The Complete Gods and, Go

- -- ~ - - -- -- --- - - .-

I ,
nd Goddesses of Ancient Egypt
Richard H. Wilkinson
With 338 illustrations, 132 in color

~~ Thames & Hudson

Half-title: The divine cow of the heavens and her supporting deities. Outermost
shrine of Tutankhamun, Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

Title page: Ramesses I before the enthroned Khepri and Osiris - personifications
of the solar and chihonic aspects of the Egyptian view of the cosmos. From the
tomb of Ramesses I, Yalley of the Kings, western Thebes.

Contents pages: Caryatid pillars in the mortuary temple of Ramesses Il at Abu

Simbel associate the great monarch with the god Osiris through the king's stance
and insignia.

Text © 2003 Richard H. Wilkinson

Layout © 2003 Thames & Hudson Ltd, London

The right of Richard H. Wilkinson to be identified as author of this Work has

been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, induding
photocopy, recording or any other information storage and retrieval system,
without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

First published in hardcover in the United States of America in 2003 by

Thames & Hudson Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10110

thamesandhudsonusa.com

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 2002110321

ISBN 0-500·05120-8

Printed and bound in Singapore by Tien Wah Press

 Egyptian thought usually stresses their comple- few example
mentary nature as a way of expressing the essential as the broth:
unity of existence. The endless duality found and Nephth;
Groups of Deities throughout the cosmic, geographic and temporal
aspects of the Egyptian universe (heaven-earth,
tioned togetl
influence an:
existence-nonexistence, stasis-change, north-south, Thoth and B
desert-fertile, day-night, etc.) is found in pairs of the two dei
gods and goddesses which represented these and many others
many other binary aspects of the world. Deities Another wa
Egyptian mythology contains many groups of were also 'created' as counterparts to established groups of tv
deities but these are of two distinct types, although gods and goddesses in order to form balanced, sex- to represent
they overlap occasionally. On the one hand, there ually paired couples, as may well have occurred in examples of
exist what might be called 'numerical groups' the following instances: depicted to~
formed from the uniting of independent deities ritual lustral
usually related in some symbolic manner. On the Male Deity Led to Female Deity
other hand, many other deities - which mayor may Sokar ~ Sokaret
not have individual names and identities - exist Inpu (Anubis) ~ Input
only as members of generalized 'regional groups'. Tefen ~ Tefnut
Sesha ~ Seshat
Groups of t
bers of a (
NUMERICAL GROUPINGS Almost invariably,dyads are composed of male and (goddess)ar
female elements such as these, though there are a deity), with
Numerical groups are almost always composed of
deities with distinct individual identities organized
to make groups of a symbolically significant size.
Some of these groups, such as triads, follow the
pattern of family and kinship units while others,
such as enneads, are more abstract, but all are evi-
dently symbolic in terms of the number of deities
involved.In some cases the process of grouping can
be seen historically as certain deities were aligned
for religious or even political reasons, though in
other cases deities were evidently grouped together
from very early times for reasons which are not
always understood.

Divine figures were frequently

Dyads
depicted in pairs, either for the
sake of artistic symmetry or Deities were often grouped in pairs as the phenome-
in the symbolic juxtaposition non of duality pervades Egyptian culture and is at
of beings related in some way.
Detail of 21st-dynasty coffin the heart of the Egyptian concept of the universe
of Padiamen, Luxor Museum itself - though rather than focusing on the essential
of Mummification. differences between the two parts of a given pair,

71{-
 "'" - -- - - - . -

heir comple- few examples of sibling dyads of the same sex such
the essential as the brothers Horus and Seth and the sisters Isis
iality found and Nephthys. Sometimes too, deities may be men-
nd temporal tioned together in pairs when their roles or areas of
leaven-earth, influence are clearly related. Thus, the lunar deities
north-south, Thoth and Khonsu, the solar deities Re and Atum,
I in pairs of the two deified brothers Peteese and Pihor, and
-d these and many others may be grouped together in this manner.
orld, Deities Another way in which Egyptian religion formed
) established groups of two deities is when two gods are utilized
alanced, sex- to represent a larger group. This may be seen in
~occurred in examples of Thoth and Horus who are sometimes
depicted together representating the four gods of
rituallustration, Horus, Seth, Thoth, and Nemty.
Deity'

Triads

Groups of three deities are often aligned as mem-

bers of a divine family of father (god), mother
lof male and (goddess) and child (almost invariably a young male
1 there are a deity), with the triad of Osiris, Isis and Horus being

(Left) The tutelary goddesses the most prominent example. The Egyptian king Divine pairs were often
of Upper and Lower Egypt, sometimes functioned as the divine son or repre- depicted with the Egyptian
Nekhbet and Wadjet, crown king as their 'son', forming
sented him in such familial triads. While not all
the king. Dyads such as these a family-based triad which
combinations of three deities represent family strengthened the religious
often represent otherwise
groupings, this is the most common form. We find position of both its human
unrelated deities linked by
their specific roles. Temple evidence of deities such as Amun and Osiris going and divine members.
of Horus at Edfu, Ptolemaic from individual and independent gods to members Tutankhamun (centre) with
Period. of fully formed triads (in these instances, Amun- Mut and Amun. 18th dynasty.
Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
Mut-Khonsu and Osiris-Isis-Horus, respectively)
without any evidence of groups of two - as Amun-
Mut or Osiris-Isis - existing between the singular
deities and their triadic groupings. On the other
hand some deities which coexisted in pairs did even-
tually form triads which were only superficially
regarded as families. This was evidently the case
with Ptah and Sekhmet who were worshipped

(Right) The very loosely

related deities Ptah and
Sekhmet were united by their
'child' Ramesses II (centre,
mythologically the god
Nefertem) into aformal
family triad. 19th dynasty.
Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

1S7!
 Sometimes triads are grouped together by role times nz
together at Memphis long before the god Nefertem
Groups of Deities alone. On the sarcophagus of the 21st-dynasty king Amun, I
was brought into their local grouping and the triad
Pinedjem II, three deities with the heads of a ram, a Egyptiar
Ptah-Sekhmet-Nefertem was formed.
lion, and a jackal stand in the coils of a serpent. The other tlu
Other groups of three deities may have been
(Below) Hathor, Mycerinus deities are named as Re, Isis, and Anubis respectively, be conce
formed for purely symbolic reasons. The number
and the goddess of the Jackal or strate
Nome. Such non-family triads three was an important one signifying plurality - or though a number of variants of this same motif
occur in which the gods may be depicted with the dyads a
may link deities through their unity expressed in plurality - for the Egyptians,
support of the king 4th dynasty. heads of other animals or given other names. This one anol
and this is probably the underlying significance of
t.,gyptian Museum, Cairo. would seem to show that the groups are simply found in
many groups such as the important New Kingdom
representative of important afterlife deities - the showing
triad of Amun, Re and Ptah. Beginning in the time
(Below right) The four sons of number three representing plurality rather than
Horus in their protective role of Tutankhamun, and very commonly in Ramessid
on the coffin of Psusennes, times, we find these three deities grouped by virtue any specific group.
Egyptian Museum, Cairo. of their status or importance in the pantheon.

