INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER MEMORY:

Memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs or data on a temporary or permanent basis
for use in a computer or other digital/computing device. Memory in a digital computer contains the main
part of-operating system and all the application programs and related data that is being used.

Memory that communicates directly with the CPU is called main memory or primary memory. Devices
that provide backup storage are called secondary memory or mass storage devices. All the information is
stored in secondary memory and it is transferred to main memory on a demand basis.

CPU

INPUT Main OUTPUT

DEVICE Memory DEVICE

SECONDARY
STORAGE

Memory Characteristics:
The important characteristics of any memory device are its access mode, access time, transfer rate,
capacity and cost.

Access mode: Memory has two major access modes, Sequential and Random. In Sequential access
mode memory can be accessed only in serial order. In Random access mode memory location can be
accessed at random i.e. if we have to access 4th location then we can directly go to 4th location and
access it. it is also called direct access mode.

Access time: It is the time taken to retrieve data from memory. Access time in sequential access
memory devices is more than the random access memory devices.

Data transfer rate: It is the time taken to transfer data from one memory device to the other. For
example, time taken to transfer data for Hard disk to the main memory (RAM).

Capacity: The memory capacity is the amount of space that a memory device has to store data or
the amount of memory required for a program to run.

Cost: It is the price that computer users have to pay as per capacity of the memory device.

BIT: A bit (binary digit) is the smallest unit of data in a computer. A bit has a single binary value, either 0
or 1.

BYTE: A byte is a unit of measurement used to measure data. One byte contains eight binary bits, or a
series of eight zeros and ones. A byte is a storage unit capable of representing a single character, such as
a letter, number or symbol.

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 Memory Unit Equivalent To
1 Byte 8 Bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) 210 Bytes = 1024 Bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) 220 Bytes = 1024 KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) 230 Bytes = 1024 MB
1 Terabyte (TB) 240 Bytes = 1024 GB
1 Petabyte (PB) 250 Bytes = 1024 TB
1 Exabyte (KB) 260 Bytes = 1024 PB

Memory Word
in computing the smallest size of data that a computer can process is called memory word. The number
of bits in a word is called the word size. Word size in modern computers typically ranges from 16 to 64
bits. A computer that has a bigger word size can transfer more bits into the microprocessor at a time for
processing and this improves the processing speed of the computer. A 32-bit processor is limited to 232
memory addresses.

MEMORY BUILT-UP AND RETENTION POWER.

All types of computer memories are divided into 3 types,

● Chip Memory
● Magnetic Memory
● Optical Memory

Chip Memory:

Chip is a small piece of semi-conducting material, a small circuit called IC. A typical chip contains
millions of electronic components (transistors). Chip memories are very fast as compared to other
memories as there are no mechanical moving parts, but on the other hand, chips rely on electric
currents. E.g. RAM, ROM, USB etc.

Magnetic Memory:

Magnetic storage or magnetic recording is the storage of data on a magnetized medium. Magnetic
storage uses different patterns of magnetization in a magnetisable material to store data. The
information is accessed using one or more read/write heads. Binary information is stored in the form
of tiny magnetized and non-magnetized spots on the surface of magnetic tape or disk. A magnetized
spot represents a binary 1 and a non-magnetized spot a binary O. e.g. Hard disk, floppy disk etc.

Optical Memory:

In Optical storage, a laser beam encodes digital data onto an optical disk in the form of tiny pits and
lands arranged in concentric tracks on the disk's surface. A low-power laser scanner is used to “read"
data or Information from these pits and lands, and converts it to digital form. Optical storage
provides cheaper and greater memory capacity than magnetic storage. E.g. CD

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Volatile and Non Volatile Memory:

Volatile memory is computer memory that requires an active power connection to function. When the
power to a volatile memory source is shut off, volatile memory loses its contents, and the information is
deleted e.g. RAM,

Non-volatile memory is memory that does not require a connection to a power source to retain
information. In other words, when the power source to which the memory is connected is shut off, the
memory does not lose the information it has e.g. Hard disk.

Types of computer memory

Computer memory can be classified into two main types

Memory

Main Memory Secondary Memory

Memory
Internal Processor Memory Magnetic
Memory Cache Processor
RAM Optical
Registers
ROM Chip

Main memory, also called primary or internal memory is the part of the computer system that holds data
and instructions for processing. Typically, Main memory is contained on microchips that is attached or
connected to the computer's motherboard. Computer memory can range from a couple of megabytes
(MBs) to several gigabytes (GBs). When users load software from a storage medium. it is first loaded in
the main memory and then executed or processed.

