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UPSC Ancient History Notes

Indus Valley
Civilization

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) holds a prominent place in the glorious history of India. It is also known
as the ‘Harappan Civilization’ as Harappa was the first city to be discovered along the banks of the river
Ravi by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921. Indus Valley Civilization is one of the most important topics for the
UPSC IAS Examination.

In this article on Indus Valley Civilization, we shall discuss its background, discovery, geographical
extent, important sites, various socio-political-economic and cultural features, its town planning, various
phases and its decline. This will be very useful for aspirants in the UPSC Prelims Exam.

Indus Valley Civilization: Background

 IVC flourished in around 2500 BCE, in the western part of South Asia, whose major part lies in
present Pakistan & Western India.
 Indus Valley Civilization was one of the four largest ancient urban civilizations, namely – Egypt,
Mesopotamia, India & China.

Study the NCERT Notes on Rise of Mauryan Empire here.

Indus Valley Civilization: Discovery

 The Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations of the Indus Valley in the
1920s, in which the ruins of the two oldest cities of IVC, namely Mohenjodaro & Harappa were
unearthed.
 After the discovery of Harappa by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921, John Marshall, the Director-
General of the ASI, announced that an urban civilization existed in the Indus Valley region in
around 2500 BCE.

Study the NCERT Notes on Satavahana Dynasty here.

Indus Valley Civilization: Geographical Extent

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 Geographically, Indus Valley Civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Rajasthan,

Gujarat and, Western Uttar Pradesh.
 It extended from Sutkagendor (in Balochistan, Pakistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western
UP) in the East; & from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra)
in the South.
 Some Indus Valley sites have also been found as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.
 Also, the Pre-Harappan civilization found in Mehrgarh, Pakistan shows the first evidence of
cotton cultivation.

Study the NCERT Notes on Mauryan Administration here.

Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilization

 This civilization had many prominent sites in both Pakistan - Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Amri &
India – Kalibangan, Lothal, Surkotada, Banawali, Chhanhudaro, and Dholavira.
 Let us study some of the sites in detail:

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Few Important Sites of IVC

S. Excavated
Site Present Location Important Findings
No. By
 Sandstone statues of
Situated on the bank of river Human anatomy
Daya Ram
1. Harappa
Sahini in 1921
Ravi in the Montgomery  Granaries
district of Punjab (Pakistan).  Bullock carts

 Great bath
 Granary
 Bronze dancing girl
Mohen- jodaro R.D Banerjee
Situated on the Bank of river  Seal of Pasupathi
2. Indus in Larkana district of Mahadeva
(Mound of Dead) in 1922
Punjab (Pakistan).  Steatite statue of beard
man
 A piece of woven cotton

In southwestern Balochistan  A trading point between

3. Sutkagendor Stein in 1929 province, Pakistan on Dast Harappa and Babylon
river

N.G  Bead makers shop

Chanhudaro Majumdar in Sindh on the Indus river  The footprint of a dog
4.
1931 chasing a cat

N.G
Amri Majumdar in
On the bank of the Indus river  Antelope evidence
5. – Sindh, Pakistan
1935
 Fire altar
Kalibangan Ghose in 1953
Rajasthan on the bank of  Camel bone
6. Ghaggar river  Wooden plough

 First manmade port

 Dockyard
Lothal R.Rao in 1953
Gujarat on Bhogavo river  Rice husk
7. near Gulf of Cambay  Fire altars
 Chess-playing

J.P Joshi in  Bones of horses

8. Surkotada
1964
Gujarat  Beads

 Beads
 Barley
Banawali
R.S Bisht in
Hisar district of Haryana  Evidence of both pre-
9. 1974 Harappan and Harappan
culture

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 Water harnessing system

 Water reservoir
R.S Bisht in  1st IVC Site in India to have
10. Dholavira 1985
Gujarat in Rann of Kachchh received the ‘World
Heritage Site’ Status by
UNESCO

Do check out the detailed article on Major Sites Of Indus Valley Civilization Here!

Features of the Indus Valley Civilization Society

 IVC Society was urban in nature & was mainly divided into 3 sections à An elite class living in
the citadel region on the western part of town, middle-class inhabitants (or rich merchants) & a
relatively weaker section (labourers) living in the lower towns.
 There was a division of labour and the IVC Society was diversified and stratified.
 The people were scholars, artisans, traders, warriors, and businessmen.
 IVC Society is considered to be matriarchal in nature as a large number of terracotta (fire-baked
earthen clay) female figurines have been found from various sites which represent the worship
of the Great Mother Goddess.
 The dressing style of both men & women of the Indus Valley Civilization is also indicated in the
terracotta & stone sculptures.
 Men are mostly shown wearing a dress wrapped around the lower half of the body with one end
worn over the left shoulder & under the right arm.
 Garments in Indus Valley Civilization were made from various materials like cotton, silk, wool,
etc.
 Also, the presence of woven cloth at Mohenjodaro indicates that the IVC inhabitants were well
acquainted with spinning and weaving.