Tetrads Althoug
deities, I
In Egyptian symbolism the number four frequently mytholo
signified the four cardinal directions and hence end of t
a kind of spatial or geographic totality. This from36(
significance is seen in the four 'races' of mankind: as the 'l
Egyptians (north), Near Easterners (east), Nubians Seth an
(south) and Libyans (west) depicted in some New these re
Kingdom tombs. It is also apparent in a number the title
of groupings of four deities, such as the four Thoth.
supports of the sky which may be personified as
four individual deities or groups of deities (see
p. 78) aligned with the four points or quarters of the
heavens. The connection is strong enough, in fact,
that even when groups of four deities do not seem Whilet:
to originally have this symbolic significance it may great s)
become attached to them. Thus the mortuary number
deities known as the four sons of Horus may some- three ar
times be aligned geographically in representational the com
contexts although this is not always the case. pluralit
While the concept of completeness associated with fore, nc
the number four may have sprung entirely from the differen
totality encompassed by the concept of the four seven b
cardinal points, the symbolic use of the number is conside
frequently one of completion without any specific Thema
directional overtones at all. In the underworld frequen
books four forms of a given god or groups of four and cor
deities are frequently found and thus depicted in that dii
vignettes in the papyri and decorations of the prised
royal tombs. An interesting example of this kind of sevenfo
tetrad is found in Ramessid times when the god tant the
Seth was elevated to the extent that he was some- also ap
were b
revered
pie, anc
number
the afte
seven.
Book 0
this kin
times ic
the so
named
Chernni
whose!
usually

76
- by role times named along with the three great deities
asty king Amun, Re and Ptah. The four divisions of the
f a ram, a Egyptian army were named after Seth and the
pent. The other three deities in a group which clearly could
;pectively, be conceived as holding the symbolism of tactical
me motif or strategic completeness. While the members of
with the dyads and triads are usually distinguished from
nes. This one another in representational works, the deities
'e simply found in groups of four are often undifferentiated -
.ies - the showing their apparently more 'generic' nature.
her than

Pentads

Although not a common numerical grouping of

deities, pentads are occasionally found in Egyptian
'equently mythology. The five 'epagomenal' days added at the
id hence end of the Egyptian year to raise the total of days
ty, This from 360 (12 x 30-day months) to 365 were assigned
nankind: as the 'birthdays' of the deities Osiris, Isis, Horus,
Nubians Seth and Nephthys, making a distinct group of
'me New these related deities. In the Hermopolitan tradition
number the title 'Great of Five' was also applied to the god
the four Thoth.
nified as
ties (see
rs of the Hebdomads
, in fact,
lot seem While the number six does not seem to have held
.e it may great symbolic significance for the Egyptians, the
iortuary number seven is frequently found and, as the sum of
sy some- three and four, may have been believed to embody
itational the combined significance of these two numbers -
he case. plurality and totality. The number seven is there-
ted with fore, not surprisingly, associated with deities in
from the different ways. The sun god Re was said to have
the four seven bau or souls, and several other deities were
Imber is considered to be 'sevenfold' or to have seven forms.
specific The many different manifestations of Hathor were their own grouping and the fact that they fulfilled a (ToP) Hebdomad of the Seven
lerworld frequently consolidated into a more manageable cosmic role as goddesses of fate. Divine Cows, differentiated
; of four and comprehensible group of seven, but the fact and named with their bull,
.icted in that different groups of Hathors existed - com- vignette to Chapter 148, Book
of the prised of different goddesses - shows that the Ogdoads of the Dead of Maiherpri.
18th dynasty. Egyptian
; kind of sevenfold grouping was symbolically more impor- Museum, Coiro.
the god tant than the specific deities included. The number As four (symbolic totality) doubled, and hence
.s some- also appears in groups of different deities which intensified, the number eight is found in several (Above) The seven cows
were brought together. The company of gods groups of gods, as when the god Shu created eight uniformly depicted and with
revered at Abydos comprised seven gods, for exam- Heh deities to help support the legs of the goddess the solar disk and plumes of
ple, and it is also probably not coincidental that the Hathor with whom they were
Nut in her guise as the great heavenly cow.
frequently associated Third
number of the 42 judges who sat in the tribunal of Although the names of the gods or goddesses in Intermediate Period. Papyrus
the afterlife to judge the deceased was a multiple of such groups may vary in the Egyptian texts, the of Nestanebettawy, Egyptian
seven. The seven cows found in Chapter 148 of the fact that they always add up to eight deities shows Museum, Cairo.
Book of the Dead also provide a good example of that the concept of the group of eight was of
this kind of group. While these bovines were some- greater importance than the specific deities which
times identified as aspects of the goddess Hathor as comprised the group. Ogdoads of eight deities often
the so-called 'seven Hathors' and individually represent two sets of four or four sets of two gods
named as 'Mansion of kas', 'Silent One', 'She of and goddesses with the latter being more common.
Chemnis', 'Much Beloved', 'She who protects', 'She The greatest ogdoad - that of Hermopolis (see
whose name has power', and 'Storm in the sky', they below) - provides a good example as it was com-
usually bear no clear association other than that of posed of four pairs of primeval deities which

