Bansilal Ramnath Agarwal Charitable Trust’s

VISHWAKARMA INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Department of Engineering & Applied Sciences

F.Y.B.Tech
Course Material ( A brief reference version for students)

Course: Environmental Science (2023 Pattern)

Unit 3: Water Pollution, Monitoring and Treatment

Disclaimer: These notes are for internal circulation and are not meant for commercial use.
These notes are meant to provide guidelines and outline of the unit. They are not necessarily
complete answers to examination questions. Students must refer reference/text books, write
lecture notes for producing expected answer in examination. Charts/diagrams must be drawn
whenever necessary.

1
 Unit 3 – Water Pollution, Monitoring and Treatment
Objective: Explain water pollution with respect to monitoring techniques such as
hardness, alkalinity, BOD, COD along with water treatment methods.

1) Content:(6 lectures): Introduction: Sources, Water Quality Standards, Effects

2) Monitoring Techniques: Hardness, Alkalinity, pH, Conductivity, Dissolved
Oxygen, BOD and COD, Numerical on hardness, alkalinity and BOD and Control of
Water Pollution
3) Water Purification and Softening Methods: Reverse Osmosis-Ultra violet &
Electro dialysis
4) Municipal and Waste Water Treatment: Specifications for Drinking Water (IS
10500: 2012),
Sources, Necessity of treatment, Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Treatment of Waste water

2
 1.1.1 Introduction:
The five essential requirements for human existence are: 1) Air 2) Water 3) Food 4) Heat and 5)
Light. Contamination of these elements may cause serious health hazards not only to man but also to animal
and plant life. Environmental Engineering deals with all these essential elements.

The use of water by man, plants and animals is universal. Without it, there can be no life. Every
living thing requires water. Man and animals not only consume water, but also consume vegetation for their
food. Vegetation, in turn cannot grow without water. Growth of vegetation also depends upon bacterial
action, while bacteria need water in order to thrive. The bacterial action can convert vegetable matter into
productive soil. New plants, which grow in this soil, grow by sucking nutrients through their roots in the
form of solution in water. Thus an ecological chain is maintained. Water maintains an ecological balance –
balance in the relationship between living things and environment in which they live.
Careless pollution and contamination of the streams, lakes reservoirs, wells and other underground sources
has greatly impaired the quality of available water. This pollution results because of improper disposal of
waste water – both domestic as well as industrial. Without proper disposal, the wastes of a community can
create intolerable nuisance, spread diseases and create other health hazards.

The planning, designing, financing and operation of waste water systems require high degree of skill
and judgment. The work of construction and maintenance is generally undertaken by Government agencies
– mostly through Public Health Engineering or Environmental Engineering Departments consisting of Civil
Engineers.

Water is a basic and scarce commodity. It is one of the basic elements of panch mahatatvas (five
basic elements) that make life cycle on this earth to exist.
Any human activity requires water in one or the other form. Water is required for domestic use, industrial
use, and agricultural use and for commercial use.
Water is the only substance that exists in nature in all the three phases viz. solid, liquid and gaseous.
Water pollution is one of the most important problems faced by developed as well as developing countries.
The earth’s surface has limited resources of fresh water and the erratic supply and pollution further puts
limitations on availability of water for various activities.

Sources of water:
Rain water – purest form of natural water, contains dissolved gases and dust particles
Surface water – (i) River water (ii) Sea water (iii) Lake water
Underground water – spring water, well water

1.1.2 Impurities in water

The common impurities present in natural water are as follows:

A) Suspended impurities:
e.g. Clay, mud, organic matter, industrial waste.
They cause turbidity and give smell or odour to water
They can be removed by filtration.
B) Dissolved impurities:
3
They are subdivided into two types-
1. Dissolved gases like CO2, Cl2, H2S, SOx, NOx
2. Dissolved salts like bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates of Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, Na, K etc.
They are removed by special softening procedures.
C) Colloidal impurities:
Colloidal particles of clay, mud, organic matter etc. which make the water turbid. They can not
be removed by filtration but are usually removed by coagulation followed by filtration.
Coagulating agents commonly used are potash alum, sodium aluminate.
D) Biological impurities:
These impurities include microscopic algae, fungi, bacteria etc. They can be removed by
sterilization process .Common sterilizing agents used are liquid chloride, ozone and UV light.

1.1.3 Effects of Water Pollution:

Spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, gastro, jaundice, typhoid.
Depletion of oxygen level in receiving water bodies such as rivers or lake in turn affect the
aquatic life and the ecosystem.
Photosynthesis process gets hampered.
Acidic and alkaline effluents cause corrosion.
Industrial wastes when let into natural water bodies impart objectionable colour, odour and make
the water turbid and unaesthetic. They also kill the organisms living on the water body.
When very hot effluents are discharged in a water body, it leads to depletion of oxygen level as
well as endangered aquatic life.

1.1.4 Characteristic of Waste Water:

The quality of sewage (Waste Water: The mixture of water and waste products) can be checked
and analyzed by studying and testing its physical, chemical and bacteriological (biological)
characteristics.

Physical Characteristics of Sewage:

Physical examination of sewage is carried out in order to determine its physical characteristics.
This includes tests for determining:
1) Turbidity
2) Colour
3) Odour and
4) Temperature

Chemical Characteristics of Sewage:

Tests conducted for determining the chemical characteristics of sewage help in indicating: the
stage of sewage decomposition, its strength, extent and type of treatment required for making it
safe to the point of disposal. Chemical analysis is, therefore, carried out on sewage in order to
determine its chemical characteristics. It includes tests for determining:

1) Total solids, Suspended solids and Settle able solids

2) pH value
3) Chloride content
4) Nitrogen content
4
 5) Presence of fats, greases and oils
6) Sulphides, Sulphates and H2S gas
7) Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
8) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
9) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
10) Total Organic Carbon

1.1.5 Water Quality Standards:

WHO produces international norms on water quality and human health in the form of guidelines that
are used as the basis for regulation and standard setting, in developing and developed countries
worldwide. The quality of drinking water is a powerful environmental determinant of health.
Assurance of drinking water safety is a foundation for the prevention and control of waterborne
diseases. The guidelines developed by WHO are prepared through a vast global consultative process
involving WHO member states (India is the member state), national authorities and international
agencies, in consultation with the WHO Expert Advisory Panel.
Source : Central Pollution Control Board

Designated-Best-Use Class of Criteria

water

Drinking Water Source without A  Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml shall be 50 or less
conventional treatment but after  pH between 6.5 and 8.5
disinfection  Dissolved Oxygen 6mg/l or more
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20°C 2mg/l or less

Outdoor bathing (Organised) B  Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml shall be 500 or less
pH between 6.5 and 8.5 Dissolved Oxygen 5mg/l or more
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20°C 3mg/l or less

