knobs until you have read
(a) Look through the eyepiece and slowly turn
through the rest of this procedure.
the coarse-adjustment knob until the object
(b) If the microscope has an electric cord for is in focus.
the light source, make sure the cord is
(b) Use the fine-adjustment knob to sharpen
properly connected and plugged in.
the focus.
(c) Use lens paper to clean the lenses and the
4. View the object under higher magnification.
light source (or mirror). Do not touch the
CAUTION: Do not use the coarse-adjustment
lenses with your fingers.
knob with the medium- or high-power objec-
2. The microscope should always be left with the tive lens.
low-power objective lens in position. If it is not,
rotate the revolving nosepiece until the low- (a) Watch from the side and rotate the revolv-
power objective lens clicks into place, as shown ing nosepiece to the medium-power
in the photograph. objective lens. Do not change the focus first.
(b) After the medium-power objective lens has
(a) Use the coarse-adjustment knob to lower
clicked into place, adjust the focus using
the objective lens until the lens is about
only the fine-adjustment knob.
1 cm above the stage.
(c) Next, the object may be viewed under the
(b) Look through the eyepiece (ocular lens) and
high-power objective lens. Rotate the nose-
adjust the diaphragm until the view is as
piece (while watching from the side) until it
bright as you can get it.
clicks into place. Focus only with the fine-
adjustment knob.

(d) When you have finished viewing the object, Troubleshooting
remove the slide and return it to the proper You may encounter difficulties when using your micro-
container before proceeding to step 5. scope. The following list details the more common
(e) If you do not continue to step 5, carefully problems and how you can deal with them.
unplug the microscope, click the low-power • You cannot see anything. Make sure the microscope is
objective lens in place, and return the plugged in and the light is on. If the microscope has no
microscope to its storage area. light, adjust your mirror.
5. To calculate the total magnification of the • Are you having trouble finding anything on the slide?
object on your slide, multiply the number on Be patient. Follow all of the steps outlined in this pro-
the eyepiece by the number on the objective cedure from the beginning and make sure the object
lens. For example, a 10 eyepiece and a 4 being viewed is in the middle of the stage opening.
objective lens give a total magnification of 40. While watching from the side, lower the low-power
6. You are now ready to calculate the size of the objective as far as it will go. Then look through the
field of view. Set your microscope to the low- ocular lens and slowly raise the objective lens using
power objective and place a clear plastic ruler the coarse-adjustment knob.
on the stage. • Are you having trouble focussing, or is the image very
7. Focus on the ruler faint? Try closing the diaphragm slightly. Some objects
and position it so that you will examine are almost transparent. If there is
that one of the too much light, a specimen may be difficult to see or will
centimetre mark- appear “washed out.”
ings is at the left • Do you see lines and specks floating across the slide?
edge of the field These are probably structures in the fluid of your eyeball
of view. that you see when you move your eyes. Do not worry;
this is normal.
The diameter of the field of view • Do you see a double image? Check that the objective
under low power illustrated here lens is properly clicked into place.
is 2.5 mm. • Do you close one eye while you look through the micro-
scope with the other eye? You might try keeping both
8. Measure and record the diameter of the field of eyes open. This will help prevent eye fatigue. It also lets
view in millimetres (mm). If the field of view is you sketch an object while you are looking at it.
2.5 mm in diameter, then an object that occu- • Always place the part of the slide you are interested in at
pies about half the field of view would be about the centre of the field of view before changing to a high-
1.25 mm in diameter. er-power objective lens. When you turn to medium and
9. Millimetre markings are too far apart to permit high power, you otherwise may not see the object you
direct measurement of the field of view for were viewing under low power. Why not?
lenses with magnifications higher than 10.
However, if you know the diameter of the field
of view for the low-power lens, you can calcu-
late the field of view for the other lenses.
Before doing so, unplug the microscope by
pulling out the plug. CAUTION: Never tug
on the electrical cord to unplug it. Use the
following formula to calculate the field of view
for the medium-power objective lens:
Magnification of low-power objective lens
Medium-power field of view Low-power field of view
Magnification of medium-power objective lens