77
 Although the four goddesses are clearly only lin- (PT 511
guistically feminine forms of the names of the four the nun
gods, they are nevertheless seen as necessary com- concept
plements of the male deities. It is also interesting groups.
that the four aspects of the primordial cosmos per- conjunc1
sonified by these deities also seem to appear later in which t
the creation account of the Hebrew Bible. Accord- group c
ing to the various forms of the Egyptian myths, the of the
eight beings or deities together formed the original 'grande!
mound which rose from the primordial waters, or grandch
the lotus flower, or the cosmic egg, which preceded variant (
the birth of the sun god. The main cult centre of this second-t
ogdoad was the ancient Khemnu or Khmun mean- have bee
ing 'eight town' (the modern el-Ashmunein which is in order
also derived from the Coptic shmun 'eight') in into the
Middle Egypt with which the god Thoth was also which p
associated, so that it was later known by the Greek tion thai
name Hermopolis. The Hermopolitan concept of gods of
The eight Heh deities who, represented the sum of existence before creation. the ogdoad was accepted throughout Egypt, formed;
along with the god Shu, The Hermopolitan Ogdoad was visualized in the however, and Medinet Habu in western Thebes was represen
supported the divine cow who form of four frog-headed deities - and their four regarded as the 'burial place' of the eight primordial of afterli
represented the heavens in one
version of Egyptian respective consorts or female equivalents who were deities, a location to which the kings of Egypt came Horus, 0
cosmogony. Two of these snake-headed goddesses. The nature of these every ten years in the Graeco-Roman Period to hon- Thus, th
deities supported each leg or deities was based on the symbolic idea of these ani- our their primeval ancestors. importai
'pillar of heaven'. Outermost mals as chthonic beings and as creatures associated were con
shrine of Tutankhamun, with water and hence the primeval flood from which Other
18th dynasty. Egyptian
the created world emerged. The individual deities Enneads wise un
Museum, Cairo.
comprising this ogdoad were: special v
The Greek term ennead is the equivalent of the in the ea
God Goddess Identity Egyptian pesedjet ('nine') which may refer to any Isis and
Nun Naunet Water group of nine gods. In the Pyramid Texts, for exam- through
Heh Hauhet Infinity ple, we find the Great Ennead (PT 1655, etc.); Lesser Sethos 1.
Kek Kauket Darkness Ennead (PT 178); Dual Ennead WI' 121, etc.); plural not alwa
Amun Amaunet Hiddenness or Wind enneads (PT 278, etc.) and even the seven enneads term pe:
Althougl
fied, the
all-encon
before 0
thus rep
netherwc
all Egypt

Whiletw
relating
hence, fo
(Above) Ennead of Heliopolis
hoursj.as
with the king as Horus, the
son of Osiris and Isis. Second ber may
shrine of Tutankhamun, those sm
18th dynasty. Egyptian twelve oc
Museum, Cairo. example
the head,
(Right) Nine geese probably
which rej
representing the members of
the Theban Ennead headed by Hermopo
Amun. Votive offering, 19th These de
dynasty, Roemer and accompai
Pelizaeus Museum, Book of t
Hildesheim. deities an

78
nly lin- (PT 511). As three (plurality) multiplied by itself,
:he four the number nine seems to have represented the REG I 0 NAL G RO U PIN G S Groups of Deities

ry com- concept of a great number and was used of many

-resting groups. Most commonly, the number appears in Regional groups of deities - meaning those of
10S per- conjunction with the Great Ennead of Heliopolis specific areas of Egypt, or of a given area of the
later in which bound together nine 'related' deities. The cosmos such as star gods or netherworld deities -
I\.ccord- group consisted of Atum, the so-called 'father' mayor may not have individual names and identi-
ths, the of the Ennead, his 'children' Shu and Tefnut, ties. These groups could consist of any number
rriginal 'grandchildren' Geb and Nut, and 'great- of deities, and are often, in fact, of varying or
ters, or grandchildren' Osiris, Isis, Seth and Nephthys. A indeterminate size. The category includes the
receded variant of this ennead included Horus the Elder as deities of the hours of the day and night as these
.of this second-born after Osiris. Although this group may 'hour' gods and goddesses represented not only
1 mean- have been constructed by the priests of Heliopolis units of time but also parts of the cosmos as
vhich is in order to incorporate Osiris and his related deities imagined by the Egyptians.
ght') in into their own theological system in a manner
Tas also which placed the netherworld god at a lower posi- (Left) Turtle, bull and ram-
e Greek tion than their own sun god, together the various headed deities guard a 'gate'
cept of gods of the Heliopolitan Ennead nevertheless of the underworld. Late
Period sarcophagus of
Egypt, formed a group of great significance. The deities
Djhutirdis, Egyptian
oes was represented were not only those of creation but also Museum, Cairo.
.nordial of afterlife and, through Osiris and his eventual son
ptcame Horus, of the ideology and mythology of kingship.
to hon- Thus, the three areas which are arguably the most
important concepts in ancient Egyptian religion
were contained within the Heliopolitan Ennead. (Below) Netherworld deities
Other cult centres constructed enneads of other- associated with specific
regions of the Beyond. Scene
wise unrelated deities to which they awarded
from the Amduat, tomb of
special veneration - as in the temple of Redesiyah Tuthmosis III 18th dynasty,
of the in the eastern desert where Amun, Re, Osiris, Ptah, Valley of the Kings,
. to any Isis and Horus were grouped into an ennead western Thebes .
r exam- through the addition of three forms of the deified
I; Lesser Sethos 1.The number of deities in these groups did
);plural not always equal nine, however, as the Egyptian
mneads term pesedjet can have a generalized meaning.
Although the members of enneads are often speci-
fied, the number most often represents a general,
all-encompassing group. The nine gods who stand
before Osiris in the sixth hour of the underworld
thus represent the rule of that deity over all the
netherworld gods, just as the 'nine bows' symbolize
all Egypt's traditional enemies.

Dodecads

While twelve may have basic temporal significance

relating to the hours of the day and night (and
hence, for example, the 12 goddesses of the night
hours), as a multiple of both three and four the num-
ber may also connote the combined significance of
those smaller numbers. Relatively few groups of
twelve occur in Egyptian mythology, however, one
example being the four groups of three gods with
the heads of ibises, jackals, falcons and phoenixes
which represented the 'royal ancestors' of the cities
Hermopolis, Nekhen, Pe, and Heliopolis respectively.
These deities are sometimes found in vignettes
accompanying Chapters 107 and 111-16 of the
Book of the Dead, though often not all twelve of the
deities are depicted.