Types of Main Memory:

Main memory is divided into the following three types.

● Internal Processor Memory

● RAM
● ROM
1. Internal Processor Memory: These memories are directly accessible to the CPU. Cashe memory and
processor registers are the examples of such memories.
● Cashe Memory: A Cache is a small and very fast temporary storage memory. It is designed to speed
up the transfer of data and instructions. It is located inside or close to the CPU chip. It is faster than
RAM and the data/instructions that are most recently or most frequently used by CPU are stored in
cache. There are 3 types of cashe memory Level 1(L1), Level 2(L3) and Level 3(L),

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 L1 is built inside the microprocessor. It has fastest access time. L2 and L3 cache memories are
separate chips on the motherboard. These can be accessed more quickly than the main memory.
● Registers: A register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPU in order
to speed up its operations by providing quick access to commonly used values. Some of the most
commonly used registers are AC or Accumulator, Data Register or DR, the AR or Address
Register, program counter (PC),Memory Data Register (MDR) ,Index register,Memory Buffer
Register.

RAM (Random Access Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) also known as main memory, primary memory, or system memory is a
volatile memory, it means information written to it can be accessed as long as power is on. As soon as the
power is off, the data stored in RAM is lost. RAM holds data and processing instructions i.e. programs
temporarily until the CPU needs it. RAM plays an important role in the processing speed of the computer.

Types of RAM: following are the two types of RAM

● Dynamic RAM (D-RAM)

● Static RAM (S-RAM)

Dynamic RAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory, DRAM is one of the most commonly
found RAM modules in PC. It stores its information in a cell containing a capacitor and transistor; because
of this design, these cells must be refreshed with new electricity every few milliseconds for the memory
to keep holding its data.

Static RAM: SRAM (static RAM) retains data bits in its memory as long as power is being supplied. Unlike
dynamic RAM (DRAM), which stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM does not
have to be periodically refreshed. Static RAM provides faster access to data and is more expensive than
DRAM. SRAM is used for a computer's cache memory.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

Random Access Memory (ROM) The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This
type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture it is modified either with extreme difficulty or not at all. A ROM stores such instructions that
are required to start a computer. It performs major input/output tasks and holds programs or software
instructions.
There are three types of ROM
PROM
EPROM
EEPROM
PROM : stands for programmable read-only memory, a memory chip on which data can be written
only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there forever.

EPROM: stands for Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory is a type of ROM chip that can be
erased and reprogrammed with ultraviolet rays. EPROM’s are generally used for programs designed
for repeated use i.e. BIOS.

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 EEPROM: stands for electrically erasable programmable Read Only Memory is a special type of PROM
that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. Like other types of PROM, EEPROM retains
its contents even when the power is turned off.

Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is also known as backing storage, auxiliary storage or mass storage; they store
information even when the computer is turned off. All the secondary storage devices are non-volatile
memory. The types of secondary storage devices used in modern computers are hard disks, CDs, DVDs,
USB flash drives and memory cards.

Based on the access mode Memory devices can be classified into sequential access and direct access
memory devices.

Sequential Access Memory

It is a type of memory in which data is accessed sequentially one after the other. A particular stored data
is found by sequencing through all locations until the desired data is reached. Examples of sequential
access memory devices include magnetic tapes and audio/video tapes.

Direct Access Memory

In this type of memory, the data is accessed directly or randomly. Semiconductor memories, disk
memories and optical memories are direct access memories. Direct access memory is also known as
random access memory. Hard disk, compact disk and flash memory are examples of direct access memory.

Secondary storage devices are classified into the following types.

● Magnetic Tapes
● Magnetic Disks
● Optical Disks
● Chip Memory
1. Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic tape is a plastic strip with a magnetic coated material. Bits are
recorded as magnetic spots on the tape along several tracks. Usually 7 or 9 bits are recorded simultaneous
to form a character. Read/write heads are mounted one in each track so that data can be recorded and
read as a sequence of characters. Magnetic tape is either in the form of cassette or big reels
● Magnetic tapes are slow in operation.
● It has sequential access to data
● It is a cheap storage device.
● Modern tapes can store data up to 5 TB.
● It is used with minicomputers and mainframes for backups and archives.
2. Magnetic Disks: A magnetic disk is a flat disk coated with a magnetic material on which
data/information is stored in digital form in the shape of tiny magnetized spots called bits. Hard disk is the
common type of magnetic disk in use today. Some of the other examples of magnetic disks are floppy and
zip disks.

