Research

Paper

Gay Su Pinnell Irene C. Fountas

scholastic.com/comprehensionclubs
 “If we wish to help children and
adolescents become thoughtfully literate,
classroom talk around texts is critical.”
—Dr. Richard Allington, 2012—

The “literacy club” is a long-standing metaphor that teacher helps children build deeper meaning
captures the social nature of language and literacy than they could have accomplished on their own
learning. It carries with it the understanding that we (Hoyt, 2007; Laminack and Wadsworth, 2006;
learn from other people—by joining the club of Whitehurst, et al., 1988; Purcell-Gates, McIntyre &
like-minded people and engaging in their activities Freppon, 1995).
(Smith, 1987). Literacy researcher Peter Johnston
(2004) notes that, “Children, just like adults, learn The Research Behind the
better in supportive environments in which they can Interactive Read-Aloud
risk trying out new strategies and concepts and
Known as dialogic or interactive, these read-
stretching themselves intellectually.”
alouds result in student gains in vocabulary
Comprehension Clubs fosters dynamic, intellectually (Bennett-Armistead, 2009), comprehension
charged conversation about books—or “text talk”— strategies and story schema (Van den Broek, 2001),
as students and teachers come together in and concept development (Wasik & Bond, 2001;
collaborative comprehension clubs to discuss and Fountas and Pinnell, 2012). However, simply inviting
engage with books. Through reflective, academic children to talk during interactive read-alouds
conversation about books—the hallmark of the doesn’t provide the needed learning boost. It’s the
Common Core State Standards (2010)—teachers close reading and textual analysis—deep, intentional
and students create the vibrant, literate classroom conversation about the text (Dickinson & Smith,
community that best supports high-level, quality 1994; Fountas & Pinnell, 2006; 2012; Serravallo, 2012;
comprehension. The collaborative, interactive and Shanahan, 2012)—that makes the difference.
nature of the club enables all students—including Shanahan explains:
struggling readers and English Language Learners—
Close reading requires a substantial
to find the support they need to fully engage with
emphasis on readers figuring out a high-
the books (Fountas & Pinnell, 2006, 2012; Duke,
quality text. This “figuring out” is
Pearson, Strachan, & Billman, 2011). Each student
accomplished primarily by reading and
gains access to more-expansive, deeper compre-
discussing the text . . . close reading
hension as he or she participates in shared talk
[means] intense emphasis on text, figuring
about books. As a result, each student has the
out the text by thinking about the words
opportunity to become a more proficient reader
and ideas in the text, minimization of
and confident learner.
external explanations, multiple and dynamic
Comprehension Clubs features two supportive rereading, multiple purposes that focus
and instructional “talk structures”: interactive on what a text says, how it says it, and
read-alouds and book clubs. what it means or what its value is.

The Interactive Read-Aloud These are the textual investigations in which

students engage as they use the Fountas and
Reading aloud with children is known to be the Pinnell (2006) framework for thinking about
single most important activity for building the text: thinking within the text, beyond the text,
knowledge and skills they will eventually require and about the text.
for learning to read.—Marilyn Jaeger Adams

Just at the name suggests, the read-aloud is truly

Academic Vocabulary
interactive; as the teacher reads aloud to the Thinking within the text during an interactive read-
students, she invites them to participate: to make aloud is an effective structure for exploring new
comments, extend the ideas of their peers, and vocabulary words. According to Marzano and
ask and respond to questions. In this way, the Pickering (2005), the best way to ensure that

2
students have the academic background knowledge Student Book Clubs
to understand the content they will encounter is to
Children grow into the intellectual life
teach them the meaning of the words embedded in
around them.—Lev Vygotsky
the text at hand. When students understand these
unique academic words, it is easier for them to Irene Fountas and Gay Su Pinnell (2006) charac-
comprehend the material that features the words. terize the book club as a literature “investigation,” in
The Common Core is very clear about the critical which participants, with guidance from the teacher,
importance of academic vocabulary, and we have “try out tentative ideas, search for information to
decades of research that demonstrates the extent confirm or refute their thinking, and build on one
to which students’ vocabulary knowledge relates to another’s ideas.” The goal, Fountas and Pinnell
their reading comprehension (Anderson, Wilson, (2006) instruct us, is to think of book clubs as
and Fielding, 1988; Biemiller, 1999; Hiebert, 2011). shared inquiry. The text talk inside a book club
And since students’ success in school and beyond doesn’t center around finding the one right answer;
depends in great measure upon their ability to it’s about investigating and analyzing the text and,
read with comprehension, providing instruction to this end, the benefits are great as club members
that equips students with the skills and strategies come together to share their perspectives, insights,
necessary for lifelong vocabulary development is and understandings.
both urgent and essential.