79
 There is
the Engl
ture ofte
called'rr
perspect
minor do
and god,
demand
more UJ
defined 1
These hi
and tom
which v
world-«
fact, del
demi-go
some w(
ments 0
not inin
mmor g
Scene from the fifth section of Deities of the tenth cavern - various
the Book of Caverns in the Cavern Deities Action performed for the deceased tures sp
Tomb of Ramesses VI, Valley
of the Kings, western Thebes. Those who belong to the sunshine - give light. king or
According to this funerary According to the ancient Egyptian conception of Those who take hold - grant that the deceased be netherw
work the netherworld the underworld, there existed a number of caves acclaimed. capable,
contained a number of caves or caverns in the nether regions which contained The nine gods who guard those in the cavern - give the to fulfill
or caverns in which various various deities who were involved in the punish- breath of life.
depictec
deities dispensed punishment ment of the wicked. These cavern deities were The nine gods whose arms are hidden - grant that the
deceased be a worthy spirit. form or
or assistance to the deceased.
20th dynasty systematically enumerated in the so-called 'Spell The hidden goddess - grants that the deceased's soul be with hUJ
of the Twelve Caves', a composition known strong and his corpse intact. as turtf
from a papyrus of the time of Amenophis II The souls of the gods who became members of Osiris- whose ~
(Cairo 24742),and from the walls of the southern grant that the deceased have peace. ber of il
chamber of the Osireion at Abydos, Part of this Those who worship Re - grant the deceased not be of the a
turned back from any gate of the underworld.
text (caves 8-12) was also included in the Book the Vall,
Those whose faces are warlike - grant that the deceased
of the Dead since the 18th dynasty and is found be cool in the place of heat.
as Chapter 168 in that work. The caverns are
places of punishment and execution - usually by
beheading - of the enemies of Re, but the deities in Cavern Deities
these texts also aid the justified dead. The first (from the royal tombs of the Valley of the Kings)*
seven caverns contain alternating groups of three
Cavern Representative Deities Enemies of Re
mummiform and three anthropomorphic deities,
two being male and one female in each group. Serpent guardians of the
The eighth to twelfth caverns contain varying Silent Region, Osiris Beheaded, bound
numbers of deities with the eighth cavern having 2 Flame-breathing serpent,
Osiris, deities in
seven individuals and groups, for example, and
sarcophagi Bound, decapitated,
the ninth having as many as twenty. Beneath upsidedown
the representations of these cavern deities, their 3 Aker, catfish-headed
names and numbers are listed along with the gods, forms of Osiris Upside-down,
offerings prescribed for them and in some cases females
the beneficent deeds the deities perform on behalf 4 Serpent Great One on his
belly, forms of Osiris Upside-down, bound,
of the deceased, such as the ability to move freely
withoutbau
in the underworld, or to have light, food and 5 Nut, Osiris, Tatenen Punished in cauldrons
protection. Understandably, offerings were some- 6 Anubis, Horus, Osiris Beheaded males, bound
times made by living Egyptians to these gods. females, bau and
The deities of the tenth cavern are representative shadows punished
of the types of individual and group deities found * Note: Other versions of the cavern myths present 12
in these texts: caverns, but with many variant deities.

80
 Demons Groups of Deities

There is no Egyptian word which corresponds to

the English word 'demon', but Egyptologicallitera-
ture often uses this term to describe what are also
called 'minor divinities'. From the ancient Egyptian
perspective, as Dimitri Meeks has shown, such
minor deities were subordinate to the major gods
and goddesses and performed specified tasks upon
demand; and while the major gods tended to be
more universal in nature, 'demons' were often
defined by specific actions, behaviour and location.
These beings were often associated with caves, pits
and tombs and also with bodies of water - all of
which were considered entrances into the under-
world - and the greatest number of demons were, in
fact, denizens of the beyond. These netherworld
demi-gods constituted different categories. While
some were clearly portrayed as frightening instru-
Demons were often
ments of punishment for the damned, many were represented with the heads of
not inimical and may often better be classed as fierce or fabulous creatures
minor guardian deities such as the keepers of the and many were depicted with
various gates of the underworld. Some were crea- weapons such as knives. The
tures specifically tasked with the protection of the character of these minor
deities could be protective or
king or the deceased in the journey through the
vengeful, however, as shown
be netherworld. These latter demons were also by the various funerary texts
capable, of course, of aggressive behaviour in order in which they appear. Tomb of
give the to fulfill their protective roles. Such demons may be Amenherkhepshef, Valley of
depicted zoomorphically but usually take human the Queens, western Thebes.
:hat the
form or are portrayed semi-anthropomorphically
.s soul be with human bodies and the heads of creatures such Demons could also be associated with the world
as turtles, which were considered malevolent but of the living, however, and once again we find
. Osiris- whose power could be used for protection. A num- benevolent and malevolent types. The latter type
ber of images of such demons appear in vignettes included demons associated with Sekhmet and
.t be of the afterlife books and in some of the tombs in other great deities in their aggressive aspects, while
d.
the Valley of the Kings and Valley of the Queens. more benevolent demons were often called upon to
deceased
give protection from these. Interestingly, Egyptian
texts show that it was possible for a demon to be
freed from its subordinate role and responsibilities
and to become a 'greater god' through a process of
promotion,showing once again the difference
between 'demons' and 'gods' was primarily one of
(e
degree rather than type.

nmd
Gate Deities
iitated,
The Egyptian conception of the underworld includ-
ed many gates, portals or pylons which must be
passed by the sun god on his nightly journey, by the
deceased king as part of the sun god's entourage (or
fused with the god), and by the deceased who must
I, bound,
The demon called Sahehei: pass these barriers in order to reach the place of
:auldrons was depicted in the pose of a afterlife existence. Different versions or accounts of
ties, bound naked child. with a bad the netherworld gates were preserved in the various
and headache. Demons such as
funerary texts with over 1,000 deities depicted, but
.ished this were believed to be
responsible for many ailments in all cases the barriers were guarded by minor gods
lent 12 and illnesses. From a New who would allow only those who knew their secret
Kingdom ostracon. names - and thereby had power over them - to pass,

81
 (Right) The goddess Maat,
tomb of Neferrenpet, western
Thebes. As the daughter of
the sun god Re, Maat was
considered to personify the
first hour among the various
'hours of the day' deities.