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Hard Disk: A hard disk drive is a magnetic disk that permanently stores and retrieves data on a computer.
A hard drive is a secondary storage device that consists of one or more platters to which data is written
using a magnetic head.

A single hard disk usually consists of several platters. Each platter requires two read/write heads, one for
each side. All the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm so that they cannot move
independently.

3. Optical Disks: Optical disk is a plastic-coated disk that can store digital data. Data is stored in ptical
disk in digital form by laser technology as tiny bumps etched on the surface. Following are the types of
optical disks.
● CD’s
● DVD’s
● Blu-ray Disk

Compact Disk (CD): It is an optical disk used for storing digital data. It was originally developed for storing
and playback of sound recording but later on its use expanded to computer data storage. A CD is 1.2
millimeters thick with a diameter of 120 millimeters. It is made up of polycarbonate plastic and weighs 15
to 20 grams, The storage capacity of CDs ranges from 350 MB to 800MB. Information is stored on a CD in
the form of lands and bumps . A binary 0 is represented by a bump and a 1 by a land.

Digital Video/ Versatile Disks (DVD): DVD is very similar to CD but has larger data storage capacity. lts
data storage capacity is about seven times more than CD. It has replaced the video tapes that were used
in the past for storing movies. A DVD writer or player is used to read the data stored on a DVD. The storage
capacity of DVDs ranges from 2GB to 16 GB.

Blu-ray Disk (BD): Blu-ray is an optical disc. It was originally developed for recording and playing back
high-definition (HD) video and for storing large amounts of data. Its main advantage over CD and DVD is
that it has storage capacity up to 300GB. The bumps on the surface of Blu-ray that represent digital
information are much smaller and very densely packed compared to DVD

Flash memory/Chip memory:

Flash memory or Chip memory is a type of EEPROM. lt is solid state storage device which means that there
are no moving parts in it. Everything inside the flash or chip memory is ln electronic form, It got its name
“Flash” from the fact that it can store chunks of data and also erase large chunks of data in a flash because
it is a semiconductor to chip memory.

Flash memory comes in two forms, that is, in the form of flash drive and memory cards.

Flash Drive: Flash drives are also called USB flash drives. They are small and portable drives that are
connected to computers through USB ports. The storage capacity of flash memory ranges from 2GB to
256GB.

Memory Cards: Memory cards are used with laptop computers and other electronic devices such as digital
cameras, mobile phones and video games. They come in various sizes and with different storage capacity.

Advantages of using Flash/Chip Memory:

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 ● It allows fast read/write operations.
● It is non-volatile semiconductor memory.
● It is very light and very small in size.
● It is very reliable.
● Its operation is noiseless since it has no moving part.

Select the best answer for the following MCQ’s.

1. Which of the following is the fastest memory?

A. RAM B. ROM C. Cache memory D. USB flash drive

2. How much is 1MB memory equal to?

A. 1024 Bytes B. 1024TB C. 1024 KB D. 1024 GB

3. Which of the following is volatile memory?

A RAM B. ROM C. PROM D. EEPROM

4. Which of the following has highest storage capacity?

A DVD B. Blu-ray Disk C. CD D. Floppy Disk

5. USB flash drive is what type of memory?

A. Magnetic memory B. Optical memory C. Electronic memory D. Primary memory

6. Which of the following memory devices has the smallest storage capacity?

A. RAM B. Cache memory C. CD D. Memory card

7. Which of the following storage device is obsolete now days?

A. Hard disk B. CD C. Memory card D. Floppy disk

8. Which memory communicates directly with the CPU?

A. Main memory B. Secondary memory C. Hard disk D. USB flash drive

9. Which of the following memory devices has sequential access to data?

A. Magnetic disk B. Optical memory C. Magnetic tape D. Chip memory

10. Where are the registers located?

A. Inside hard disk B. inside DVD C. Inside RAM D.Inside Microprocessor

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