Ministry of Higher Education Republic of Cameroon

ST. LOUIS – Bonamoussadi Peace – Work – Fatherland

Department of Computer Engineering Academic Year: 2021/2022
Specialities: Software Engineering & Network
Security

COURSE: INTRODUCTION TO ALGORITHM

Module 1: General Introduction on Algorithms

Facilitator: MR. NYAMBI BLAISE
Computers work on a set of instructions called Computer program, which clearly specifies
the way to carry out a task. An analogy of this may be thought of as the instructions given by
the manager or team leader to its team. The team members follow those instructions and
accordingly perform their duties. Similarly, a computer also takes instructions in the form of
computer programs to carry out the requested task. This chapter aims to

Learning objectives
After studying this lesson, student should be able to:
 Discuss what an algorithm is and how to use it to represent the solution of a
problem.
 Use Flowchart and Pseudocode represent algorithms
Contents
Contents................................................................................................................ 1
I. ALGORITHM..................................................................................................... 3
I.1. Definition......................................................................................................... 3
I.2. Qualities of a good algorithm................................................................................. 3
I.3. How to write an algorithm..................................................................................... 3
I.4. Example of algorithm........................................................................................... 4
II. REPRESENTATION OF AN ALGORITHM...............................................................4
II.1. Flowchart........................................................................................................ 4
II.2. Pseudocode...................................................................................................... 6
III. ALGORITHM STRUCTURES............................................................................. 7
III.1 Sequence......................................................................................................... 7
III.2 Selection (Decision)........................................................................................... 8
III.3 Repetition (Looping)........................................................................................ 10
APPLICATION EXERCISES...................................................................................... 12
Module 1 – General Introduction on Algorithms 2

I. ALGORITHM

I.1. Definition

Algorithms are one of the most basic tools that are used to develop the problem-solving logic.
An algorithm is defined as a finite sequence of instructions that when provided with a set of
input values, produces an output and then terminates. It can also be defined as a series of
steps taken to solve a given problem. Algorithm is not language specific. We can use the
same flowchart to code a program using different programming languages. Many algorithms
can be design for the same task.

I.2. Qualities of a good algorithm

Note that algorithms are not computer programs, as they cannot be executed by a computer.
Some properties of algorithm are as follows:

• Finiteness – the algorithm stops after a finite number of instructions are executed.
• Definiteness or unambiguous: There must be no ambiguity in any instruction. This
means that the action specified by the step cannot be interpreted in multiple ways &
can be performed without any confusion.
• Input:- an algorithm accepts zero or more inputs
• Output:- it produces at least one output.
• Effectiveness:- it consists of basic instructions that are realizable. This means that the
instructions can be performed by using the given inputs in a finite amount of time.
• Precision: a good algorithm must have a certain outlined step. The steps should be
exact enough, and not varying.
• Generality: the algorithm must apply to a set of defined inputs.

I.3. How to write an algorithm

There are no well-defined standards for writing algorithms. Rather, it is problem and resource
dependent. Algorithms are never written to support a particular programming code.
As we know that all programming languages share basic code constructs like loops (do, for,
while), flow-control (if-else), etc. These common constructs can be used to write an
algorithm.
We write algorithms in a step-by-step manner, but it is not always the case. Algorithm
writing is a process and is executed after the problem domain is well-defined. That is, we
should know the problem domain, for which we are designing a solution. For every given
problem, there exists one or more solutions as can be seen on the figure below.

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I.4. Example of algorithm

We use algorithms in our daily life. For example, to wash hand, the following algorithms
may be used.

1. Start 1. Start
2. Turn on water 2. Turn on water
3. dispense soap 3. dispense soap
4. wash hand till clean 4. Repeat Rub hands together
5. Rince soap off 5. until hand clean
6. Turn off water 6. Rince soap off
7. Dry hand 7. Turn off water
8. Stop 8. Dry hand
9. Stop
The above-mentioned algorithm terminates after six steps. This explains the feature of
finiteness. Every action of the algorithm is precisely defined; hence, there is no scope for
ambiguity.