Drinking water source after C  Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml shall be 5000 or less
conventional treatment and pH between 6 to 9 Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or more
disinfection  Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20°C 3mg/l or less

Propagation of Wild life and D  pH between 6.5 to 8.5 Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or more
Fisheries  Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less

Irrigation, Industrial Cooling, E  pH between 6.0 to 8.5

Controlled Waste disposal  Electrical Conductivity at 25°C micro mhos/cm Max.2250
 Sodium absorption Ratio Max. 26
 Boron Max. 2mg/l

Below-E Not Meeting A, B, C, D & E Criteria

5
1.2.1 Hardness of water

Types of hardness

The water which does not form lather readily with soap, is known as hard water. The total
hardness is due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of
calcium & magnesium.
Hardness of water is classified into two types based on nature of impurities present, as
I) Temporary hardness II) Permanent hardness
I) Temporary Hardness of Water
Dissolved impurities present in water like bicarbonates of Ca, Mg, Fe, Al andMn can be
removed from water by filtration after mere boiling. On boiling soluble bicarbonates get
decomposed and form insoluble carbonates or hydroxides and CO2 which escapes from water at
boiling temperature.

Ca(HCO3)2→ CaCO3 ↓ + CO2 ↑ + H2O

Mg(HCO3)2→ Mg (OH)2 ↓ + 2 CO2 ↑

Temporary hardness is also known as carbonate hardness or alkaline hardness.

II) Permanent Hardness of Water
Dissolved impurities present in water like chlorides, sulphates, and nitrates of Ca, Mg, Fe, Al
&Mn contribute to permanent hardness.
These dissolved salts can not be removed easily and therefore contribute to permanent or
non carbonate or non alkaline hardness.
Total hardness = Temporary hardness + Permanent hardness

Units of Hardness

Hardness of water is the net amount of hardness causing impurities present in water in a
finite volume.
The concentration of dissolved impurities is usually expressed in terms of calcium carbonate
equivalent. The choice of CaCO3 equivalent is accepted universally as its molecular weight is
100 (and equivalent weight is 50) and is the most insoluble salt in water.
The CaCO3 equivalent for any dissolved salt from water can be calculated, if its
concentration in water is known as follows

CaCO3 equivalent Weight salt Equivalent weight of CaCO3

= X
of any salt present per liter Equivalent weight of salt

If the dissolved salt has bivalent cations, then the above formula can be modified as,

CaCO3 equivalent Weight salt Molecular weight of CaCO3

= X
of any bivalent salt present per liter Molecular weight of salt
6
Units used of expressing CaCO3 equivalent hardness are:
1) Milligrams per litre (mg/lit)
1 mg/lit hardness is 1 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present in 1 litre of water.
2) Parts per million (ppm):
1 ppm hardness is 1 part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present in million litres of water i.e.
106 parts of water
Relation between mg/lit and ppm:
1 mg/lit = 1 ppm

Other units of CaCO3 equivalent are degree clark (oCl) and degree French (oFr).

1ppm = 1 mg/lit = 0.07 oCl = 0.1 oFr

Solved Numerical on : Hardness Calculation

Example 1: Calculate the hardness of water sample having following analysis : Mg(HCO3)2 = 7.3
ppm, Ca(HCO3)2 = 16.2 ppm, MgCl2 = 9.5 ppm, CaSO4 = 13.6 ppm, Fe2O3 = 8.5 ppm,
Mg(NO3)2 =14.8 ppm. Also calculate carbonate and non carbonate hardness.

Solution : Calculation of CaCO3 equivalent for dissolved impurities.

Impurity Amount given in ppm Molecular weight CaCO3 equivalent

Mg(HCO3)2 7.3 146 7.3 X 100 = 5
146
Ca(HCO3)2 16.2 162 16.2 X 100 = 10
162
MgCl2 9.5 95 9.5 X 100 = 10
95
CaSO4 13.6 136 13.6 X 100 = 10
136
Fe2O3 8.5 - Not hardness causing
impurity
Mg(NO3)2 14.8 148 14.8 X 100 = 10
148
NaCl 11.7 - Not hardness causing
impurity

Total hardness present = [Mg(HCO3)2+ Ca(HCO3)2 + MgCl2 + CaSO4 + Mg(NO3)2]

= [ 5+10+10+10+10]
= 45 ppm
Carbonate hardness = [Mg(HCO3)2+ Ca(HCO3)2]
= [ 5+10 ]
= 15 ppm
Non carbonate hardness =[ MgCl2 + CaSO4 + Mg(NO3)2]
= [10+10+10]
= 30 ppm

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Estimation of hardness by EDTA method
The total hardness of a water sample is found accurately by titration of the water sample with
disodium salt of ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid (disodium EDTA).
Structure of EDTA:

EDTA is ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid which is water insoluble, but disodium salt of EDTA
is water soluble.

Na2EDTA forms 1:1 complex with divalent cation like Ca+2 or Mg+2

Structure of M-EDTA complex:

Theory:
i) Disodium EDTA reacts quickly with the hardness causing metal ions in water, even in very
low concentration of salts. i.e. it is highly sensitive towards heavy metal ions in water.
ii) A suitable pH is required for the reaction between the metal ions present in water and
disodium EDTA, otherwise the reaction is reversible and cannot go to completion inforward
direction.
iii) During the reaction, H+ ions are formed and decreases the pH of reaction mixture.
iv) Hence, ammoniacal buffer solution (ammonium hydroxide + ammonium chloride) of pH
about 10 is necessary during titration, so that it will not allow the decrease of pH.
v) The reaction between disodium EDTA and heavy metal ion, results in the formation of cyclic
co-ordination complex (chelate) and hence the titration is known as complexometric titration
vi) Generally, organic dyes such as Eriochrome Black –T (EBT) act as indicator for the EDTA
titrations

Principle:
i) The hardness causing ions like Ca++ and Mg++ present in water form unstable complexes with
the indicator EBT (M-EBT), having wine red colour.
8
ii) EDTA then reacts with all hardness causing metal ions present in water to form stable
complexes (EDTA- metal complex).
iii) EDTA then reacts with metal ions from M-EBT complex to form stable EDTA-metal
complex with the regeneration of blue color of EBT.
Reaction:

𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑟 𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑢𝑟 𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑢𝑒

9
Procedure:
Titration part I: Standardization of EDTA solution:
i) Prepare standard solution of ZnSO4.
ii) Fill a burette with disodium EDTA solution and pipette out 5 ml standard ZnSO4 solution in a
conical flask.
iii) Add about 3 ml buffer solution of pH about 10 and 2-3 drops of EBT indicator in it.
iv) Titrate the wine-red colored mixture against the EDTA solution till it changes to sky blue.
v) Let the titration reading be V1 ml.
Calculations:
Standardization of EDTA:
Let the molarity of ZnSO4 solution prepared be M2 molar. Calculate the molarity of disodium
EDTA using volume of ZnSO4 solution pipetted for titration and volume of disodium EDTA
(burette reading) by formula,
M1V1 = M2V2
EDTA = ZnSO4
M1 = Exact molarity of EDTA =?