On the walls of the royal tombs of the Valley of The following shows the 12 gates as depicted in
(Above and above right)
Knife-wielding demons seated the Kings twelve pylons or gates were commonly the royal tombs of the Valley of the Kings:
before 'gates' of the incorporated into the funerary texts - such as ver-
underworld. According to the Gate Representative Deities Features of the areas Each I
sions of the Book of Gates - inscribed during the
New Kingdom Book of Gates, religic
New Kingdom. Although each gate was depicted as The gods in the entrance,
the Book of the Dead, and associ
an architectural feature, it was named as a goddess the 4 weary ones 4 cardinal points
other texts, each underworld whorr:
and protected by a fire-spitting serpent and by its 2 Apophis, 2 enneads Lake of fire
portal was guarded by at least
3 Goddesses of the hours, god i
one such demon. Tomb of own guardian deity. The fifth gate, for example, is
Osiris, Horus Lake of life, lake of mand
Sennedjem, Deir el-Medina, termed 'she of duration', its serpent is called 'flame- uraei clear!
western Thebes. eyed' and its resident deity is 'true of heart'. In the 4 Gods of space and time,
here -
funerary papyri composed for nobles and others Osiris Throne of Osiris
deitie
there is more variation. In Chapter 144 of the Book 5 Osiris, Apophis, 12
restraining gods Circular lake of fire also c
of the Dead, for example, seven gates are men-
tioned, each with its own god, a doorkeeper and a 6 Osiris, the blessed and acros:
punished dead Stakes of Geb limin:
herald. Thus the seventh gate is watched by the god
7 Lords of provision in deitie
'sharpest of them ail', the doorkeeper 'strident of the West Fields of provisions
voice' and the herald 'rejector of rebels'. In other were
8 Fire-breathing serpent,
texts there are 21 gates known as the 'secret portals sons of Horus, ba souls Waters of the helpe
of the mansion of Osiris in the field of reeds', each drowned
9 Deities with nets, Hour
of which is given a number of names or epithets
Apophis Area leading to
and guarded by a zoo-anthropomorphic deity usually 1
'emergence' 2
depicted seated and holding a large knife. The 10 Apophis, face of Re, 3
names of the gates are mixed in nature, being some- goddesses of the hours Area of restraint of 4
times fearsome and sometimes innocuous as with Apophis 5
Gate 14 'mistress of anger, dancing on blood' or II Gods who carry the 6
Gate 3 'mistress of the altar'. The guardian deities blazing light, baboons of 7
sunrise Area directly before
are usually given terrifying or repulsive names such 8
dawn 9
as 'swallower of sinners' or 'existing on maggots' in 12 Isis, Nephthys, Nun, Nut, 10
order to heighten their threatening effect - although the reborn sun The primeval waters 11
in some cases they are unnamed in the texts, adding from which the sun
to the number of Egyptian deities known to have emerges 12
existed but impossible to catalogue.

82
Maat,
" western Hours of the Night Deities Groups of Deities
hier of
t ioas
ify the Each hour of the night (corresponding to a region of
, various the netherworld) was represented by a goddess who
nties. was protective or assistive in nature, with a particu-
lar role according to her position in the topography
of the underworld. All of the goddesses strength-
ened the sun god in some manner until the final
hour when the twelfth goddess, 'beholder of the
beauty of Re', witnessed the glorious rebirth of the
rejuvenated sun at the night's end. Accordingly, the
hour goddesses were given power by Re to control
the life spans of all living things, George Hart has
suggested that the ithyphallic figure called 'he who
conceals the hours' that is depicted in the burial
chamber of the tomb of Ramesses VI could symbol-
ize the power desired by the monarch to negate the
power of time that these goddesses might wield
over the deceased king. The epithets of the goddesses
are as follows:

Hour Epithet
1 Splitter of the heads of Re's enemies
2 The wise, guardian of her lord
3 Slicer of souls
4 Great of power
5 She on her boat
6 Proficient leader
.picted in
Hours of the Day Deities 7 Repeller of the snake (Apophis)
8 Mistress of the night
9 Adorer
"areas Each hour of the day was personified in Egyptian 10 Beheader of rebels
religious thought by a deity - all of which were 11 The star, repulser of rebels
associated with the sun in some way and many of 12 Beholder of the beauty of Re
nts
whom were often depicted along with the solar
god in representations of his day barque, the The hour goddesses were not frequently depicted,
ike of mandet. Although these gods and goddesses were but they appear in characteristically anthropomor-
clearly linked with units of time, they are grouped phic form in some representations of the New
lflS here - as are the hours of the night - as 'regional' Kingdom funerary texts known as the Book of
deities, as each hour of the day and night was Gates and the Amduat. In the burial chamber of the
)f fire also a place - a physical part of the sun's transit tomb of Ramesses I in the Valley of the Kings, for
across the sky or through the netherworld and the example, the twelve goddesses are represented in an
liminal areas of the two horizons. The first of these illustration of the third division of the Book of
risions deities was Maat, the daughter of Re, and the others Gates. The goddesses stand in two files, six on The twelve hours 01 the night
were descendants of the sun god or his servants or either side of a summary depiction of the nether- were personified as goddesses
helpers: world, in the centre of which is a huge coiled in the Book 01 Gates where
they were depicted in vignettes
serpent 'he who should be removed'. The goddesses
Hour Deity showing the twelve deities
each wear a five-pointed star on their heads but are grouped around a twisting
to
1 Maat undifferentiated except for their names and the serpent which represented the
2 Hu (annunciation) alternating colours of their individual costumes. endlessness 01 time.
3 Sia (perception)
lint of
4 Asbet
5 Igaret
6 Seth
7 Horus
before
8 Khonsu
9 Isis
10 Heka (magic)
waters
ie sun 11 The god who is given the tow-rope of the solar
barque
12 The god who gives protection in the twilight

