Module-3

COLLECTION, STORAGE, TRANSPORT

AND
DISPOSAL OF WASTES

BY,
Mrs. Chaithra K.S .,
Assistant Professor,
JVIT, BIDADI

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Waste Collection, Storage and Transport

 Collection components
 Storage-containers/collection vehicles
 Collection operation
 Transfer station
 Waste collection system design
 Record keeping, control, inventory and monitoring
 Implementing collection and transfer system
 A Case study

Waste Disposal

 Key issues in waste disposal

 Disposal options and selection criteria
 Sanitary landfill, landfill gas emission
 Leachate formation
 Environmental effects of landfill
 Landfill operation issues
 A case study

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DISPOSAL OPTIONS AND SELECTION CRITERIA

DISPOSAL OPTIONS

1. Uncontrolled dumping or non-engineered disposal

Most common method being practised in many parts of the world, and India is no
exception.
Wastes are dumped at a designated site without any environmental control. They tend to
remain there for a long period of time, pose health risks and cause environmental
degradation. Due to the adverse health and environmental impact associated with it, the non-
engineered disposal is not considered a viable and safe option.
2. Sanitary landfill
Sanitary landfill is a fully engineered disposal option in that the selected location or
wasteland is carefully engineered in advance before it is pressed into service.
Operators of sanitary landfills can minimise the effects of leachate and gas production
through proper site selection, preparation and management. This particular option of waste
disposal is suitable when the land is available at an affordable price, and adequate
workforce and technical resources are available to operate and manage the site.
3. Composting
This is a biological process of decomposition in which organisms, under controlled
conditions of ventilation, temperature and moisture, convert the organic portion of solid
waste into humus -like material. If this process is carried out effectively, what we get as the
final product is a stable, odour-free soil conditioner. Generally, the option of composting
is considered, when a considerable amount of biodegradable waste is available in the waste
stream and there is use or market for composts.
4. Incineration
This refers to the controlled burning of wastes, at a high temperature
(roughly 1200–1500oC), which sterilises and stabilises the waste in addition to reducing its
volume.
In the process, most of the combustible materials such as paper or plastics get converted into
carbon dioxide and ash. Incineration may be used as a disposal option, when land filling is
not possible and the waste composition is highly combustible. An appropriate technology,
infrastructure and skilled workforce are required to operate and maintain the plant.

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5. Gasification
This is the partial combustion of carbonaceous material (through
combustion) at high temperature (roughly 1000 C) forming a gas, comprising mainly
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, water vapour and methane, which can
be used as fuel.
6. Refuse-derived fuel (RDF)
This is the combustible part of raw waste, separated for burning as fuel. Various physical
processes such as screening, size reduction, magnetic separation, etc., are used to separate the
combustibles.
7. Pyrolysis
This is the thermal degradation of carbonaceous material to gaseous, liquid and solid
fraction in the absence of oxygen. This occurs at a temperature between 200 and 900oC.

SELECTION CRITERIA
1. Technical
This feature, involving efficient and effective operation of the technology being used,
evaluates the following components of a SWM system
 Composition of wastes, e.g., type, characteristics and quantity
 Existing practices, e.g., collection, transport, and recycling process.
 Siting, e.g., location of disposal site, engineering material, etc.
 Technology, e.g., operation, maintenance, technical support, etc.
 Impact, e.g., anticipated by-product, requirement for their treatment and disposal, etc.
2. Institutional
This involves the ability and willingness of responsible agencies to operate and manage the
system by evaluating the following
 Structures, roles and responsibilities, e.g., current institutional frameworks.
 Operational capacity, e.g., municipal capacities, local experience and staff training.
 Incentives, e.g., management improvement and waste disposal practices.
 Innovation and partnership.
3. Financial
This assesses the ability to finance the implementation, operation and maintenance of the
system by evaluating the following
 Financing and cost recovery, e.g., willingness to raise finance for waste management.

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 Current revenue and expenditure on waste management.
 Potential need for external finance for capital cost.
4. Social
This helps in avoiding adverse social impact by evaluating the following
 Health and income implication.
 Public opinions on the existing and proposed system.