Titration part II: Total hardness of water sample:

i) Take 5 ml of the water sample in a conical flask.
ii) Add about 3 ml of the buffer solution of pH 10 and 2-3 drops of EBT indicator solution in it.
iii) Titrate this wine-red mixture against the EDTA solution till the colour changes to blue. Let
the titration reading be ‘y’ ml.
Calculation: Determination of Total hardness of water sample:
In general,
𝑡𝑎 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑒𝑠𝑠 ƒ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑒
𝑦
= X 𝑍 X 100 X 1000 𝑝𝑝𝑚 𝑎 𝑂3 𝑒𝑞𝑢i𝑣𝑎 𝑒 𝑡
𝑉
V = volume of water sample titrated
y = volume of disodium EDTA (burette reading)
Z = (M1) molarity of disodium EDTA solution.

Titration part III: Permanent hardness of water sample:

i) Take 5 ml of the water sample (boiled and filtered) in a conical flask.
ii) Add about 3 ml of the buffer solution of pH 10 and 2-3 drops of EBT indicator solution in it.
iii) Titrate this wine-red mixture against the EDTA solution till the colour changes to blue. Let
the titration reading be ‘x’ ml
Calculation:
a) Determination of Permanent hardness of water sample:

𝑥
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎 𝑒 𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑒𝑠𝑠 ƒ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑒 = X 𝑍 X 100 X 1000 𝑝𝑝𝑚 𝑎 𝑂3 𝑒𝑞𝑢i𝑣𝑎 𝑒 𝑡
𝑉
V = volume of water sample titrated

10
x = volume of disodium EDTA (burette reading)
Z = molarity of disodium EDTA solution.

b)Determination of Temporary hardness of water sample:

Temporary hardness = Total hardness – permanent hardness

Thus, using EDTA method total, permanent and temporary hardness can be easily calculated for
any sample water.

Significance of Hardness Determination

Though hard waters are as palatable as soft waters, knowledge of the magnitude and type of
hardness is important in determining the suitability of water for domestic and industrial
purposes. Use of hard waters for cleaning purposes is unsatisfactory as they increase the
consumption of soaps. This drawback has been partly overcome by the use of synthetic
detergents but for personal hygiene, soap is preferred and hard waters remains objectionable.
Hard waters offer difficulties in dyeing of textiles, are uneconomical and even hazardous in
steam generation and impart many of the undesirable characteristics to the finished products in
paper industry, beverages, dairies, and allied industries. Soft waters are required for an
innumerable number of other industries also.
In devising an efficient and economical softening process, determination of total hardness
and the relative amounts of CH & NCH and calcium & magnesium hardness is important.

Solved Numerical on: EDTA Method

1) 50 ml of standard hard water containing 1.2 gm ofCaCO3 per litre required 16 ml of EDTA
solution for end point. Whereas 50 ml of water sample required 20 ml of same EDTA solution
and 50 ml boiled water sample required 12 ml of EDTA solution for end point. Calculate total,
temporary and permanent hardness of water in ppm.
Solution:
i) As 1 litre of standard hard water contains 1200 mg CaCO3.
∴ 1 ml standard hard water contains 1.2 mg CaCO3
∴ 50 ml standard hard water contains 60 mg CaCO3
As 16 ml EDTA = 50 ml standard hard water =60 mg CaCO3 hardness
∴ 1 ml EDTA = 60/16 = 3.75 mg CaCO3 hardness

As 50 ml water sample consumes 20 ml EDTA

∴1000 ml water sample will consume 1000 × 20 = 400 ml EDTA.
50
As 1 ml EDTA Ξ 3.75 mg CaCO3
∴ 400 ml EDTA Ξ 400× 3.75 = 1500 mg CaCO3
Hence total hardness of water sample = 1500 ppm CaCO3 equivalent.
Permanent hardness
Boiled and filtered water contains only permanent hardness
As 50 ml boiled water sample requires 12 ml EDTA
∴ 1000 ml boiled water sample requires 1000× 12/ 50 = 240 ml EDTA
240 ml EDTA = 240 × 3.75 = 900 ppm CaCO3 equivalent permanent
hardnessTemporary hardness = Total hardness – Permanent hardness

11
 = 1500 – 900 = 600 ppm CaCO3 equivalent.
2) 50 ml of water sample requires 19 ml of 0.05 M EDTA during titration. Whereas 50 ml of
boiled water sample requires 13.5 ml of same EDTA in the titration. Calculate total, temporary
and permanent hardness of the water sample.
Solution:
Given, molarity of EDTA is Z = 0.05, y = 19 ml, V = 50 ml
Total hardness = y × Z × 100 × 1000 / V
= 19× 0.05 × 100 × 1000 / V
= 1900 ppm CaCO3 equivalent.
After boiling, temporary hardness gets removed and the boiled water contains only permanent
hardness.
Boiled water titration :x = 13.5 ml V = 50 ml and Z= 0.05 M
Hence, Permanent hardness = x× Z × 100 × 1000 / V
= 13.5 × 0.05 × 100 × 1000 / 50
= 1350 ppm CaCO3 equivalent
Temporary hardness = total hardness – permanent hardness
= 1900 – 1350 = 550 ppm CaCO3 equivalent

1.2.2 Alkalinity of water

Types of salts that causes alkalinity. (Composition of Alkaline Water)

A natural water may be alkaline due to presence of hydroxides, bicarbonates and carbonates
compounds dissolved in water.
Hydroxide : like NH4OH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2etc.
Bicarbonates: like Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2, Fe(HCO3)2, NaHCO3 etc.
Carbonates : like MgCO3, FeCO3, Na2CO3
Hydroxides and carbonates are stronger than bicarbonates.