If, for example, your low-power objective lens is a This means that it should take up the same pro-
4 lens with a field of view of 4 mm, and your portion of space on the circle as it does in the
medium-power objective lens is a 10 lens, then the field of view.
field of view for the medium-power lens would be:
6. Label your drawing.
4
Medium-power field of view = 4 mm
10 7. Estimate the size of the object in your drawing.
= 4 mm 0.4
= 1.6 mm
Do a similar calculation to determine your high- Part 3 Preparing A Wet Mount
power field of view. Record the value. Now that you have learned how to use a micro-
scope properly, you are ready to prepare and view
Instant Practice slides of your own, using a variety of materials.
A scale drawing is a drawing in which you keep con-
stant the proportions of what you see through the What You Need
microscope. This is important because it allows you microscope, microscope slides, cover slips, medicine
dropper, tweezers
to compare the sizes of different objects and helps small piece of newspaper, tap water, other samples,
you form an idea of the actual size of an object. lens paper
Also, a scale drawing makes it easier to explain what
you see to someone else. Do the following to make a
scale drawing.
Safety Precautions
1. Draw a circle (the size does not matter) in your
notebook. The circle represents the micro-
scope’s field of view. • Be careful when using sharp objects such as
tweezers.
2. Imagine that the circle is divided into four
• Handle microscope slides and cover slips carefully
equal sections (see the diagram below). Use a so that they do not break and cause cuts or
pencil and a ruler to draw these sections in your scratches.
circle, as shown below.
drawing made to scale What to Do

1. To prepare a wet mount, begin with a clean
slide and cover slip. Wash the slide and cover
slip with water and dry them carefully with lens
paper. CAUTION: The cover slip is very thin.
= It is safest to dry both of its surfaces at the same
time by holding the lens paper between your
thumb and forefinger. Once cleaned, hold the
slide and cover slip by their edges to avoid get-
microscope's ting fingerprints on their surfaces.
field of view
2. Tear out a small piece of newspaper containing
3. Using low or medium power, locate a sample a single letter. Use an e, f, g, s, or h. Pick up the
from the prepared slide that interests you. letter with the tweezers and place it in the cen-
Imagine that the field of view is also divided tre of the slide.
into four equal sections.
4. Note in what part of the field of view the object
lies and how much of the field of view the
object occupies.
5. Draw the object in the circle. Position it so that
it is in the same part of the circle as it appears
in the field of view. Draw the object to scale.

3. Use the medicine dropper to place a very small 6. View the letter under the medium-power objec-
drop of tap water on the newspaper sample. tive lens. Remember to observe from the side
Then, hold a cover slip gently by its edges and while you rotate the nosepiece into position.
place it at an angle of 45º on the surface of the Use only the fine-adjustment knob to focus.
slide near the edge of the newspaper sample.
7. Examine the letter and note that it is made up
of many small dots. To reveal the structure of
small objects, the microscope must do more
than magnify. It must also reveal detail. The
capacity to distinguish detail is called resolu-
tion, and the measure of resolution is known as
resolving power. The resolving power of a
microscope is defined as the minimum distance
two objects can be apart and still be seen as
separate objects.
Instant Practice
1. Before rotating the nosepiece to a higher mag-
nification, it is best to have the object you are
examining at the centre of the field of view.
4. Slowly and carefully lower the cover slip over Why?
the sample. Make sure there are no air bubbles
trapped underneath the cover slip. This type of 2. To view a letter torn out of a newspaper (such
sample preparation is called a wet mount. as e) through the microscope the right way up,
how would you position the slide on the stage?
3. The letters in a newspaper are composed of
numerous small dots. How do you think news-
papers produce colour photographs? Prepare a
wet mount using a piece of a colour print from
a newspaper and find out how the colour print
is composed.
4. Prepare and examine microscope slides of dif-
ferent samples of materials, such as strands of
hair, cotton, Velcro™, and grains of salt or
sand. Obtain your teacher’s approval of the
5. Set your microscope on the low-power objec- material you select.
tive lens. Place the slide on the microscope
stage and centre the sample over the opening Troubleshooting
in the stage. • Do you see round or oval shapes on the slide? These
(a) Look through the eyepiece and move the are likely to be air bubbles. Move the cover slip gently
slide until you can see the letter. Adjust the with your finger to get rid of them, or study another
coarse-adjustment knob until the letter is in area of the slide.
focus. • Do you see a straight line? This could be the edge of
(b) Move the slide until you can see the torn your cover slip.
edge of the newspaper. Slowly turn the
fine-adjustment knob about one-eighth turn
either way. Do you see the whole view in
sharp focus at one time?