Study the NCERT Notes on Chalukya Dynasty here.

Techno-Cultural Aspects of the Civilization

 Its inhabitants mainly used copper and bronze and were unaware of the use of iron.
 Harappans obtained copper from the Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan & Tin was possibly
brought from Afghanistan.
 Harappans were generally peace-loving and had not many arms and weapons in their kitty.
 Several objects with ‘Textile Impressions’ have also been discovered.
 Huge brick structures found in various sites indicate the existence of a class of masons was
there & that brick-laying was an important craft.
 IVC inhabitants also practised boat-making, bead-making & seal-making.
 Bead-making shops have been excavated from Chanhudaro & Lothal.
 IVC seals were mainly made of steatite which is a kind of soft stone.
 Some seals were also made of gold, ivory, chert, agate, etc & it was mainly used for trade
purposes.

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 The presence of goldsmiths was there which made jewellery of silver, gold & precious stones.
 Ornaments like necklaces, bracelets, pendants, brooches have been excavated.

 IVC inhabitants also extensively used pottery, in which the most characteristic one was both
glossy & shiny.
 The redware pottery painted with black designs was popular, and items like jars, plates, bowls &
pots of different sizes were made from pottery.

 The people of the Indus valley civilization were aware of Bronze mirrors, Ivory Combs, and
antimony rods but not hair dyes.
 A large number of terracotta figurines and toys of carts, bulls, elephants, monkeys, chariots, and
whistles existed.
 Discovery of Bronze Dancing Girl Sculpture from Mohenjodaro, and Steatite Bearded Man from
Mohenjodaro are some of the finest examples of Indus Valley Civilization’s cultural finesse.
 The Steatite Bearded Man has an embroidered cloak over his left shoulder and his eyes are
half-closed indicating a posture of meditation.

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Bronze Dancing Girl Sculpture Steatite Bearded Man

Study the NCERT Notes on Buddhist Councils and Texts here.

Political Aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization

 The evidence of political organization isn’t found and hence it can’t be concluded which kind of
political organization was followed in Indus Valley Civilization.
 Some archaeologists believe that Harappan society had no rulers and that everybody enjoyed
equal status.
 Another theory argues that there was no single ruler, but a number of rulers representing each
of the urban centres.
 However, the uniformity in tools, weapons, bricks, seals & urban style of construction indicates a
presence of a centralized political authority.
 A class of merchants could have ruled the Indus Valley Civilization unlike in Egypt &
Mesopotamia which were ruled by the priestly class, as there is an absence of temples in IVC
sites.
 Also, the proper layout of streets, the presence of large-scale draining systems, and
monumental citadels, all indicate the presence of a strong central government.
 But, no conclusive evidence is there.

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Study the NCERT Notes on Ashoka - Life and Dhamma here.

Economic Aspects of the Civilization

 Trade held a very important place in the life of IVC people which is witnessed by the presence
of numerous seals, uniform script & regulated weights & measures.
 We shall discuss the various economic aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization in detail:

Agriculture

 Agriculture flourished in IVC due to timely rains & fertile land.

 IVC inhabitants sowed many crops like rice, wheat, cotton, barley, dates, melon, pea, lentils,
mustard, linseed, sesamum, ragi, bajra, jowar, etc.
 Rainfed crops were pre-dominant as irrigation was based upon rainwater.
 In Harappa, 3 main varieties of wheat & barley were sown.
 Wooden plough found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Granary found in Mohenjodaro (Pakistan) &
evidence of growing Barley found in Banawali (Rajasthan) all indicate the presence of
agriculture.
 The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.
 They used bulls & oxen for ploughing.
 Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in
Punjab or Sindh.

Trade and Foreign Links

 Harappans carried on substantial trade in the form of stone, metal, shells, etc.
 Trade in Indus Valley Civilization was both inter-regional & intra-regional.
 Metal money was not used instead, trade was carried by a barter system.
 IVC inhabitants practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea & had set up a trading
colony in northern Afghanistan which helped them to trade with Central Asia
 IVC people also had economic relations with the regions of Tigris, and the Euphrates & also
with Mesopotamian and Persian Civilizations.
 Evidence is provided in the Mesopotamian records which indicate trade relations with ‘Meluha’
(An ancient name given to the Indus region) and also the presence of trading ports called
‘Dilmun’ and ‘Makan’.
 Mesopotamians imported copper, ivory, pearls & ebony from Meluha and exported garments,
perfume, leather products & silver to IVC people.
 Harappans also did long-distance trade in lapis lazuli, which contributed to the social prestige of
the ruling class.
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 Inland transport primarily employed bullock carts.