Types of alkalinities

The possible combinations of alkalinities in water are:

1) Only Bicarbonate 2) Only Carbonate 3) Only Hydroxide
4) Carbonate and Bicarbonate 5) Hydroxide and Carbonate

𝐻 𝑂3 and 𝑂𝐻 can not remain together as they react to form 𝑂3-2

HCO3- + OH- → CO3-2 + H2O

12
Determination of alkalinity

Theory:
i) When an alkaline water is titrated with a strong acid, first all OH- gets neutralized, then all the
CO3-2 ions are half neutralized to HCO3-.
ii) Till this stage, pH of mixture decreases to about 8 and completion of this stage is indicated by
change in colour of phenolphthalein.
iii) On continued addition of acid during titration, all the HCO3- in the titration mixture
(produced by half neutralization of CO3-2 and present from beginning) get neutralized and
completion of this stage, is indicated by methyl orange colour change at about 4 to 5 pH

Reactions:

I) OH - + H+ → H2O (Phenolphthalin end point)

CO32- + H+ → HCO3 (Phenolphthalin end point)

II) HCO3- + H+ → H2 O + CO2(Methyl orange end point)

Note: Two sources of HCO3- i) present from beginning ii) produced by half neutralization of CO -
3

Procedure:
The alkalinities due to all the three types of ions in water can be easily determined by
neutralization titration against a standard strong acid titrant.
i) Take V ml (generally 100 ml) of the alkaline water sample in a conical flask and add 2 drops
of phenolphthalein indicator in it.
ii) Titrate this sample against standard strong acid solution (Z N) from burette, till pink colour
changes to colourless. Let the burette reading be V1 ml.
iii) Add few drops of methyl orange indicator into the same titrating mixture and continue the
titration till the yellow colour of mixture changes to orange. Note the burette reading as V2 ml
(from initial)

Calculations :
1
0𝐻 , 2 03 2 𝐻 0 3

0 ml V1 ml V2 ml
𝑃ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑡ℎ𝑎 i 𝑒 𝑑 𝑝 i 𝑡 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦 𝑟𝑎 𝑔𝑒 𝑒 𝑑 𝑝 i 𝑡

𝑉1 ×Z ×50 ×1000
P = Phenolphthalein alkalinity = ppm CaCO3 equivalent.
𝑉

𝑉2 ×Z ×50 ×1000
M = Methyl orange alkalinity = Total alkalinity = ppm CaCO3 equivalent
𝑉

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𝑉1= Phenolphthalein end point𝑉2= Methyl orange end point𝑍 = Molarity of EDTA
Determination of type and amount of alkalinity:
The amount of alkalinities due to the 𝑂𝐻 , 𝑂3 2 &𝐻 𝑂3 types are calculated from following
table.

Alkalinity Quantity of𝑂𝐻 Quantity of 𝑂3 2 Quantity of 𝐻 𝑂 3

P=0 0 0 M
P=1M 0 2P/M 0
2
P=M P/M 0 0
P < 1M 0 2P M – 2P
2
P>1M (2P – M) 2(M–P) 0
2

Significance of Alkalinity Determination

Highly alkaline waters being usually unpalatable, upper limits with respect to
phenolphthalein alkalinity have been specified for municipal water supplies. Alkaline water
when used in boilers for steam generation may lead to precipitation of sludges, deposition of
scales and cause caustic embrittlement. A knowledge of the kinds of alkalinity present in water
and their magnitudes is important
 In calculating the amounts of lime and soda needed for water-softening.
 In maintaining a pH range where acids produced by hydrolysis of salts (like MgCl2,
FeCl2) and coagulants [Al2(SO4)3 and Fe2(SO4)3] may be effectively neutralized.
 In corrosion control, and
 In internal conditioning of boiler-feed water.
Caustic alkalinity of industrial wastes has to be neutralized before discharging them into
rivers or other receiving waters. Water containing alkalinity in excess of alkaline earth
concentrations is not suitable for irrigation purposes.
Solved Numerical on Alkalinity

1) 100 ml water sample requires 5 ml N/50 H2SO4 for neutralization up to phenolphthalein end
point. Another 15 ml of the same acid was needed for further titration to methyl orange end
point. Determine the type and amount of alkalinities.
Solution:
V = Volume of water sample titrated = 100 ml
Z = Normality of H2SO4 = N/50 =0.02 N
V1 = Burette reading upto phenolphthalein end point = 4 ml
V2 =𝑉1Burette reading upto methyl orange end point = 5+15 =20 ml ( from beginning)
P = × Z × 50 × 1000 ppm CaCO
3
𝑉

5
= ×0.02× 50 × 1000 ppm CaCO3
100

= 50 ppm CaCO3 equivalent

14
 𝑉2
M = Total alkalinity = × Z × 50 × 1000 ppm CaCO 3
𝑉
20
= × 0.02 × 50 × 1000 ppm CaCO3
100

15
 = 200 ppm CaCO3 equivalent
As P < 12 M, the water sample contains CO3-2 and HCO3- alkalinities together
CO3-2 alkalinity amount = 2P = 2× 50 =100 ppm CaCO3equivalent.
HCO3- alkalinity amount = M - 2P = 200 80 =100 ppm CaCO3equivalent.

1.2.3 pH metry:

Introduction:
pH scale indicates the degree of acidity or alkalinity of solution. The term pH was introduced by Sorenseno
who defined it as pH = -log [H+] .pH is efficiently measured by using pH meter. pH meter uses glass
electrode as indicator electrode whereas standard calomel electrode(SCE)or silver chloride electrode as
standard reference electrode. The cell is represented as
Glass ‫׀‬H+ ‫׀׀‬SCE
Glass electrode:
A glass electrode is a type of ion selective electrode .It is made up of doped glass membrane which is
sensitive for hydrogen ions. Potential developed across glass electrode (ion selective electrode) is as
follows:
1) Ion selective electrode: In this electrode, a suitable non porous membrane separates two solutions,
containing similar ions of different concentrations and act as electrochemical membrane. Potential is
developed on either sides of membrane E1 or E2
Potential experienced by membrane is termed as boundary potential (Eb)
Eb = E2 – E1
ISE responds to particular ion, in presence of many other ions in the solution. Potential developed is a
function of concentration of specific ion in the solution ignoring the other ions totally
S1 S2
2) Glass electrode: Typical glass electrode used for measuring pH of the solution, consist of a thin glass
bulb having high electrical conductivity. The bulb contains 0.1 M HCl sealed with silver-silver chloride
electrode or platinum electrode. When glass is in contact with the solution, potential is developed between
glass surface and the solution. The value of potential is a function of H+ ion concentration of the solution.
Potential developed is given by
pH
Where is potential of electrode and is constant forgiven glass electrode.
Composition of glass electrode:
Special glass of low melting point and high electrical conductivity. Na2O (22%), CaO (6%) & SiO2 (72%)
Glass electrode representation: Glass electrode is represented as
Pt ‫׀‬0.1 N HCl ‫ ׀‬Glass ‫ ׀‬H+ (Test solution) or
Ag, AgCl ‫ ׀‬0.1 N HCl ‫ ׀‬Glass ‫ ׀‬H+ (Test solution)