83
 Groups of Deities judgment Deities (Great Tribunal,
Deities of the Hall of justice)
References to an afterlife judgment by a tribunal of
gods may appear as early as the Pyramid Texts (PT
317, 386, etc.). Such references are clear in the
Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts, and by the time the
Book of the Dead became the chief funerary text,
this judgment was seen as the crucial event in the
deceased's entrance to the afterlife. Spell 125 of the
(Below) The 42 deities of the
afterlife tribunal which judged Book of the Dead gives the so-called 'negative
the dead in the netherworld confession' or 'declaration of innocence' of the
'Hall of Justice'. Each deity deceased before a tribunal of 42 gods who were the
was responsible for a assessors who judged the dead in the netherworld
particular crime which Hall of Justice or 'Hall of the Two Truths'. The dec-
ranged from murder and
rapaciousness to religious laration takes the form of an address by the
transgressions such as deceased to each judge - who is named along with
blasphemy or damaging the protestation of innocence regarding the specific
the image of a god. crime judged by that god. The gods were listed

Name of God Identification Crime judged

1 Far-strider Heliopolis falsehood
2 Fire-embracer Kherara robbery
3 Nosey Hermopolis rapaciousness
4 Swallower of shades the cavern stealing
5 Dangerous One Rosetau murder
6 Doublelion the sky destruction of food
7 Fiery eyes Letopolis crookedness
8 Flame Came forth backwards stealing offerings
9 Bone Breaker Herakleopolis lying
according to their individual names and usually
10 Green of flame Memphis taking food pole or
11 You of the cavern the West sullenness either a geographical area or some other identifying
and nar
12 White of teeth Fayum transgression characteristic. Together, the 42 deities 'who hear ibis, fisl
13 Blood-eater the shambles killing a sacred bull cases' were apparently believed to represent all pos- In tl:
14 Eater of entrails House of Thirty perjury sible types of evil. The names of some of these
15 Lord of truth Maaty stealing bread
Egypt':
deities are reminiscent of more well-known gods female,
16 Wanderer Bubastis eavesdropping
17 Pale One
(such as Nosey of Hermopolis = Thoth; White of emblerr
Heliopolis babbling
18 Doubly evil Andjet disputing Teeth = Sobek) whom they may represent.
19 Wememty·snake place of execution homosexuality The council of assessor gods is frequently
20 See whom you bring House of Min misbehaviour depicted in vignettes illustrating Chapter 125 of the
21 Over the Old One mau terrorizing Book of the Dead, though only occasionally are
22 Demolisher Chois transgressing all 42 of the gods shown. More frequently a repre-
23 Disturber Weryt being hot-tempered
24 Youth Heliopolitan nome
sentative selection of the deities is made. The gods
unhearing of truth
25 Foreteller Wenes making disturbance may be shown squatting in the position of the
26 You of the altar the secret place hoodwinking 'seated god' hieroglyph, or standing, and may hold
27 Face behind him cavern of wrong copulating with a boy knives or maat feathers as symbols of their judicial
28 Hot-foot the dusk neglect power.
29 You of the darkness the darkness quarrelling
30 Bringer of your offering Sais unduly active
31 Owner of faces Nedjefet impatience Nome Deities
32 Accuser Wetjenet damaging a god's image
33 Owner of horns Asyut volubility of speech
34 Nefertem Memphis wrongdoing, beholding evil Egypt was traditionally divided into administrative
35 Temsep Busiris conjuration against the king districts which the Egyptians called sepaut and the
36 You who acted willfully Tjebu wading in water Greeks nomoi, from which the word nome comes.
37 Water-srniter the abyss being loud voiced
'For most of the dynastic era there were 22 Upper
38 Commander of mankind your house reviling God
39 Bestower of good the harpoon nome doing .. .? Egyptian provinces or nomes and in the later peri-
40 Bestower of powers the city making distinctions for self ods Lower Egypt was also divided into 20 nomes.
41 Serpent with raised head the cavern dishonest wealth Each of these nomes had its own emblem - usually
42 Serpent who brings and that of its titulary deity/deities or some other distin-
gives the silent land blasphemy guishing element - which was displayed upon a

84
I usually pole or standard so that the nomes were recognized depictions show them processionally carrying (Above) The judgment of the
entifying and named after their symbols, with names such as offerings into the temple to signify the gifts of their deceased in the Hall of Justice
vho hear ibis, fish, or crocodile nome. areas to the upkeep and welfare of the god's from the l Sth-dynasty Book of
it all pos- the Dead of Hunefer, British
In the representations carved on the walls of houses. Usually the 22 nomes of Upper Egypt were
of these Museum. Hunefer is shown
Egypt's temples, the nomes were depicted as either depicted on the southern walls of temples and undergoing the weighing of
wn gods female or androgynous figures, usually bearing the the 20 nomes of Lower Egypt were depicted on the the heart, before the throne of
White of emblems of their districts on their heads. Their northern walls. Osiris, and also kneeling
before a variant of the
'equently Heliopolitan Ennead with
25 of the certain additional deities.
nally are Other vignettes of the Book of
r a repre-
the Dead show some or all of
the 42 deities who were
fhe gods believed to oversee this
n of the judgment.
nay hold
r judicial

iistrative
:tand the Fecundity figures personifying
Ie comes. nomes, cities and estates -
22 Upper and sometimes identified with
ater peri- the king - are frequently
:0 nomes. depicted in Egyptian temples
-usually in the symbolic presentation of
produce and offerings.
ier distin- 19th dynasty. Temple of
:I upon a Ramesses II. Abydos.

85
 Nome Name Location (modern) Major Deities
Upper Ta-Seti First cataract to north of Gebel el-Silsila Khnum, Satis, Anukis, Isis,
LOWI
...
Egyptian ~ Horus the Elder, Sobek Eqv]:
Nomes and Non
their Deities
2
_0~ Throne of Horus Region of Edfu Horus
theit
3 Shrine Kom el-Ahmar to north of Esna Horus, Nekhbet, Khnum, Neith
~
4 Sceptre Region of Armant and Luxor Amun, Mut, Khonsu, Montu, Buchis,

1 Region of Qift
Sobek

5 ~~ Two Falcons Min,Seth

6 Crocodile Region of Dendera Hathor

~
7 Sistrum Region of Hiw Bat
~
8 Great Land Region of Abydos and Ghirga Khentamentiu, Osiris, Onuris
~
9 Min Region of Akhmim Min
~
=0=
10 Cobra Region of Qaw el-Kebir Seth, Mihos, Nemtywy
~
11 Seth Region of Deir Rifa Seth
~
12 Viper Mount Region of Deir el-Gebrawi opposite
M Asyut Nemty
~
Upper Sycamore and
13~moo Viper Region of Asyut Wepwawet, Anubis