 Possibly, Jade came from Central Asia, Turquoise came from Iran, Amethyst came from current
Maharashtra and Lapis lazuli came from Afghanistan.
 The carts and chariots were a means of transport & big boats were used for sea trade.

Seals

 Seals are one of the greatest artistic creations of the Indus Valley Civilization.
 About 2000 seals have been discovered and they carry short inscriptions with pictures of one-
horned bull, buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, goat, elephant, etc(excluding horse).
 In Mohenjo-Daro, three cylindrical seals of the Mesopotamian type have been found which
depict their trading relations.

Weights and Measures

 IVC people used weights & measures for trade and other transactions.
 Numerous articles used for weights have been found which show that in weighing mostly 16 or
its multiples were used.
 Discovery of ivory scale at Lothal and shells for measuring angles at Saurashtra have been
found.

Animal Husbandry

 IVC people domesticated animals like humped bulls, buffalo, pigs, elephants, donkeys, goats,
sheep, etc.
 Evidence of horses has been found only at Surkotada, which is otherwise absent from the Indus
Valley Civilization.

Study the NCERT Notes on Vakataka Dynasty here.

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Religious Aspects of the Civilization

 The unicorn is the most prominent religious figure in Indus Valley Civilization.
 Unicorn figures had different names like Pashupati/Proto-Shiva, Seven Mothers (Sapta-Matrika)
& Compound Creatures.
 These figurines are now largely inculcated into the Hindu religion.

 The dominance of the terracotta mother goddess indicates that the IVC society was mainly
matriarchal.
 Evidence that Harappans looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her
similarly as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile Goddess ‘Isis’.

 Proto-Shiva or Pashupati Figurine appears to be the only male deity as depicted on the IVC
Seals.
 Pashupati Figurine is surrounded by 4 wild animals, viz., elephant, tiger, buffalo & rhinoceros.
 The Pashupati figurine wears a number of bangles, has a headdress and there’s also an
inscription of seven letters on the top.
 IVC inhabitants also believed in the worship of stones in the form of linga (phallus) and yoni
(fertility) à Evident in a terracotta figurine found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan).
 IVC people also practised yoga for both physical exercises as well as performing religious rites.

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 The presence of Sacred Ritual Spot is evident from the excavation of the Great Bath at
Mohenjodaro, wherein, all the elites undertook religious baths.
 Also, tree worship is evident as the peepal tree has been depicted on many IVC seals.
 Evidence of snake worship & snake charmers is also there.
 Amulets have also been found in large numbers.
 No evidence of temples or a sophisticated caste system has been found in Indus Valley
Civilization.

Burial Practises of the Civilization

 Three forms of burial have been found at Mohenjo-Daro:

1. Complete burial: It means the burial of the whole body.
2. Fractional burial: It means the collection of some bones after the exposure of the body
to wild beasts and bird
3. Post cremation burial: Cremation followed by burial of ashes.
 Dead bodies were placed in the North-South direction and food, pottery, and other items were
also put in the grave along with the body
 Coffins containing bodies have been found in Harappa.
 Small circular pits containing large urns and pottery have also been found in Kalibangan
(Rajasthan)
 A triangular terracotta cake has been discovered which has a horned deity on one side and an
animal on the other side which is an indication of animal sacrifice
 At Lothal, a pair of male and female skeletons have been discovered together.
 Surkotada and Dholavira are two sites where the burial practice resembled the megalithic
practice.

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Indus Valley Civilization: Scientific & Technological

Achievements

 IVC can be called the ‘womb of mathematics’ from where both the concepts of numbers &
numerical systems originated.
 Harappan Numerical System is decimal-based & additive multiplicative in usage.

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 The numerical system which was first used by the Harappan later found its way into other

ancient civilizations.
 IVC inhabitants constructed the world’s first tidal port at Lothal which indicated they had a high
degree of knowledge relating to the ebb and flow of tides

 IVC people were also versed with medical sciences as they used many herbs & drugs to treat
diseases.
 IVC inhabitants also practised ‘Trephination’ to treat migraines and other mental disorders.

Study the NCERT Notes on Legacy and Decline of the Gupta Empire here.

Language and Script of the Indus Valley Civilization

 We don’t have a great deal of knowledge about them as the Harappan Languages & Scripts
haven’t been deciphered yet.
 The style of Harappan Script was that of Boustrophedon, which is written from right to left.

 The language was mainly pictographic & and was engraved on seals, bones, ivory, etc.
 Harappan Script virtually disappeared by 1700 BCE which indicates that the Indus Valley Script
did not percolate downwards.

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 However, archaeologists have increasingly been finding links between the Indus Script & Tamil-
Brahmi Script.
 In 2019, excavations carried out in the Keezhadi site in Tamil Nadu’s Sivaganga district
revealed graffiti dating back to 580 BC which bears a distinct resemblance to the Indus script.