16
3) Combined glass electrode: Modern pH electrode is a combined glass electrode which combines both
glass and reference electrode (calomel electrode).
4) Advantages of glass electrode:
i) It may be used in presence of strong oxidizing and reducing solutions.
ii) It can be used for solutions having pH 2 to 10.
iii)It is simple to operate
iv) It can detect and estimate H+ ions in presence of other types of ions
5) Disadvantages of glass electrode:
i) The glass bulb is very fragile and has to be used with greatcare.
ii) As glass membrane has a high electrical resistance, ordinary potentiometer can not be used, electronic
potentiometer are used
iii) it can not be used for solutions of fluoride ions

pH metric titration (acid verses base titration):

i) Electrode system: pH meter is an electronic instrument used for measuring pH of the liquid. It uses glass
electrode in combination with reference electrode(usually calomel electrode). Now a days
combined glass electrode (a combination of glass electrode an d calomel electrode together) is available
in market.
ii) Standardisation:As, the glass electrode does not give a precise, reproducible emf over longer period of
17
time, for precise work, the pH meter should be standardised before actual use. It is done by using buffer
solutions of pH 7, 4 and 9. For standardization, glass electrode is first dipped in buffer of pH 7. It is
expected that display of pH meter should read pH = 7. If it is not so, then, asymmetric potential knob of pH
meter is adjusted in such a way that the display shows pH = 7. Then the glass electrode is dipped in buffer
solution of pH= 4 or pH = 9. The slope knob is then adjusted to read as pH = 4 or pH = 9.

iii) Measurement:A known volume of acid to be titrated is taken in the beaker kept on magnetic stirrer.
Combined glass electrode connected to pH meter is dipped in it after standardization. pH of the solution is
noted after every addition of base from burette into beaker.
iv) Graphs: Titration curve is plotted with pH Vs volume of base added. The equivalence point occurs on
the titration curve in the region where there is sharp change in pH with small change in volume. A more
sensitive method is a plot of ΔpH/ΔV against volume of base added. It gives maxima that indicate
equivalence point.

1.2.4 Conductometry:

Introduction
Conductometry is the measurement of the electrical conductivity of a solution. The conductance is defined
as the current flow through the conductor. Conductometry has notable application in analytical
18
chemistry, where conductometric titration is a standard technique. In usual analytical chemistry
practice, the term conductometry is used as a synonym of conductometric titration, Conductometry is
often applied to determine the total conductance of a solution or to analyze the end point of titrations
that include ions. The main principle involved in this method is that the movement of the ions creates
the electrical conductivity. The movement of the ions is mainly depended on the concentration of the
ions.
Conductometric titration:
Conductometric titration is a method in which volumetric analysis is done on the basis of change in
conductance of the solution,at equivalence point during titration. During titration not only number of
free ions but the type of ions may also change. As the conductivity depends on numberof free ions,
charge on free ions and the mobility of free ions, conductivity of solution changes during titration.

Types of conductometric titration:

(i) Titration of strong acid against strong base:

Consider titration of HCl with NaOH.
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
At the beginning, the acid solution has a high conductivity due to high mobility of hydrogen ions.
When NaOH is added to HCl, smaller size highly mobile hydrogen ions are replaced by comparatively
bigger, less mobile sodium ions. This decreases conductivity rapidly. The solution at neutralization i.e.
at equivalence point will have only sodium and chloride ions which have minimum conductivity. If
more NaOH is added, then conductivity increases owing to the increase in conductivity of OH ions. A
graph of conductivity is plotted against volume of sodium hydroxide. The point of intersection of two
lines gives equivalence point.

19
(ii) Titration of strong acid against weak base:
Consider titration of HCl (strong acid) with NH4OH (weak base).
HCl NH4OH NH4Cl H2O 
HCl is taken in beaker and NH4OH is added from burette. Initial conductivity of solution is high
because of strong acid HCl dissociates completely into ions. As ammonium hydroxide is added from
burette, conductivity decreases because of replacement of fast moving H ions with slow moving

4NH ions. Addition of NH OH 4 after end point, does not change conductance much as
NH OH 4 is weak electrolyte and has a very small conductivity as compared to its salt.

20
(iii) Titration of weak acid against strong base:
Consider titration of CH COOH 3 (weak acid) with NaOH (strong base)
CH3COOH + NaOH  CH3COONa + H2O 
Acetic acid is taken in beaker and sodium hydroxide is taken in burette. Initial conductivity is less
because acetic acid is a weak acid and dissociates less into its ions. After addition of NaOH from
burette, conductivity increases due to formation of salt which dissociates more into its ions. When
neutralization of acid is complete, further addition of NaOH produce excess of OH ions causing rapid
increase of conductance.

21
(iv)Titration of weak base against weak acid:
Consider titration of CH COOH 3 (weak acid) with NH OH 4 (weak base).
CH3COOH + NH4OH  CH3COONH4 + H2O 
Acetic acid is taken in beaker and ammonium hydroxide is taken in burette. Initial conductivity is less
because acetic acid is a weak acid and dissociates less into its ions. After addition of ammonium
hydroxide from burette, conductivity increases due to formation of salt which dissociates more into its
ions. After the neutralization of acid, further addition of ammonium hydroxide does not cause much
change in conductance.

22
Precipitation titration:
Consider titration of potassium chloride solution with silver nitrate solution.
KCl AgNO3 AgCl KNO3
When AgNO3 is added from burette to the beaker containing KCl , AgCl gets precipitated. K+ ions
remain unchanged whereas Cl- ions are replaced by free 
NO3- ions. The mobility of Cl-and NO3- ions.
are practically same. As a result conductance of KCl solution will not change with the addition of
AgNO3. When equivalence point is reached, further addition of AgNO3 to the solution add free Ag+
and NO3-ions causing a sharp rise in conductivity.

23
1.2.5 Dissolved Oxygen (DO):
The determination of dissolved oxygen (DO) present in sewage is very important, because while
discharging the treated sewage into some river stream, it is necessary to ensure at least 4 ppm of DO in it,
otherwise fishes are likely to be killed near the vicinity of disposal. The DO test performed on sewage
before treatment, helps in indicating the condition of sewage. Some DO present in fresh sewage only is
depleted by aerobic decomposition and dependent on temperature. Higher is the temperature of sewage
lower will be the DO content. The solubility of oxygen in sewage is 95% as that of distilled water.
The DO content of sewage is determined by Winkler’s method where in oxidation reduction reaction
equivalent amount of iodine is liberated to the quantity of DO originally present.

1.2.6 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

The organic matter present in water can be measured in number of ways. It is most often assessed in terms
of oxygen required to completely oxidize the organic matter to CO2, H2O and other oxidized species. If the
organic compounds and their concentrations are known, the theoretical oxygen demand of waste water can
be accurately calculated, but it is virtually impossible to know the details of the organic compounds present
in any natural raw water or a waste water.

24
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) of raw water or waste water is therefore determined by performing a
laboratory test on the given water with a strong oxidant like dichromate or permanganate solution
(potassium salts) in presence of H2SO4. It determines the molecular oxygen required by the oxidant to
oxidize organic matter present in waste water. This is called COD and is a measure of organic matter
present in sewage.