SANITARY LANDFILL

The term landfill generally refers to an engineered deposit of wastes either in

pits/trenches or on the surface.
Landfill need not necessarily be an engineered site, when the waste is largely inert at final
disposal, as in rural areas, where wastes contain a large proportion of soil and dirt. When
compared to uncontrolled dumping, engineered landfills are more likely to have pre-planned
installations, environmental monitoring, and organised and trained workforce. Sanitary
landfill implementation, requires careful site selection, preparation and management.

The four minimum requirements you need to consider for a sanitary landfill are:
(i) full or partial hydrological isolation
(ii)formal engineering preparation
(iii)permanent control
(iv)planned waste emplacement and covering

1. PRINCIPLE
The purpose of land filling is to bury or alter the chemical composition of the wastes
so that they do not pose any threat to the environment or public health. Landfills are not
homogeneous and are usually made up of cells in which a discrete volume of waste is kept
isolated from adjacent waste cells by a suitable barrier.
The barriers between cells generally consist of a layer of natural soil (i.e., clay), which
restricts downward or lateral escape of the waste constituents or leachate.
Land filling relies on containment rather than treatment (for control) of wastes. If properly
executed, it is a safer and cheaper method than incineration.
Figure below gives a schematic layout of sanitary landfill along with its various components

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 Fig 1.1 Sanitary Landfill

2. LANDFILL PROCESSES
(i) Site selection process and considerations
This requires the development of a working plan, outlining the development and descriptions
of site location, operation, engineering and site restoration.
Include public opinion, traffic patterns and congestion, climate, zoning requirements,
availability of cover material and liner as well, high trees or buffer in the site perimeter,
historic buildings, and endangered species, wetlands, and site land
environmental factors, speed limits, underpass limitations, load limits on roadways, bridge
capacities, and proximity of major roadways, haul distance, hydrology and detours.
(ii) Settling process
The waste body of a landfill undergoes different stages of settling or deformation.

Fig 1.2 Settling Processes in Landfill

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The three stages shown above are described below
Primary consolidation: During this stage, a substantial amount of settling occurs. This
settlement is caused by the weight of the waste layers. The movement of trucks, bulldozers
or mechanical compactors will also enhance this process. After this primary consolidation, or
short-term deformation stage, aerobic degradation processes occur.
Secondary compression: During this stage, the rate of settling is much lower than that
in the primary consolidation stage, as the settling occurs through compression, which cannot
be enhanced.
Decomposition: During the degradation processes, organic material is converted into gas and
leachate. The settling rate during this stage increases compared to the secondary compression
stage, and continues until all decomposable organic matter is degraded. The settling rate,
however, gradually decreases with the passage of time.

(iii)Microbial degradation process

The microbial degradation process is the most important biological process occurring in a
landfill.
These processes induce changes in the chemical and physical environment within the waste
body, which determine the quality of leachate and both the quality and quantity of landfill
gas.
Microbial processes will dominate the stabilisation of the waste and therefore govern landfill
gas generation and leachate composition.
Soon after disposal, the predominant part of the wastes becomes anaerobic, and the
bacteria will start degrading the solid organic carbon, to produce carbon dioxide
and methane.
The anaerobic degradation process undergoes the following stages:
 Solid and complex dissolved organic compounds are hydrolysed and fermented by the
fermenters primarily to volatile fatty acids, alcohols, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
 An acidogenic group of bacteria converts the products of the first stage to acetic acid,
hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
 Methanogenic bacteria convert acetic acid to methane and carbon dioxide.
 Hydrogenophilic bacteria convert hydrogen and carbon dioxide to methane.

3. LANDFILL GAS AND LEACHATE

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Leachate and landfill gas comprise the major hazards associated with a landfill.
Nature of waste: The deposition of waste containing biodegradable matter invariably leads
to the production of gas and leachate, and the amount depends on the content of
biodegradable material in the waste.
Moisture content: Most micro-organisms require a minimum of approximately 12%
moisture for growth, and thus the moisture content of landfill waste is an important factor
in determining the amount and extent of leachate and gas production.
pH: Methanogenic bacteria within a landfill produce methane gas, which will grow only at
low pH range around neutrality.
Particle size and density: The size of waste particle affects the density that can be
achieved upon compaction and affects the surface area and hence volume.
Temperature: An increase in temperature tends to increase gas production. The temperature
affects the microbial activity to the extent that it is possible to segregate bacteria, according to
their optimum temperature operating conditions.