14
CONNECTING AND READING

AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS
Meters in a Circuit ammeter
An ammeter is an instrument used to A
switch
measure the electric current flowing
through a component (for example, a ammeter battery light bulb
light bulb) in a circuit. A voltmeter is switch 0
an instrument used to measure the A

– +
electric potential difference between
two points in a circuit (for example, V
across a light bulb or across a bat- –
+ light bulb voltmeter voltmeter
tery). Figure 1 shows a simple circuit 0
containing a battery, a switch, a light

bulb, an ammeter to measure the source
current flowing through the light (battery)
bulb, and a voltmeter to measure the
Figure 1 To measure the current flowing through the light bulb,
potential difference across it. the ammeter must be connected in series with the light bulb. To
measure the potential difference across the light bulb, the voltmeter
Polarity of the Meters must be connected in parallel with the light bulb.
Both ammeters and voltmeters have two terminals
that must be connected to the circuit. The negative Connecting an Ammeter
terminal (–) is black and the positive terminal (+) is Because electric current is measured at a point, all
red. The electrons must enter any meter at the neg- of the current must pass through the ammeter at
ative terminal and exit from the positive terminal to that point. When connecting an ammeter to a cir-
prevent damage to the meter. Since electrons leave cuit, open the circuit by disconnecting a wire at the
the negative terminal of the source, the negative point at which you wish to measure the current.
terminal of a meter must be connected to the nega- Then connect the ammeter so that the electrons
tive terminal of the source. As well, the positive will enter at the negative terminal and leave at the
terminal of a meter must be connected to the posi- positive terminal. You will usually need one addi-
tive terminal of the source. However, there may be tional connecting wire to connect an ammeter to a
other circuit elements between the source and the circuit. Figure 2 shows a circuit that has been dis-
meter. If you trace the connecting wires in Figure 1 connected and an ammeter that is about to be
you will see that they are connected correctly. added to the circuit in series with the light bulb.
ammeter
switch 0
A
– +
connect additional
wire
disconnect
–
+ light bulb
connect
Figure 2 Connecting an ammeter to a circuit. source

(battery)

Connecting a Voltmeter
Because potential difference is mea-
sured between two points in a switch
circuit, the terminals of the volt-
meter must be connected at these
two points. You do not need to open
a circuit to connect a voltmeter. light bulb
Using two additional wires, connect
the terminals of the voltmeter on –
opposite sides of the component

+
connect connect
voltmeter
across which you want to measure
the potential difference. Be sure that 0
the negative terminal of the volt- additional

source wires
meter is connected to the negative
terminal of the source, and that the (battery)
positive terminal of the voltmeter is
connected to the positive terminal Figure 3 Connecting a voltmeter to a circuit
of the source. Figure 3 shows a cir-
cuit with an open switch and a
voltmeter about to be connected in
parallel with the light bulb.
Reading Meters
Voltmeters and ammeters come in a wide variety of When looking at the digitial meter in Figure 4A,
sizes and shapes. Some meters display values direct- you might wonder why there are three sets of num-
ly as numbers, as shown in Figure 4A. Other meters bers on the dial. The numbers represent different
display results with a needle pointing to numbers scales of measurement. For example, one scale
on a dial, as shown in Figure 4B. might report values of potential difference between
zero and 2.5 V, while another scale will report val-
ues between zero and 10 V. Several different scales
are needed because meters have electric circuits
inside that allow them to measure different levels of
current or voltage accurately. For example, a circuit
that provides an accurate measurement of a large
current cannot give an accurate measurement of a
very small current. Therefore, when using meters,
you must select the appropriate circuit by setting
the scale on the meter. The best approach is to
set the meter at the largest scale to get an
approximate value. Then lower the scale until
you have the highest possible reading with-
out going off the scale.
Figure 5, on the next page, illustrates
meters that have two different ways to
Figure 4A Meters that display change the scale. The meter in Figure
numerical values directly are 5A is a voltmeter with a dial that you
called digital meters. can set at a particular value. In the
Figure 4B Meters that have figure, the dial is set at 10.
needles pointing to a dial are
called analog meters.