1.2.7 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD):

The organic matter, in fact is of two types; that which is biologically oxidized by bacteria called biologically
active or biodegradable and which cannot be oxidized by bacteria is called biologically inactive. As we are
mainly interested in biologically active organic matter BOD directly gives us biologically active organic
matter present in sewage and COD gives total of biologically active and biologically inactive organic
matter.
If sufficient oxygen is available in waste water, the useful aerobic bacteria cause aerobic biological
decomposition of waste water, which will continue until oxidation is completed. The amount of oxygen
consumed in this process is BOD. Polluted waters will continue to absorb oxygen for many months, and it is
not practically feasible to determine this ultimate oxygen demand.
Hence, the BOD of water during 5 days at 20oC is generally taken as the standard demand and is about 68%
of the total demand. A 10 day BOD is about 90% of the total. This standard 5 day BOD, written as BOD5, or
simply as BOD is determined in the laboratory by mixing a known volume of a sample of waste water with
a known volume of aerated pure water. DO of this diluted sample is calculated. This sample is then
incubated for 5 days at 20oC. DO of this diluted sample after incubation is again calculated. The difference
between them will indicate the oxygen consumed by sewage sample.

BOD or BOD5 = DO consumed in the test by the diluted sample X [volume of the diluted sample / volume
of the undiluted sewage sample]
The factor on the right hand side in above equation is nothing but the dilution factor.

Example 1: If 2.5 ml of raw sewage has been diluted to 250 ml and the DO concentration of the diluted
sample at the beginning of the BOD test was 8 mg/l and 5mg/l after 5 day incubation at 20oC; find the BOD
of raw sewage.

Solution: Volume of sample of sewage: 2.5 ml

Volume of diluted sample: 250 ml
Therefore Dilution Ratio = 250/2.5 = 100
Loss of dissolved oxygen during the test = DO before testing – DO after testing = 8 – 5 = 3
mg/l
BOD of sewage = Loss of oxygen X Dilution factor
= 3 mg/l X 100 = 300 mg/l

Example 2: A 2% solution of a sewage sample is incubated for 5 days at 20oC. The depletion of oxygen
was found to be 4 ppm. Determine the BOD of the sewage.

Solution: Dilution factor = 100 / Percent of solution = 100/2 = 50

Depletion of oxygen = 4 ppm
BOD = Depletion of oxygen X Dilution factor = 4 ppm X 50 = 200 ppm

25
1.2.8 Remedial Measures to Abate Water Pollution:
Ban on intermixing of solid waste or untreated domestic waste or industrial waste in water body.
Proper treatment of domestic and industrial waste to such an extent as to reuse and recycle them for one or
the other use, such as irrigation, industrial process etc.
Discouraging uncontrolled use of pesticides and fertilizers
Ban on activities such as bathing, washing of animals, clothes etc. in water bodies that are potential water
resources.
Regular cleaning of water bodies for aquatic weeds, plants.
Public awareness and legislative control as per Water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974.

1.3.1 Reverse osmosis

Principle:

The reversal of solvent flow, from higher concentration solution to lower

concentrationsolution through a semipermeable membrane, by applying an external pressure
slightly higher than the osmotic pressure of higher-concentration solution, is known as reverse
osmosis.

Normal osmosis process, is shown in fig. where the solvent flows from low concentration
solution to higher concentration solution, through the semipermeable membrane (SPM), until
difference in water levels creates a sufficient pressure to counteract the original water flow. The
difference in levels represents osmotic pressure of the solution.

In the reverse osmosis, we apply external pressure on the higher concentration solution
slightly higher than osmotic pressure.

The flow of solvent takes place in reverse direction i.e. from higher concentration solution
to lower concentration solution, through the SPM.

Thus in RO, we separate water from its’ contaminants rather than contaminants from water.

26
27
Method:

i) Sea water or water polluted by ionic pollutants, is filled in reverse osmosis cell

ii) A pressure of 200 psi is applied on it to force the solvent to pass through SPM.(SPM has such
porosity that it allows only molecules to pass through and higher sized ions molecules are
prohibited from passing).

iii) Membrane consists of a polymeric material film made of proper porosity, from materials like
acrylics, polyamides, aramids, etc.

Advantages:

i) RO removes all ionic, colloidal, nonionic pollutants from water.

ii) Simple to operate

iii) Low cost process

iv) Pure water for high pressure boiler can be obtained.

v) If the SPM is specially prepared such that it allows limited quantity of salts to pass through it
along with water, then RO technique is used to obtain drinking mineral water. Efficiency of the
process depends upon the physical, chemical and mechanical (strength) characteristics of
semipermeable membrane.

Proper porosity, resistance to attack by bacteria, salts, water and ability to bear the external
pressure and pressure of water on the membrane, are important in selecting SPM.

1.3.2 Electrodialysis
The process of removing ionic pollutants (salts, ionic dyes) from water by using
membranes and electric field, is known as electrdialysis.

Principle:

Salt water is allowed to pass through ion selective membranes (cation and anion) under electric
field to get salt free( pure) water.

Construction and Working:

An electrodialysis cell consists of a large number of paired sets of plastic membranes. The
membranes are ion-selective. e.g. A cation selective membrane will allow only cations to pass
through it, as this membrane consists of negatively charged fixed groups which repel anions and
do not allow to go through (groups on membrane like SO-3, COO-, etc)The anion selective
membrane allows only anions to pass through and the plasic membrane has cations repelling
28
groups like NR3.When an electric field is applied, perpendicular to the direction of flow of water,
the anions move towards positively charged electrode through the anion selective membrane in
the neighbouring compartment but after that there is cation selective membrane and the
movement stopped.

Similarly cations move in the direction of negatively charged electrode and go in neighbouring
compartment. They cannot move further because next is anion selective membrane.

The result will be alternate compartments with very high concentration of electrolytes and
neighbouring compartments to them with negligible concentration of ionic substances. Thus we
get alternate streams of pure water from the electrodialysis cell.

Applications:

i) Removal of ionic pollutants (toxic salts, ionic dyes, etc.) from treated industrial waste.

ii) Removal of salts from sea water, to get pure water.

iii) Removal of limited quantity of salts from sea water to get drinking (mineral) water.

29
1.4.1 Municipal/ Domestic water treatment

Municipalities have to supply potable water, i.e. water which is safe to drink. Drinking water
is safe to drink. Drinking or potable water, fit for human consumption, should satisfy the
following essential requirements:

 It should be sparking clear and odourless.

 It should be pleasant in test.
 It should be perfectly cool.
 Its turbidity should not exceed 10 ppm.
 It should be free from objectionable dissolved gases like hydrogen sulphide.
 It should be free from objectionable minerals such as lead,arsenic, chromium and
manganese salts.
 Its alkalinity should not be high. Its pH should be about 8.0
 It should be reasonably soft.
 Its total dissolved solids should be less than 500 ppm.
 It should be free from disease-producing micro-organisms.