14 Lower Sycamore and

O~ Viper Region of Meir and el-Qusiya Hathor

15
"-- Hare Region of el-Amarna, el-Ashmunein
~ and el-Bersha Thoth, Ogdoad, Aten

16 Oryx From Beni Hasan to north of el-Minya Pakhet, Khnum

~
17 Jackal Region of Samalut Anubis
~
Nemty Region of el-Hiba to opposite el-Lahun Nemty
18~

19 Two Sceptres From el-Bahnasa to Biba Seth, Mormyrus fish

lJ] 1
Southern Sycamore Region of Beni Suef Heryshef
200~

21
O~ Northern Sycamore Region of el-Wasta and Meidum Khnum, Seneferu

22 Knife From Atfih to region of Dahshur Hathor

~

86
 Nome Name Location (modern) Major Deities
,
Lower WhiteWall Region of el-Lisht and Memphis Ptah, Sokar, Apis
I

Egyptian
Names and 2
i1~ Foreleg SW Delta around Ausim Horus, Kherty
~
their Deities
th 3 West NW Delta region west of Rosetta
branch of Nile Hathor
Buchis, ~
Southern Shield SW Delta N. and S. of Samadun Neith
4K!

Northern Shield Region of Sa el-Hagar to coast Neith

5KI

Mountain Bull Central Delta to coast Re

6~~

7;tf Western Harpoon NW Delta region east of Rosetta

branch of Nile Ha

----
8;tf Eastern Harpoon E. Delta along Wadi Tummilat Atum

9 Andjety Central Delta S. of Samannud Osiris, Andjety

---- rn Black Ox SE Delta below Benha Horus

10c:::'§;~

11 Ox count East Delta around Tell el-Muqdam Shu, Tefnut, Mihos

O~
Calf and Cow NE Delta from Samannud to coast Onuris
12~

13 Prospering Sceptre SE Delta apex Aturn, Iusaas, Mnevis

1 ~
Foremost of the East Eastern Delta S. of Port Said Seth
14~f

Ibis NE Delta region of Damietta

15~ branch of Nile Thoth

Fish NE Delta from Tell el-Rub'a to coast Banebdjedet, Hatrnehyt

16~
----
17 ~~
e,:::::J @
Behdet NE Delta region around el-Balamun
to coast Horus

18)~ Prince of the South SE Delta around Tell Basta Bastet

Prince of the North NE Delta E. of San el-Hagar Wadjet

19)~

Plumed Falcon E Delta above Wadi Turnmilat Sopdu

20~

---

87
 (Right) The goddess Neith
lustrates the jackal-headed
Duamutef Each of the four
sons of Horus was protected
by one of the four tutelary
goddesses, Isis, Nephthys,
Neith and Serket. In this way
the viscera of the deceased
received a double degree of
protection. Decorated canopic
chest. Third Intermediate
Period. Egyptian Museum,
Cairo.

The four sons of Horus, tomb The four gods were the human-headed Imsety gods were
of Ay, western Valley of the Sons of Horus who guarded the liver (and who was himself guarded wrapped r
Kings, Thebes. This unique
by Isis); the baboon-headed Hapy who guarded the In the v
representation depicts the
sons of Horus as seated The earliest reference to these four gods is found in lungs (protected by Nephthys); the jackal-headed four sons <

mummiform figures wearing the Pyramid Texts where they are said to be the Duamutef who guarded the stomach (often protected ways. In t
the White Crown of Upper children and also the 'souls' of Horus, They are also by Neith); and the falcon-headed Qebesenuef, as diminu
Egypt (at left, on the southern called the 'friends of the king' and assist the guardian of the intestines (who was often protected before the
side) and the Red Crown of deceased monarch in ascending into the sky (PT by Serket). The four gods were sometimes depicted
Lower Egypt (at right, on the
1278--79)_The same gods were also known as the on the sides of the canopic chest and had specific
northern side). 18th dynasty.
sons of Osiris and were later said to be members of symbolic orientations, with Imsety usually being
the group called 'the seven blessed ones' whose job aligned with the south, Hapy with the north,
was to protect the netherworld god's coffin. Their Duamutef with the east and Qebesenuef with the
afterlife mythology led to important roles in the west. They were also depicted on the long sides of
funerary assemblage, particularly in association coffins and sarcophagi with Hapy and Qebesenuef
with the containers now traditionally called canopic being placed on the west side while Imsety and
jars in which the internal organs of the deceased Duamutef were placed on the east. During the Third
were preserved. At first the stoppers of these jars Intermediate Period embalming practices changed
were often carved into the shape of human heads and the preserved organs were returned to the body
representing the head of the deceased, but from the cavity, each with an amulet of its respective son of
(Right) Limestone canopic
jars with the heads of 18th dynasty they were carved in the form of the Horus attached. Later similar figures of the four
Duamutef Oebesenuef Imsety four sons of Horus who had become the patron
and Hapy. Originally, jars deities of their contents. Each deity was in turn said
depicting the sons of Horus to be guarded by one of the funerary goddesses,
were made with human- though there was some variation in this linkage.
headed stoppers but near the
The group may have been based on the symbolic
end of the 18th dynasty they
were given the characteristic completeness of the number four alone, but they are
forms seen here. Egyptian often given geographic associations and hence
Museum, Cairo became a kind of 'regional' group. Ramessesl
a falcon-he:
and ajacka
Name Appearance Organ Orientation Tutelary Deity Nekhen. n
celebrate th
Imsety Human Liver South Isis the kingwh
Duamutef Jackal Stomach East Neith a ba Tomb
Hapy Baboon Lungs North Nephthys Valley of th
Qebesenuef Falcon Intestines West Serket Thebes.

88
Veith
aded
iefour
'otected
elary
'hys,
his way
eased
ree of
canopic
liate

shrine of Tutankhamun they appear as heads fused The four sons of Horus
with the body of a protective serpent In late New depicted as mummiform
Kingdom times the sons of Horus were also repre- figures and as deities on a
stylized mound. The four
sented as star gods (see p. 91) in the northern sky. deities became increasingly
important in the Egyptian
mortuary sphere. Papyrus of
Souls of Nekhen and Pe Anhai, British Museum.

