Linux command Line

https://www.networkworld.com/article/1247683/getting-started-on-the-linux-or-unix-command-
line-part-1.html

To get started as a Linux (or Unix) user, you need to have a good perspective on how
Linux works and a handle on some of the most basic commands. This first post in a
"getting started" series examines some of the first commands you need to be ready to
use.

On logging in

When you first log into a Linux system and open a terminal window or log into a Linux
system from another system using a tool like PuTTY, you'll find yourself sitting in your
home directory. Some of the commands you will probably want to try first will include
these:

When you first log into a Linux system and open a terminal window or log into a Linux
system from another system using a tool like PuTTY, you'll find yourself sitting in your
home directory. Some of the commands you will probably want to try first will include
these:

pwd -- shows you where you are in the file system right now (stands
for "present working directory")
whoami - confirms the account you just logged into
date -- show the current date and time
hostname -- display the system's name

Using the whoami command immediately after logging in might generate a "duh!"
response since you just entered your assigned username and password. But, once you
find yourself using more than one account, it's always helpful to know a command that
will remind you which you're using at the moment.

These commands will generate output like this:

$ pwd
/home/justme
$ whoami
justme
$ date
Tue Nov 21 10:40:20 AM EST 2023$
$ hostname
venus

Listing your files

One of the first things you will likely want to do is look at the files and directories that
are associated with your account. The command below provides a "long listing" - one
that shows all the files and directories in the current file system location along with the
permissions and ownership of those files and directories.

$ ls -al
total 16
drwx------. 1 justme justme 96 Nov 6 12:21 .
drwxr-xr-x. 1 root root 56 Nov 6 12:15 ..
-rw-r--r--. 1 justme justme 18 Feb 5 2023 .bash_logout
-rw-r--r--. 1 justme justme 141 Feb 5 2023 .bash_profile
-rw-r--r--. 1 justme justme 526 Nov 11 12:21 .bashrc
drwxr-xr-x. 1 justme justme 34 Apr 13 2023 .mozilla
-rw-------. 1 justme justme 1445 Nov 6 12:21 .viminfo
-rw-r-----. 1 justme justme 35 Nov 21 12:34 myfile

In the output shown above, there are three directories (lines starting with "d") and five
files lines starting with "-"). The details are only provided because the ls command
includes the -a (show all) and -l (provide details) options.

Note that the owner and group are both "justme". By default, any particular user will be
the only member of a same-named user group. Both are set up when a new user is added
to the system.

The dates and times that are displayed in long listings show when the files were last
updated.

Moving around the file system

To move into any of the directories, use a command like "cd .mozilla". The current
directory, wherever you're sitting in the file system, can be addressed as ".". Using a
command like "cd .", therefore, doesn't accomplish anything. It means "move to where I
already am". Using the "cd .." command, on the other hand, will move you up one
directory - toward /, the base of the file system.

$ pwd
/home/justme
$ cd ..
$ pwd
/home
$ cd /tmp
$ pwd
/tmp
$ cd
$ pwd
/home/justme

Commands like "cd /tmp" will take you to the specified directory. A cd command
without arguments will always take you back to your home directory as would "cd ~" or
a command like "cd /home/justme". Most Linux users, however, prefer typing as little
as needed and just use cd to get back home.

Note that there will always be directories that you will be unable to access unless you
switch to the root (superuser) account or use the su (switch user) command to use a
different account that has access rights. If you try to move into a directory for which
you don't have adequate access, you'll see an error like this one:

$ cd /home/newuser
-bash: cd: /home/newuser: Permission denied

To see why access was denied, try listing the directory's permissions like this:
$ ls /home/newuser
drwx------. 1 newuser newuser 80 Jul 24 10:48 newuser

The only account that has access rights to this directory is "newuser".

NOTE: You will likely be set up to use the su command unless your role involves
managing the system.

Understanding file and directory permissions

To understand what you can access and not access, it's important to understand how file
and directory permissions work. The first character in the permissions strings like the
"d" in "drwxr—–” represents the file type. Most entries in a directory listing will be one
of the following.

d = directory
- = file

The rest of the permissions string displays the permissions given to the file/directory
owner, the owner's primary group and everyone else. If we break the permissions string
into groups, it might look like this:

d rwx r-- ---

The "rwx" shown in the example above means that read (r), write (w) and execute (x)
permissions are provided to the directory owner. In contrast, "—" means that none of
these permissions are provided. Expect to see many instances in which only read (r–) or
read and execute (r-x) permissions are granted. You can control who can access your
files. For example, you could grant access to a file in your directory with a command
like this provided the intended user has access to your home directory as well.

$ chmod o+r myfile

The command shown above would give read access to anyone in the "other" group (i.e.,
anyone who is neither the owner nor a member of the file's assigned group). Keep in
mind that these users would not have access if they don't also have access to the
directory containing the file.

NOTE: As you likely suspect, only the owner of a file or root can change the file's
permissions.

Viewing file content

Viewing the content of a file depends on the file type. To view text files, you can use
the cat (show file content) or the more (show file content a screenful at a time)
command. Bash scripts are text files as are startup files like .bashrc. System
executables, on the other hand, which are referred to as "binary" files cannot be viewed
except with commands that display the content as a long series of 0's and 1's - binary
content. Finding a command that can display the content (like an image) on the desktop
is an altogether different process.

$ cat myfile
This is my favorite file. It reminds me about how I felt when I first
Discovered Linux!
$ head -5 colors
aqua
azure
black
blue
bronze
$ tail -5 colors
turquoise
violet
wheat
white
yellow
$ more colors
aqua
azure
black
blue
bronze
brown
chocolate
...

Note that the more command will list file content a screenful at a time. Hit the enter key
to move the next screenful.

Copying, moving and deleting files

To make a copy of a file, use the cp (copy) command like this:

$ cp myfile myfile.save

To move a file to a different directory (one you have write access to), use a command
like this:

$ mv myscript ~/bin

In the command shown above, you would be a copying a file named "myscript" to the
bin directory in your home directory. The bin directory will likely not exist unless you
create it with a "mkdir ~/bin" command.

To delete a file, use the rm command. Deleting a file requires that you have write
permission to it.

$ rm myfile