Purification of water for domestic use:

Natural water from rivers, canals, etc., does not confirm to all the required specifications of
drinking water. For removing various types of impurities, the following treatment processes are
employed:
Note: Municipal water treatment does not aim at removing the dissolved salts present. Consequently, municipalities do not,
generally, supply softened water

A) Removal of suspended impurities:

1) Screening: The raw water is passed through screens, having large number of holes, when
floating matters are retained by them.

2) Sedimentation: It is a process of allowing water to stand undisturbed in big tanks, about 5 m

deep, when most of the suspended particles settle down at the bottom, due to the force of gravity.
The clear supernatant water is then drawn from tank with the with the help of pumps. The
retention period in a sedimentation tank ranges from 2-6 hours.

When water contains fine clay particles and colloidal matter, it becomes necessary to apply
sedimentation with coagulation for removing such impurities. Sedimentation with coagulation is
the process of removing fine suspended and colloidal impurities by the addition of requisite
amount of chemicals (called coagulants) to water before sedimentation. Coagulant, when added
to water, forms an insoluble gelatinous, flocculent precipitate, which descent through the water,
adsorbs and entangles very fine suspended impurities forming bigger flocs, which settle down
easily. Coagulants like alum or ferrous sulphate provide Al+3 or Fe+3 ions, which neutralise the

30
negative charge on the colloidal clay particles. After losing their charge, the tiny clay particles
come nearer to one another and combine to form bigger particles, which settle down, due to force
of gravity. Thus, coagulant forces even colloidal particles to settle down. The coagulants (or
flocculants) are, generally, added in solution form. For proper mixing of coagulants with water,
mixers are employed. Properly mixed water is then sedimented.

Chemical coagulants: The following are the most commonly used coagulants:

(i) Alum [K2SO4.Al2(SO4].24H2O] is the most widely used in water treatment plants. Alum
reacts in water in the presence of alkalinity of water. If natural alkalinity is not present, sufficient
lime is also added.

(𝐻 𝑂3)2 2(𝑂𝐻)3 ↓
2( 4)3 + ( 𝑎 . 𝑏i𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏 𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑚i i𝑢𝑚 + 3 𝑎𝑆𝑂4 + 6 𝑂2
( 𝑎𝑔𝑢 𝑎 𝑡) ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟 𝑥i𝑑𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑡 i 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
(𝐹 𝑐𝑐𝑢 𝑎 𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑡. )

(ii) Sodium aluminate (NaAlO2) is obtained from bauxite refineries in the form of thick
solution. This can very easily be used for treating water having no alkalinity (i.e.,pH less than 7).
pH range for best results is 5.5 – 8.0.

(𝑂𝐻)3 ↓
𝐺𝑒 𝑎𝑡i 𝑢𝑠 ƒ 𝑐
𝑁𝑎 𝑂2 + 2 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
ƒ 𝑎 𝑢𝑚i i𝑢𝑚
ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟 𝑥i𝑑𝑒

The aluminium hydroxide floc causes sedimentation. The sodium hydroxide thus produced,
precipitates magnesium salts as Mg(OH)2

𝑔𝑆𝑂4 + 2 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 (𝑂𝐻)2 ↓ + 𝑁𝑎2𝑆𝑂4

3) Filtration: It is the process of removing colloidal matter and most of the bacterias, micro-
organisms, etc., by passing water through a bed of fine sand and other proper-sized granular
materials. Filtration is carried out by using sand filter.

B) Removal of microorganisms:

Water after passing through sedimentation, coagulation and filtration operations still contains a
small percentage of pathogenic bacteria (disease-producing). Consequently, water used,
particularly for drinking or municipal purposes, must be freed from these disease-producing
bacteria, micro-organisms, etc. The process of destroying/killing the disease producing bacteria,

31
micro-organisms, etc., from the water and making it safe for use, is called disinfection. The
chemicals or substances, which are added to water for killing the bacteria, etc., are known as
disinfectants. The disinfection of water can be carried out by following methods:

(1) By boiling water for 10-15 minutes, all the disease-producing bacteria are killed and water
becomes safe for use.
Note: This process can kill only the existing germs in water at the time of boiling, but does not provide any protection against
future possible contamination. Moreover, this method is very costly and can be used only in individual cases, particularly during
the break up of epidemics in the town or city, and it is impossible to employ it in municipal water-works.

(2) By adding bleaching powder: In small water-works, about 1 kg of bleaching powder per
1,000 kilolitres of water is mixed and water allowed to stand undisturbed for several hours. The
chemical action produces hypochlorous acid (powerful germicide).

𝑎𝑂 2 + 𝐻2𝑂 (𝑂𝐻)2 + 2

𝐻𝑂
2 + 𝑂 𝐻 +
2
𝐻𝑦𝑝 𝑐ℎ 𝑟 𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑐i𝑑

𝐺𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 + 𝐻𝑂 𝐺𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑘i 𝑒𝑑

The disinfecting action of bleaching powder is due to the chlorine made available by it.

Drawbacks:

 Bleaching powder introduces calcium in water, thereby making it more hard

 Bleaching powder deteriorates, due to its continuous decomposition during storage. So,
whenever it is to be added, it has to be analysed for its effective chlorine content.
 Only calculated quantity of bleaching powder should be used, since an excess of it gives
a bad taste and smell to treated-water

(3) By Chlorination: Chlorine (either gas or in concentrated solution form) produces

hypochlorous acid, which is powerful germicide.

𝐻𝑂
2 + 𝑂 2 +𝐻
(𝐻𝑦𝑝 𝑐ℎ 𝑟 𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑐i𝑑)

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟i𝑎 + 𝐻𝑂 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟i𝑎 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑘i 𝑒𝑑.

Factors affecting efficiency of chlorine:

(i) Time of contact: It has been experimentally shown that number of microorganisms destroyed
by chlorine per unit time is proportional to the number of microorganisms remaining alive.
Consequently, the death rate is maximum to start with and it goes on decreasing with time.

32
(ii) Temperature of water : The rate of reaction with enzymes increases with temperature .
Consequently, death rate of micro-organisms by chlorine increases with rise in water
temperature.

(iii) pH value of water: It has been found that at lower pH values (between 5-6.5), a small
contact period is required to kill same percentage of organisms.

Advantages of chlorine:

 It is effective and economical.

 It requires very little space for storage.
 It is stable and does not deteriorate on keeping.
 It can be used at low as well as high temperatures.
 It introduces no salt impurities in the treated-water
 It is most ideal disinfectant.

Disadvantages:

 Excess of chlorine, if added, produces a characteristic unpleasant taste and odour.

Moreover, its excess produces an irritation on muscus membrane. The quantity of free
chlorine in treated-water should not exceed 0.1 to 0.2 ppm
 It is more effective below 6.5 pH and less effective at higher pH values.

(4) By using chloramine (ClNH2): When chlorine and ammonia are mixed in the ratio 2:1 by
volume, a compound chloramine is formed.