Therefore, the maximum potential difference for that
scale is 10 V. To determine the potential difference,
look for a number at the top of the scale with the .4 .6
1.0 1.5
same first digit as 10. The top scale has a 2 3
.5 2
.8 .0
.
2 4
maximum value of 1, so now “1” repre- D.C.
1
.4 .6 Amperes
sents 10 V. To read the scale, multiply the 1.0 1.5
2.5
0
1
0
3
5
2
.5 2
.8 .0
number the needle is pointing to by 10.
2 4
D.C.
1
This dial is reporting 7.2 V. VOLTS
2.5
0
1
0
0
5
Figure 5B shows an ammeter with six
different ranges of current. To change 500 mA 1A
the scale on this meter, you choose
25 50
among six positive terminals. In the 100 mA 5A
10 100
example, the circuit wire is connected to 5 250
10 mA 10 A
the 500 mA terminal. Remember that 2.5 500
1 1000
mA represents milliamperes or thou-

sandths of an ampere. So 500 mA is the
Figure 5B This ammeter has
same as 0.500 A. The “5” on the bottom different positions in which to plug
scale is the first digit in 500 mA, so the 5 the positive lead.
now represents 500 mA. The needle is Figure 5A This voltmeter has a dial that
pointing to 4.7, so the meter is reporting changes the scale.
470 mA of current.
Instant Practice .4 .6
1.5
1.0
2 3
Determine the values of current or
.5 2
.8 .0
.
2 4
D.C.
1
potential difference indicated by the VOLTS

2.5
0
meters in Figures 6A, B, C, and D.

1
0
0
.4 .6
1.0 1.5
.5 2 2 3
.8 .0
.
2 4
25 50 D.C.
1
10 100 Amperes
2.5
0
1
0
0
5
5 250
.4 .6
1.5 2.5 500
1.0
2 3 1 1000
.5 2
.8 .0
.
2 4
D.C.
1
VOLTS
500 mA 1A
2.5
0
1
0
0
Figure 6B
100 mA 5A
25 50
10 mA 10 A
10 100
5 250 .6
.4
2.5 500 1.0 1.5
2 3 Figure 6D
.2
.8 .0
1 1000
2 4
.5
D.C.
1
VOLTS
2.5
0
1
0
0
Figure 6A
25 50
10 100
5 250
2.5 500
1 1000

Figure 6C

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Science Skills Guide

SkillFOCUS 1 Safety Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

SkillFOCUS 3 Solving Numerical Problems (GRASP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

SkillFOCUS 4 Units of Measurement and Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

SkillFOCUS 5 Estimating and Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

SkillFOCUS 6 Scientific Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460

SkillFOCUS 7 Technological Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

SkillFOCUS 8 Societal Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

SkillFOCUS 9 Using Technology in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

SkillFOCUS 10 Organizing and Communicating Scientific Results . . . . . . . . . . 473

SkillFOCUS 11 Scientific and Technological Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

SkillFOCUS 12 Using Models in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

SkillFOCUS 13 Using a Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

SkillFOCUS 14 Connecting and Reading Ammeters and Voltmeters . . . . . . . . 488

446 MHR • Science Skills Guide

SAFETY SYMBOLS WHMIS Symbols

Skill Focus 1 • MHR 447

USING YOUR TEXTBOOK AS A STUDY TOOL

2. Try rewriting the Topic headings and subhead-

448 MHR • Science and Technology Skills Guide

MIXTURES PURE SUBSTANCES

Chlorine or ozone may be added to kill remaining germs,

The clean, safe drinking water is delivered through

SkillFocus 2 • MHR 449

which has been use

blood vessels wastes

450 MHR • Science and Technology Skills Guide

SOLVING NUMERICAL PROBLEMS (GRASP)

SkillFocus 3 • MHR 451

452 MHR • Science and Technology Skills Guide

SkillFocus 4 • MHR 453

centi- c 10–2 = 0.01

454 MHR • Science and Technology Skills Guide

SkillFocus 4 • MHR 455

ESTIMATING AND MEASURING

456 MHR • Science and Technology Skills Guide

To measure the volume of a liquid, you need a grad- 100 100

SkillFocus 5 • MHR 457

The spout allows water displaced by an object to be

water level 100

4. To measure the volume of an object, follow

458 MHR • Science and Technology Skills Guide

SkillFocus 5 • MHR 459

How might you proceed to develop scientiﬁc

revise prediction analyze data repeat several

prediction or hypothesis prediction or hypothesis

460 MHR • Science and Technology Skills Guide

variable: any factor that will inﬂuence the outcome of an experiment

Qualitative observations: describe something using only words; for example, a

SkillFocus 6 • MHR 461

conclusion: an interpretation of the results of an experiment as it applies to the

462 MHR • Science and Technology Skills Guide

SkillFocus 6 • MHR 463

TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEM SOLVING

identify the problem

decide on design criteria

plan and construct

design criteria product or technique excellent plan had

use the product patent the product or technique

464 MHR • Science and Technology Skills Guide