LANDFILL GAS EMISSION

Landfill gas contains a high percentage of methane due to the anaerobic decomposition of
organic matter, which can be utilised as a source of energy.
1. COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES
A typical landfill gas contains a number of components which tend to occur within a
characteristic range
Methane: This is a colourless, odourless and flammable gas with a density lighter than air,
typically making up 50 - 60% of the landfill gas.
Carbon dioxide: This is a colourless, odourless and non-inflammable gas that is denser than
air, typically accounting for 30 - 40%.
Oxygen: The flammability of methane depends on the percentage of oxygen. It is,
therefore, important to control oxygen levels, where gas abstraction is undertaken.
Nitrogen: This is essentially inert and will have little effect, except to modify t explosive
range of methane.
2. HAZARDS
Landfill gas consists of a mixture of flammable, asphyxiating and noxious gases and may be
hazardous to health and safety, and hence the need for precautions.
Some of the major hazards are as below

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Explosion and fire: Methane is flammable in air within the range of 5 - 15% by
volume, while hydrogen is flammable within the range of 4.1 - 7.5% (in the presence of
oxygen) and potentially explosive. Fire, occurring within the waste, can be
difficult to extinguish and can lead to unpredictable and uncontrolled subsidence as well as
production of smoke and toxic fumes.
Trace components: These comprise mostly alkanes and alkenes, and their oxidation
products such as aldehydes, alcohols and esters . Many of them are recognised as
toxicants, when present in air at concentrations above occupational exposure
standards.
Global warming: Known also as greenhouse effect, it is the warming of the earth's
atmosphere by the accumulation of gases (methane, carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons)
that absorbs reflected solar radiation.
3. MIGRATION
During landfill development, most of the gas produced is vented to the atmosphere,
provided the permeable intermediate cover has been used. While biological and chemical
processes affect gas composition through methane oxidation, which converts methane to
carbon dioxide, physical factors affect gas migration.
The physical factors that affect gas migration include
Environmental conditions : These affect the rate of degradation and gas pressure build
up.
Geophysical conditions: In the presence of fractured geological strata or a mineshaft, the gas
may travel large distances, unless restricted by the water table.
Climatic conditions: Falling atmospheric pressure, rainfall and water infiltration rate affect
landfill gas migration.
The proportion of void space in the ground, rather than permeability, determines the
variability of gas emission. If the escape of landfill gas is controlled and proper extraction
system is designed, this gas can be utilised as a source of energy. Landfill gas heating value
is approximately 6kWh/m3 and can be utilised in internal combustion engines for production
of electricity and heat.
Landfill gas is extracted out of the landfill by means of gas wells, which are normally drilled
by auger and are driven into the landfill at a spacing of 40 - 70 m.
The most important factors influencing planning and construction of landfill gas extraction
systems are settling of waste, water tables in landfills and gas quality.

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LEACHATE FORMATION

Leachate can pollute both groundwater and surface water supplies. The degree of pollution
will depend on local geology and hydrogeology, nature of waste and the proximity of
susceptible receptors. Once groundwater is contaminated, it is very costly to clean it up.
Landfills, therefore, undergo siting, design and construction procedures that control leachate
migration.

1. COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

Leachate comprises soluble components of waste and its degradation products enter water,
as it percolates through the landfill.
The amount of leachate generated depends on
 water availability
 landfill surface condition
 refuse state
 condition of surrounding strata
2. CONTROL
The best way to control leachate is through prevention. It is necessary to control
liquid access, collection and treatment, all of which can be done using the following
landfill liners
 Natural liners: These refer to compacted clay or shale, bitumen or soil sealants,
etc., and are generally less permeable, resistant to chemical attack and have good
sorption properties. They generally do not act as true containment barriers, because
sometimes leachate migrates through them.
 Synthetic (geo-membrane) liners: These are typically made up of high or medium
density polyethylene and are generally less permeable, easy to install, relatively strong
and have good Deformation characteristics. They sometimes expand or shrink
according to temperature and age.
3. TREATMENT
Concentrations of various substances occurring in leachate are too high to be discharged
to surface water or into a sewer system. These concentrations, therefore, have to be
reduced by removal, treatment or both. The various treatments of leachate include:

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 Leachate recirculation: It is one of the simplest forms of treatment. Recirculation of
leachate reduces the hazardous nature of leachate and helps wet the waste, increasing
its potential for biological degradation.
 Biological treatment: This removes BOD, ammonia and suspended solids. Common
methods are aerated lagoons and activated sludge process.
Under conditions of low COD, rotating biological contactors are very effective in
removing ammonia. In an anaerobic treatment system, complex organic molecules are
fermented in filter. The common types are anaerobic filters, anaerobic lagoon and
digesters.
 Physicochemical treatment: Physicochemical treatment processes could be installed to
improve the leachate effluent quality. Some of these processes are flocculation-
precipitation. Separation of the floc from water takes place by sedimentation, adsorption
and reverse osmosis.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF LANDFILL

The environmental effects of a landfill include wind-blown litter and dust, noise, obnoxious
odour, vermin and insects attracted by the waste, surface runoff and in aesthetic conditions.
1. Wind-blown litter and dust are continuous problems of the on-going landfill operation
and a nuisance to the neighbourhood. Covering the waste cells with soil and spraying
water on dirt roads and waste in dry periods, in combination with fencing and movable
screens, may minimise the problem of wind-blown litter and dust.
2. Movementof waste collection vehicles, emptying of wastes from them,compactors, earth
moving equipment, etc., produce noise. Improving the technical capability of the
equipment, surrounding the fill area with soil embankments and plantations, limiting the
working hours and appropriately training the workforce will help minimise noise
pollution.
3. Birds, vermin, insects and animals are attracted to the landfill for
feeding and breeding. Since many of these may act as disease vectors, their presence is a
potential health problem.
4. Surface run-off, which has been in contact with the land filled waste, may be a problem
in areas of intense rainfall. If not controlled, heavily polluted run-off may enter directly
into creeks and streams.

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5. An operating landfill, where equipment and waste are exposed, appears unaesthetic. This
problem may be reduced by careful design of screening soil embankments, plantings,
rapid covering and re-vegetation of filled sections.
6. Gas released, as a result of degradation or volatilisation of waste components, causes
odour, flammability, health problems and damage of the vegetation. The measures
to control this include liners, soil covers, passive venting or active extraction of gas for
treatment before discharge into the atmosphere.
7. Polluted leachate appears shortly after disposal of waste. This maycause groundwater
pollution of streams through sub-surface migration.
Liners,drainage collection, treatment of leachate, and groundwater and downstream water
quality monitoring are necessary to control this problem.

LANDFILL OPERATION ISSUES

(i) Site infrastructure
The size, type and number of buildings required at a landfill depend on factors such as the
level of waste input, the expected life of the site and environmental factors. Depending on the
size and complexity of the landfill, buildings range from single portable cabins to big
complexes.
 Need to comply with planning, building, fire, health and safety regulations and
controls;
 security and resistance to vandalism;
 durability of service and the possible need to relocate accommodation during the
lifetime of the site operations;
 ease of cleaning and maintenance;
 Availability of services such as electricity,water,drainage and telecommunication.
 Paying some attention to the appearance of the site entrance is necessary, as it influences
the perception of the public about the landfill site. All landfill sites need to control and
keep records of vehicles entering and leaving the site, and have a weighbridge to record
waste input data, which can be analysed by a site control office.
(ii) Earthworks
 Various features of landfill operations may require substantial earthworks.
 Earthworks gain significance, if artificial liners are to be installed, which involves grading
the base and sides of the site and the formation of embankments.