𝑁𝐻2
2 + 3 +𝐻
( ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑚i 𝑒)

Chloramine is much more lasting than chlorine alone and consequently, it is a better
bactericidal than chlorine alone.

𝐻𝑂
𝑁𝐻2 + 𝑂 2 + 𝑁𝐻3
( i𝑠i ƒ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎 𝑡)

Note:Now a days, chloramine is used for disinfection of water, because its excess does not
produce any irritating odour. Moreover, it imparts a good taste to treated-water.

(5)Ozone (g) is an excellent disinfectant, which is produced by passing silent electric discharge
through cold and dry oxygen.
3 𝑂2 𝑆i 𝑒 𝑡 𝑒 𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟i𝑐 2 𝑂3
𝑑i𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟g𝑒

(𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒 ) (𝑂𝑧 𝑒)

Ozone is highly unstable and breaks down, liberating nascent oxygen.

33
 𝑂3 [𝑂]
𝑂2 +
𝑂𝑧 𝑒 𝑁𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑒 𝑡 𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒

The nascent oxygen is very powerful oxidising agent and kills all the bacterias as well as
oxidises the organic matter present in water.

Disadvantage: This method is quite expensive and hence, not employed for disinfection of
municipal water supply.

Advantage: Disinfection by ozone is costlier than chlorine, but it simultaneously removes

colour, odour and tast without giving any residue. Its excess is not harmful, since it is unstable
and decomposes into oxygen.

34
1.4.2 Specification of drinking water ( BIS & WHO standards)
The water quality parameters are roughly divided into 3 categories.
1. Physical
2. Chemical
3. Biological

WHO(World Health Organisation)& BIS (Bureau of Indian Standard) for drinking water give
details of the permissible and desirable limits of various parameters in drinking water. As per
the above standards specifications for potable water are as follows:

Name of Agencies
Sr.No. Parameters BIS WHO
A B A B
1. Colour (Units) 5 25 5 50
,Hazen units
2. Turbidity(Units), 5 10 5 25
NTU
3. Total dissolved 500 2000 500 1500
solids(mg/lit)
4. pH 6.5-8.5 No 7-8.5 -
relaxati
on
5. Total hardness as 300 600 125 350
CaCO3 equivalents
(mg/lit)
6. Iron (mg/lit) 0.3 1.0 0.3 1.0
7. Manganese (mg/lit) 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.5
8. Nitrate 45 100 - 50-100
9. Chloride (mg/lit) 250 1000 - 250
Residual free 0.2 -
chlorine(mg/lit)
10. Fluoride (mg/lit) 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0-1.5
11. Sulphate (mg/lit) 200 400 200 400
12. Pathogenic Micro - 1 - 1
Organisms coliform coliform
(Coliform) per 100 per 100
ml ml
A - Recommended concentration (mg/lit)
B - Maximum permissible concentration (mg/lit) in absence of alternate sources

35
 1.4.3 Sewage Water
Treatment:
1) Sewage: Sewage is the liquid waste, which includes human and house –hold waste waters,
industrial waste, ground water, street washings and storm waters.

2) Constituents of sewage :

i) Domestic sewage: from public and private buildings

ii) Industrial and trade waters: from manufacturing processes
iii) Sub soil or ground water entering through sewer
iv) Storm water: rain water from houses, roads etc.

3) Sewage treatment:

Sewage, before its disposal either on land or in water, should be given a treatment, during which
its harmful compounds are transformed into harmless compounds.

Objectives of sewage treatment:

i) To make sewage unobjectionable so that it causes no odour or nuisance

ii) To reduce/eliminate danger to public health by possible contamination of water supplies
iii) To prevent destruction of fish and other aquatic life in rivers, canals etc

Sewage water treatment process:

Sewage water treatment is generally artificial treatment process called as ‘sewarage’. The
treatment involves following steps:

1) Preliminary treatment process:

Preliminary process causes removal of large and coarse solids, inorganic matter that are
suspended or floating in the sewage. The process involves passing the sewage through
bar screens for removal of large suspended floating matter and mesh screens to remove
coarse solids gravels etc.
Greater portion of suspended inorganic and organic matter from sewage is removed by
settling process. For this, chemical treatment (treatment of alum, ferrous sulphate) is
given to sewage for rapid sedimentation of suspended matter.

2) Secondary treatment process/Biological treatment process:

The process involves chemical oxidation or aeration. In this process, sewage water is
filtered through specially designed filters so that aerobic conditions are maintained all the
times.
During aerobic oxidation, carbon from organic matter is converted into CO2. Nitrogen is
converted into NH3 and finally into nitrites and nitrates. The dissolved bases like
anmmonia in sewage then form salts such as ammonium nitrate

36
Methods used for secondary treatment process:
a) Trickling filters:
It consist of rectangular or circular in shape about 2 M deep. They are filled with
either coarse, crushed rock or large anthracite coal or broken bricks. The under drain
system is provided at the bottom to collect effluent. Sewage is delivered to filters by
means of rotating distributor.
The sewage is allowed to trickle over the filtering media by means of rotating arm
distributor. As the tickled sewage starts percolating downwards, through the filtering
media, micro organisms present in the sewage grow on the surface of aggregates.
These micro organisms use organic matter from sewage as a food. Thus organic
matter in sewage is reduced and purified water is removed from the bottom.

b) Activated sludge process:

Adequate amount of oxygen or air is passed through sewage, containing microbes.
Slowly complete oxidation of organic matter takes place.

37
 The process consist of mixing sedimented sewage with proper quantity of activated
sludge (sludge containing micro organisms from previous process) and the mixture is
then sent to the aeration tank in which mixed liquor is simultaneously aerated and
agitated for 4 to 6 hours. During this aeration process , oxidation of suspended
organic matter takes place. After aeration, the effluent is sent to settling and
sedimentation tank .Sludge is deposited and clean liquid is drawn off. A part of
settled sludge is sent back( activated sludge) for seeding fresh batch of sewage.
Remaining sludge is disposed off by either dumping in sea or spreading uniformly on
land.

c) Tertiary treatment process:

It is the most advanced phase of treatment and its objectives are to decrease load of
nitrogen and phosphorus compounds present in the effluent.
It involves following steps:
i) Precipitation: It involves treatment of effluent from secondary treatment with
calcium oxide (lime), which reacts with phosphorus compounds forming
insoluble calcium phosphate precipitate. Precipitate settles down at the bottom
of tank from where it is filtered off.
ii) Nitrogen stripping: This process is used for removing ammonia gas. In this
process, filtered water is directed into a metal tower, containing a series of
small baffle plates. Air is forced upwards through the trickling effluent,
whereby ammonia gas is removed.
iii) Chlorination: It involves treating of water from nitrogen stripping with
chlorine so as to kill the disease causing micro organism

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 Nitrogen stripping

The water so treated is then finally discharged into river/lakes.

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