II. REPRESENTATION OF AN ALGORITHM

Algorithms can be represented in different ways:

- By Flowchart
- By Pseudocode

II.1. Flowchart

Flowchart is the diagrammatic representation of an algorithm with the help of symbols

carrying certain meaning. Using flowchart, we can easily understand a program.

a) Flowchart Symbols

Flowcharts use simple geometric symbols and arrows to define relationships. Some standard
symbols that are frequently required for flowcharts are shown:

Symbol Symbol name Description

Flow lines are used to connect symbols. These lines
Flow Lines indicate the sequence of steps and the direction of
flow.
The terminator symbol represents the start points,
Terminal
end points, and potential outcomes of a path.
used to illustrate a process, action or an
Processing operation. Examples: "Add 1 to X"; "save changes"
or similar.
These typically contain a Yes/No question or
Decision
True/False test.
Input/output It represents data that is available for input or output.

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It may also represent resources used or generated.

Ex: Get X from the user; display X.
Connector Connector symbol is used to join different flow lines.

Off- page This symbol is used to indicate the flowchart

Connecter continues on the next page
Document is used to represent a paper document
Document
produced during the flowchart process.
Manual input symbol represents input to be given by
CreatedCreated
by Trial
Created
by
Version
Trialby
Version
Trial Version

Manual Input
a developer / programmer.
This is used to represent data input or output from
Magnetic Disk
and to a magnetic disk.

b) Advantages of flowchart

The flowchart shows how the program works before you begin actually coding it. Some
advantages of flowcharting are the following.

- Communication: Flowcharts are helpful in explaining the program to other people.

- Effective analysis: With the help of flowchart, the problem can be analysed more
effectively
- Proper documentation: Program flowchart serves as a good program documentation,
which is needed for various purposes.
- Efficient coding: Once the flowchart is drawn, it becomes easy to write the program
in any high level language
- Proper debugging: The flowchart help in the debugging process
- Efficient program maintenance: The maintenance of operating program become
easy with the help of flowchart

c) Limitations of Flowcharts

Flowchart can be used for designing the basic concept of the program in pictorial form, but
cannot be used for programming purposes. Some of the limitations of the flowchart are given
below:

• Complex: The major disadvantage in using flowcharts is that when a program is very
large, the flowcharts may continue for many pages, making them hard to follow.
• Costly: If the flowchart is to be drawn for a huge program, the time and cost factor of
program development may get out of proportion, making it a costly affair.
• Difficult to Modify: Due to its symbolic nature, any change or modification to a
flowchart usually requires redrawing the entire logic again, and redrawing a complex
flowchart is not a simple task.

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• No Update: Usually, programs are updated regularly. However, the corresponding

update of flowcharts may not take place, especially in the case of large programs.

II.2. Pseudocode

Pseudocode is a detailed yet readable description of what an algorithm must do, expressed in
a formally-styled natural language rather than in a programming language. It describe the
entire logic of the algorithm so that implementation becomes a rote mechanical task of
translating line by line into source code.

a) Pseudocode Structures

Before going ahead with pseudocode, let us discuss some keywords, which are often used to
indicate input, output and processing operations.

• Input: READ, OBTAIN, GET and PROMPT

• Output: PRINT, DISPLAY and SHOW
• Compute: COMPUTE, CALCULATE and DETERMINE
• Initialize: SET and INITIALIZE
• Add One: INCREMENT

b) Example of pseudocode

The pseudocode given below calculates the area of a rectangle.

Pseudocode: To calculate the area of a rectangle

START
PROMPT the user to enter the length of the rectangle
PROMPT the user to enter the width of the rectangle
COMPUTE the area by multiplying the length with width
DISPLAY the area
STOP

c) Advantages of Using Pseudocode

Some of the most significant benefits of pseudocode are as follows:

• It is easier to develop a program from a pseudocode rather than from a flowchart or

decision table.
• Often, it is easy to translate pseudocode into a programming language, a step which
can be accomplished by less-experienced programmers.
• Unlike flowcharts, pseudocode is compact and does not tend to run over many pages.
Its simple structure and readability makes it easier to modify as well.
• Pseudocode allows programmers who work in different computer languages to talk to
each other.

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d) Disadvantages of Using Pseudocode

Although pseudocode is a very simple mechanism to simplify problem-solving logic, it has

its own limitations. Some of the most notable limitations are as follows:

• It does not provide visual representation of the program logic.