The sacred ancestral bau 'souls' of the Lower

Egyptian city of Pe (Buto) and the Upper Egyptian
city of Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) symbolized the
[ Imsety gods were also often stitched onto the outside of the predynastic rulers of the two regions and were
guarded wrapped mummy. regarded as powerful spirits or deities who served
rded the In the vignettes of the various funerary texts the the deceased king and who also assisted the living
l-headed four sons of Horus could be represented in differing king. In the Pyramid Texts the souls of Pe mourn
irotected ways. In the Book of the Dead they may be shown the death of Osiris - the symbolic father of the king
esenuef, as diminutive figures standing on a lotus blossom - and urge the vengeance of Horus - the living king
irotected before the throne of Osiris, and on the third funerary - against Osiris' murderer (PT 1004-07); and the
depicted
specific
ly being
e north,
with the
sides of
besenuef
sety and
he Third
I
changed
the body
ve son of
the four

Ramesses I depicted between

afalcon-headed 'soul' of Pe
and a jackal-headed 'soul' of
Nekhen. The bau or souls
celebrate the regeneration of
the king who has also become
a ba Tomb of Ramesses 1,
Valleyof the Kings, western
Thebes.

89
 souls of both areas are likened to stars (PT 904) who enthroned god himself by means of carrying poles boat of t
Groups of Deities
provide a gilded 'ladder' for the deceased king to beneath his chair. Osiris al:
climb into the sky (PT 478-79,1253). 'followers
The souls of Pe are represented as falcon-headed major the
and those of Nekhen as jackal-headed gods. They Star Deities the star de
are both often depicted in the kneeling henu or The bri
'jubilation' position as they salute the rising sun or Egyptian astronomical texts and representations moon, the
participate in other celebratory rituals. In the tomb mention many gods and goddesses of the night sky viewed ev
of Ramesses I in the Valley of the Kings they are - some representing planets as well as astral bodies and from
shown flanking the king in this position, celebrat- - which are conveniently called star deities. Most tians rece
ing the rejuvenation of the kings ba or soul, as they important of these were the 'Imperishable Ones' called'sta
themselves are bau or souls. In this particular repre- representing the northern circumpolar stars which resented c:
sentation, the written henu hieroglyph is visible in were visible each night, as opposed to the great their own
the inscription above the figures of the gods which majority of stars which appeared and disappeared perhaps,
are, in fact, simply hieroglyphs made large. In a sim- from view according to the earth's orbital move- crosses' 0
ilar representation from the 18th-dynasty temple at ments. These constant stars symbolized the idea of the horizo
Buhen in Nubia, the falcon-headed gods of Pe are eternal survival for the Egyptians and it seems to limits the
accompanied by an inscription which states 'May have been the goal of early kings to join their num- the heaver
they give all life and power. .. [and] all stability ber in the afterlife. Evidence for this early astral cult As time
which they have .. .' showing that the gesturing fig- is clearly found in the Pyramid Texts alongside the were mapj
ures could also be symbolic of divine gifts. In solar theology which had achieved dominance proved e:
temple scenes the souls of Nekhen and Pe (or before the 5th dynasty. The two approaches are not cases. At
masked priests) may carry the barque shrine of the always successfully syncretized, so that the constellati
god on poles placed upon their shoulders, or, as in deceased king is said to be the morning star on the Leo and D
the temple of Horus at Edfu, they may carry the one hand, while he is also said to cross the sky in the and other
deities wi
astral deit
(Right) Part of the elaborate
ceiling decoration of the the Middh
burial chamber of Ramesses dars had I
Vl showing the overarching sky into 2
body of the goddess Nut, the visualized
newly born sun, and a across the
number of netherworld deities
important
and gods of the various hours
of the day. The scene
illustrates the New Kingdom
composition known as the
Book of the Day and shows
the stars travelling along the
inside of the sky goddess's
body during the diurnal
period. 20th dynasty. Valley
of the Kings, western Thebes.

90
'ying poles boat of the sun god. The growth of the cult of
Osiris also led to the stars being called the
'followers' of that god, so that it is clear that the
major theological systems attempted to incorporate
the star deities into their own schemes.
The brightest object in the night sky after the
-sentations moon, the planet Venus (the 'morning star'), was
enight sky viewed even from early times as an important deity;
tral bodies and from at least the Middle Kingdom the Egyp-
ities. Most tians recognized five of the planets which they
able Ones' called 'stars that know no rest' and which were rep-
tars which resented as gods who sailed across the heavens in
. the great their own barques. These were Mercury (Sebegu,
sappeared perhaps a form of Seth), Venus ('the one who
.ital move- crosses' or 'god of the morning'), Mars (Horus of
the idea of the horizon' or 'Horus the red'), Jupiter (,Horus who
t seems to limits the Two Lands'), and Saturn (,Horus bull of
their num- the heavens').
astral cult As time progressed, many of the brighter stars
mgside the were mapped into constellations, though these have rising approximated the beginning of the Nile's (Above) Personified
dominance proved extremely difficult to identify in some inundation. In several of the royal tombs of the cons tellations, ceiling 0/ the
hes are not cases, At the least, equivalents of the modern Valley of the Kings - such as those of Sethos I and burial chamber 0/ Sethos I,
that the Valley 0/ the Kings, Thebes.
constellations of Orion, the Great Bear, and perhaps Ramesses VI - the night sky is depicted on the
star on the Leo and Draco are recognizable, however; and these ceiling of the burial chamber and many of the
(Below) Three star deities
.sky in the and other groupings represented either standard important star deities are represented and named. including Jmsety (centre - as
deities within the Egyptian pantheon or unique At this time many familiar deities - such as the four a goddess), and Hapy (right).
astral deities with their own identities. Already by sons of Horus - also appeared as star gods. Tomb 0/ Pedamenope, Thebes.
the Middle Kingdom complex 'star-clocks' or calen-
dars had been constructed which divided the night
sky into 36 decans or groups of stars which were
visualized as 'star gods' who rose and moved
across the sky in the course of ten days, the most
important being Sirius (Sothis - see p. 167), whose

91