Study the NCERT Notes on Indian History Timeline here.

Town Planning in the Indus Valley Civilization

 Indus Valley Civilization is known for its extensive urban outlook and sophisticated sense of
town planning.

 Most cities of the IVC were divided into 2 parts à Smaller but Higher part on the Western side
called ‘Citadel’ or ‘Acropolis’ and a Larger but Shorter part on the Eastern side called the ‘Lower
Town'.
 It is believed that the Citadel was possibly occupied by the members of the ruling class as
buildings of prominence such as the Great Bath in Mohenjodaro are located in the citadel.

 The lower town had common residential buildings which is inhabited by the common people.

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 The use of burnt bricks was common in the construction of houses.

 Also, the houses in the cities followed a grid system as the city was divided into many blocks.
 Houses were often of two or more storeys
 Each house had its own courtyard, windows and bathrooms while some even had their own
wells.
 However, no window faced the streets.

 Also, roads had cut across each other at right angles.

 The drainage system of the Indus Valley Civilization was also very impressive.
 The drains were made of mortar, lime & gypsum were slightly sloped and had manholes at

regular intervals for cleaning purposes

 Also, granaries have been discovered at sites like Mohenjodaro used to store grains.

 At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and sections
within the town were also separated by walls.
 Chanhudaro was the only Indus Valley city without a citadel.

 IVC inhabitants are also known to have pioneered irrigation and water harvesting techniques
 Thus, Indus Valley Civilization people can easily be called the best engineers of their times.

Study the NCERT Notes on Sixteen Mahajanapadas here.

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Various Phases of Indus Valley Civilization

Early Harappan Phase From 3300 BCE to 2600 BCE

 This phase can also be related to the Hakra Phase, which is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra
River Valley region.
 The earliest examples of the Indus Script dating back to 3000 BCE belong to this phase.
 Presumably, this phase was characterized by a centralized authority & an increasingly urban
form of life.
 Trade networks were also established in the Early Harappan Phase itself.
 Moreover, evidence of the cultivation of various crops like peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton,
etc also exists during this phase.

Mature Harappan Phase à From 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE

 During this phase, which begins in 2600 BCE, the early Indus Valley Civilization communities
like Harappa & Mohenjodaro in Pakistan & Lothal in India began turning into large urban centres
 The site of Kot Diji located in the Sindh district of Pakistan represents the transition from the
‘Early Harappan Phase’ to the ‘Late Harappan Phase’.

Late Harappan Phase From 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE

 The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) started showing signs of gradual decline from around 1800
BCE, and by 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned.
 Various reasons like external war, flood, drought, chemical reactions, etc are given for this
sudden decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, which we have discussed ahead in detail
 However, various elements that characterized the ancient Indus Valley Civilization continued to
be present in the later cultures as well.
 Moreover, contemporary archaeological data indicates the continuance of Late Harappan
Culture till 1000-900 BCE.

Study the NCERT Notes on History of Medieval India here.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

This civilization declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are still debated.

Various Theories

1. Aryan Invasion Theory: According to this, the Aryan invasion of the Harappan territory led to
the destruction of the IVC.
2. Epidemic Theory: According to this, an uncontrollable epidemic must have spread in the IVC
cities which led to its destruction.
3. Natural Disasters Theory: According to this, a large-scale earthquake, flood or drought would
have hit the IVC cities, which led to the destruction of the Indus Valley Civilization.
4. Less Rainfall leading to Draughts: Less rainfall due to the changing climatic conditions would
have led to draughts in the IVC cities due to which IVC declined
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5. Change in the course of the river: Change in course of the Ghaggar-Hakra river led to
increased aridity and subsequent destruction in the Indus Valley Civilization cities.
6. Though, India and the world marvel at the wonder of the Indus Valley Civilization, yet this
culture also could not defeat the law of nature and thus slowly declined due to a combination of
manmade and natural factors which ultimately led to the rise of Early Vedic Tradition in India.

Study the NCERT Notes on the North Indian Kingdoms of Medieval India here.

Contemporary Findings Regarding the Indus Valley

Civilization

 A recent study conducted by Deccan College, Pune in the Kotda Bhadli archaeological site in
present-day Gujarat shows evidence of dairy products being produced by Harappans as early
as 2500 BCE.
 A study published in the Journal of Archaeological Science shows that IVC inhabitants also
consumed meat products of animals like pigs, buffaloes, and goats apart from cultivating crops.
 A recent publication has provided crucial evidence that Ancestral Dravidian languages were
possibly spoken by a significant population in the Indus Valley civilization.

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We hope that all your doubts regarding the Indus Valley Civilization will be cleared after going through
this article. You can download the Testbook App now to check out various other topics relevant to the
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