• There are no accepted standards for writing pseudocodes. Different programmers use
their own style of writing pseudocode.
• It is quite difficult for the beginners to write pseudocode as compared to drawing a
flowchart.

III. ALGORITHM STRUCTURES

The 'structured' part of pseudocode and flowchart is a notation for representing three general
programming constructs: sequence, selection and repetition. Each of these constructs can
be embedded inside any other construct. It has been proven that three basic constructs for
flow of control are sufficient to implement any 'proper' algorithm.

• Sequence, where information can flow in a straight line.

• Selection (branched), where the decisions are made according to some predefined
condition.
• Repetition, where the logic can repeat in a loop, that is, where a sequence of steps is
repeated until the desired output is obtained.

III.1 Sequence

Sequence construct is a linear progression where one task is performed sequentially after
another. The actions are performed in the same sequence (top to bottom) in which they are
written

Fig. Flowchart and Pseudocode for Sequence Construct

Example

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Write an algorithm and flowchart for calculating the perimeter and surface of square, if the
default length of the sides of the square is a.

Flowchart Pseudocode C
Begin #include<stdio.h>
Input a int main()
P=4×a {
S=A×a int a, P, S;
Print P, S printf(“Enter the length”);
END scanf(“%d”,&a);
P=4*a;
S=a*a;
printf(“\nPerimetre = %d”, P);
printf(“\nSurface = %d”, S);
return 0 ;
}

Note that there is no branching and no process is repeated again. Each process is contributing
something to the next process.

III.2 Selection (Decision)

Selection is a process of deciding which choice is made between two or more alternative
courses of action. Selection logic is depicted as an IF-THEN-ELSE-ENDIF or CASE-
ENDCASE structure. As the name suggests, in case of the IF-THEN-ELSE-ENDIF construct,
if the condition is true, the true alternative actions are performed and if condition is false,
then false alternative actions are performed on.

a) IF-THEN-ELSE-ENDIF construct

Flowchart Pseudocode C
• •
• •
• if(condition)
IF condition THEN {
List of actions List of actions
ELSE }
List of differentElse
actions {
ENDIF List of different
• actions
• }
• •
•
Note that the ELSE keyword and 'Action 2' are optional. In case you do not want to choose
between two alternate courses of actions, then simply use IF-THEN-ENDIF

Flowchart Pseudocode C
• •

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• •
• •
IF condition THEN if(condition)
List of actions {
ENDIF List of actions
• }
• •
• •
•
Hence, if the condition is true, then perform the list of actions listed in the IF-THEN-ENDIF
construct and then move on to the other actions in the process. In case the condition is false,
then move on to the rest of the actions in the process directly. Let us write a pseudocode to
find the largest of three numbers

Example: Write an algorithm and flowchart which a given number N increased by

100 if N is less than 100, otherwise N is decreased by the 100. Print this result.

Flowchart Pseudocode C
START #include<stdio.h>
Input N int main()
If N < 100 Then {
N = N × 100 int N;
Else
N = N - 100
printf("Enter the
Print N number: ");
STOP scanf("%d",&N);
if(N<100)
N=N+100;
Else
N=N-100;
printf("\nnumber is
%d",N);
return 0;
}

b) CASE-ENDCASE construct

If there are a number of conditions to be checked, then using multiple IFs may look very
clumsy. Hence, it is advisable to use the CASE-ENDCASE selection construct for
multipleway selection logic. A CASE construct indicates a multiway branch based on many
conditions. CASE construct uses four keywords, CASE, OF, OTHERS and ENDCASE,
along with conditions that are used to indicate the various alternatives.

Flowchart Pseudocode C
CASE expression OF case (expression)
Condition 1: {

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Sequence 1 case value 1:

Condition 2: Sequence 1;
Sequence 2 break ;
• case value 2:
• Sequence 2;
Condition n: break ;
Sequence n •
OTHERS : default •
sequence case value n:
ENCASE Sequence n;
break ;
default :
default
sequence ;
}

CASE construct performs the same process as multiple IFs, but it is much easier to read and
write. Conditions are normally numbers or characters indicating the value of 'Expression'

Example: To assign discount according to the code

Flowchart Pseudocode C
START #include<stdio.h>
READ code int main()
CASE Grade OF {
A : discount = 0.0 char code ;
B : discount = 0.1 switch ( code )
C : discount = 0.2 {
OTHERS : discount = case 'A': discount = 0.0;
0.3 break;
ENDCASE case 'B': discount = 0.1;
DISPLAY discount break;
STOP case 'C': discount = 0.2;
break;
default: discount = 0.3;
}
Printf( "discount is: %f ",
discount);
}

III.3 Repetition (Looping)

Looping construct is used when some particular task(s) is to be repeated for a number of
times according to the specified condition. By using looping, the programmer avoids
repeating the same set of instructions. As the selection, the loop is also represented in
flowchart by a diamond. The difference is just at the orientation of the arrows.