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 Material may also have to be placed in stockpiles for later use at the site.
 The cell method of operation requires the construction of cell walls.
 At some sites, it may be necessary to construct earth banks around the site perimeter to
screen the landfill operations from the public.
 Trees or shrubs may then be planted on the banks to enhance the screening effect.
 The construction of roads leading to disposal sites also involves earthworks.
(iii) Lining landfill sites
 If the use of a liner is needed, the suitability of a site for lining should be evaluated at the
site investigation stage.
 They should not be installed, until the site has been properly prepared.
 The area to be lined should be free of objects likely to cause physical damage to the liner,
such as vegetation and hard rocks.
 If synthetic liner materials are used, a binding layer of suitable fine-grained material
should be laid to support the liner.
 if the supporting layer consists of low permeable material (e.g., clay), the synthetic liner
must be placed on top of this layer.
(iv) Leachate and landfill gas management
 The basic elements of the leachate collection system (i.e., drain pipes, drainage layers,
collection pipes, sumps, etc.) must be installed immediately above the liner, before any
waste is deposited.
 Care must also be taken to prevent the drain and collection pipes from settling.
 Waste cells are covered with soil to avoid additional contact between waste and the
environment.
 The soil layers have to be sufficiently permeable to allow downward leachate transport.
 Landfill gas is not extracted before completion, which includes construction of final
cover, of the waste body.
 Extraction wells (diameter 0.3 to 1.0 m) may be constructed during or after operation.
(v) Landfill capping
 Capping is required to control and minimise leachate generation and facilitate landfill gas
control or collection.
 A cap may consist of natural (e.g., clay) or synthetic (e.g., poly-ethylene) material with
thickness of at least 1 m.
 An uneven settlement of the waste may be a major cause of cap failure.

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 For the cap to remain effective, it must be protected from agricultural machinery, drying
and cracking, plant root penetration, burrowing animals and erosion.

A CASE STUDY

Bangalore city, India’s Silicon Valley, situated in the Deccan plateau’s Southeastern
side.This city is located at 12.9716° N, 77.5946° E. Average temperature lies between 26.1℃
and 15.1℃ with an average precipitation of 970 mm. Rivers flowing nearby include
Vrishabhavati and Arkavati. City is located at an altitude of 920m from sea level.
Segregation of solid waste is one of the biggest crises in Bangalore, by measures of BBMP
and private waste collectors 15-20% of solid waste is segregated before reaching any
landfill/dumping yard. Waste collection in Bangalore occurs primarily by Poura karmikas
and BBMP workers who collect wastes door-to-door and carried by carts. Then the waste is
managed by landfills or by voluntary involvement of Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGO’s) or by private vendors. In growing cities like Bangalore, waste production increases
exponentially due to emerging living standards, population explosion, and development in
industries and IT sectors. Management issues in solid wastes can even effect in pollution of
water, air, and soil also. It needs to review the current scenario of Bangalore city for solid
waste management and disposal techniques.

Wastes produced in Bangalore that are around 5000-6000 tones can be categorized as
Organic, Recyclables, E-waste, and debris. Organic waste comprises around 60-70% of
total wastes. Measures were taken by Govt. of Karnataka include disposal of wastes produced
by large organizations like hotels, apartments, railway stations, holy places, aerodromes, at
private vendors, or management of left-overs in their own grounds using biogas plants or
sewage treatment plants.

Individual waste producers such as houses and small shops are directed to dispose of wastes
in civic waste accumulators.

Even after actions taken by Govt. of Karnataka, only 7-8% of waste is controlled and
recycled and rest is discarded in landfill sites in outskirts of Bangalore. Although the design
period of landfill sites is 5-10 years, the quantity of waste formed and indecorous
management has directed to the closure of many sites and also contaminated its surrounds.

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Recyclable and non-recyclable dry wastes, bio-medical waste and e-waste collectively called
as dry waste is managed by around 150-200 dry waste gathering hubs by BBMP. Dry waste
is then isolated, and remnants are sent to landfill sites. Bio-medicals waste such as sanitary
napkins, diapers, perished medications are to be stockpiled and incinerated by appropriate
measures as per directives of BBMP.

Samples of water were collected to analyze the amount of contamination. Samples 1,2,3 were
collected from the surroundings of the Mavallipura landfill site near Yelahanka, Bangalore.
Samples 4,5 were collected from the surroundings of the landfill in Mittaganahalli,
Yelahanka. Samples 6,7 were collected in the surroundings of the Bellahalli landfill site,
Yelahanka. It was carefully collected in clean and sterile containers.

The samples were analyzed in a laboratory for water parameters with standard methods.
Characteristics such as pH, Electrical conductivity, Alkalinity, dissolved solids, calcium,
magnesium, potassium, and others were tested, and results were compared with BIS
permissible limits.

Parameters such as BOD, COD, Electrical conductivity, lead, nickel, nitrates, PO4, sodium,
calcium, and alkalinity are elevated beyond standard limits as shown by the above tests.
Waste management is one of important aspect should be well organized by BBMP and should
not allow any harm to nature.

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