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a) WHILE- ENDWHILE

In case of WHILE-ENDWHILE, the loop will continue as long as the condition is true. The
loop is entered only if the condition is true. The 'statement' is performed for each iteration. At
the conclusion of each iteration, the condition is evaluated and the loop continues as long as
the condition is true.

Flowchart Pseudocode C
WHILE condition is while (condition)
True {
statements statements
ENDWHILE }

Example: To display the first ten natural numbers using DO WHILE-

ENDDO

Flowchart Pseudocode C
INITIALIZE Count to zero #include<stdio.h>
WHILE Count >= 10 main()
ADD 1 to Count {
PRINT Count int i=0;
ENDWHILE while(i<10)
STOP {
printf("%d ",i);
i++;
}
return 0;
}

b) REPEAT-UNTIL

The REPEAT-UNTIL loop is similar to the WHILE-ENDWHILE, except that the test is
performed at the bottom of the loop instead of at the top

Flowchart Pseudocode C

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Repeat Do
Statements {
Until condition is false
}
While (condition)

The 'statement' in this type of loop is always performed at least once, because the test is
performed after the statement is executed. At the end of each iteration, the condition is
evaluated, and the loop repeats until the condition gets true. The loop terminates when the
condition becomes true.

Example To display the first ten natural numbers using REPEAT-UNTIL

Flowchart Pseudocode C
INITIALIZE Count to zero #include<stdio.h>
REPEAT main()
ADD 1 to Count {
PRINT Count int i=0;
UNTIL Count is less than do
10 {
STOP printf("%d ",i);
i++;
}
while(i<10);
return 0;
}

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APPLICATION EXERCISES

Exercise 1: Write the flowchart corresponding to the following pseudo code

Pseudocode 1 Pseudocode 2 Pseudocode 2

Start Set total to zero initialize passes to zero
num1 = 5 Set grade counter to one initialize failures to zero
num2 = 10 While grade counter is initialize student to one
num3 = 15 less than or equal to ten while student counter <= to
sum = num1 + num2 + Input the next grade ten
num3 Add the grade into the input the next exam result
average = sum/3.0 total if the student passed
print average Set the class average to add one to passes
Stop the total divided by ten else
Print the class average. add one to failures
add one to student counter
print the number of passes
print the number of failures
if eight or more students
passed
print "raise tuition"

Exercise 2: Create flowcharts to represent these short tasks:

a. “If it’s raining, bring an umbrella.”

b. “Take twenty paces, then turn and shoot.”
c. “Go forward until the Touch Sensor (on port 1) is pressed in, then stop.”
d. “Follow Liberty Avenue for 2 miles, then take a left turn onto 40th Street. Go until you
reach the bridge, but don’t cross the bridge. Instead, make a right turn onto Foster Street,
then take the first left turn. Follow that road until you reach the National Robotics
Engineering Consortium building.”
e. “Turn on oven. Cook turkey for 4 hours or until meat thermometer reaches 180 degrees.”

Exercise 3: Make the flowchart, and write the pseudocode for the following problem:

Given a Fahrenheit temperature, calculate and display the equivalent centigrade

temperature. The following formula is used for the conversion: C = 5 / 9 * (F – 32)
where F and C are the Fahrenheit and centigrade temperatures.

Exercise 4:

On a separate sheet of paper, make a flowchart organizing the “flow” of getting ready to go to
school in the morning. Be sure to include the following steps in your chart, but don’t be
afraid to add other things if you need them!

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Exercise 5: Let’s consider the following flowchart

a) Identity the programming construct

available in the flowchart and explain
how each of them works.
b) Do the dry run of the flowchart
c) What does the flowchart do?
d) Write the corresponding pseudocode of
the flowchart

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