Recognizing that students who are successful in

The Research Behind
acquiring vocabulary are generally better readers, Student Book Clubs
researcher Dr. Isabel Beck believes strongly that Day, et al., (2002) identify five primary benefits of
vocabulary instruction should be a high priority in student book clubs; They:
every classroom. Beck found that words are learned
best in the context of reading followed by rich • Help teach—not merely check—comprehension.
discussion. One of her most significant contributions Listening in on book clubs helps teachers
is organizing words into three tiers based on their pinpoint their instruction and deliver what
usefulness and frequency of use. Beck et al. (2002) students actually need to move forward in
suggest that for instructional purposes, teachers their development as proficient readers.
should concentrate on “Tier Two” words—also •E
 nable teachers to teach multiple facets of
known as academic vocabulary—that: comprehension.
• r eflect mature language use and appear Book clubs help students move beyond superficial
frequently across a variety of contexts; facts about a book; the analytical talk that book
clubs make possible fosters deep, multi-faceted
• lend themselves to instruction, helping
comprehension.
students build in-depth knowledge of
them and their connections to other words • Encourage students to learn from one another.
and concepts; The rich, analytical talk of student book clubs
supports all members, including those who
•a
 nd provide precision and specificity in
are English Learners and those who find reading
describing a concept for which the students
a challenge.
already have a general understanding (Beck
et al., 2002). • Motivate students naturally.
The clubs give all students an opportunity to
Nell Duke (2011) also cites the high correlation
share their thoughts, questions, and theories,
(0.86) between academic vocabulary and
and, in the process, they are ultimately led to
comprehension and offers several strategies that
think much more deeply about the book than
students can use again and again to lock down
they could have accomplished on their own.
the meaning of more-sophisticated content
words, including relating words to themes and •P
 romote discussion more effectively than
to other related words. These word associations whole group discussions do.
help build networks of meaning that support Small groups offer certain advantages that
reading comprehension. whole-class discussions don’t. Book clubs:
•p
 rovide more opportunity for all children to talk;
since there are typically only six or so students
in a group, there is more time for each student
to talk.

3
 • f oster a more natural, easier context for text talk; 1992); incarcerated adolescents (Hill and Van Horn,
it’s simply easier to talk in a small group than in 1995); resistant learners (Hauschildt & McMahon,
an entire class. 1996); homeless children and children living in
•e
 ncourage responsibility and independence. poverty (Hanning, 1998); and English Language
In order to participate in their club, students Learners (MacGillivray, 1995). Various versions of
have to read the book on their own, think about book clubs and literature study circles have:
what they want to discuss, and come prepared • increased student enjoyment of and engagement
to share and question. in reading (Fox and Wilkinson, 1997);
•e
 xpanded children’s discourse opportunities
Research Studies Case in Point
(Johnston, P., 2004; Nichols, 2009);
Harvey Daniels (2002), a long-time champion of • increased multicultural awareness (Hansen-
book clubs, outlines his convincing research as well Krening, 1997; Lehman, et al., 2010);
as the research of others that demonstrates the
•p
 romoted a range of perspectives on social
promising results made possible by book clubs.
issues (Noll, 1994);
Between 1995 and 1998, he worked to implement
book clubs in a group of struggling Chicago •p
 rovided social outlets for students (Alvermann
schools in as many classrooms as possible. et al., 1996); and
The school-wide results were encouraging. •e
 ncouraged gender equity and an enhanced
sense of self (Bettis & Roe, 2008).
• In reading, his “book club” schools outstripped
citywide test score gains by 14% in 3rd grade, One of the best ways to foster reading engagement
9% in 6th grade, and 10% in 8th grade. is to have students write about their reading.
Judith Langer (2000) has spent more than two
• In writing, they topped citywide gains by 25% in
decades investigating the relationship between
grade 3, 8% in grade 6, and 27% in grade 8.
reading and-writing. She characterizes the learner
Daniels explains: “The Chicago teachers were as an active problem-solver who is influenced by
convinced: their book clubs were working, not background knowledge, text, and context.
just to help kids become readers, but also to
[W]hen people use their literacy skills to
prove they are readers on the mandated measures
think and rethink their understandings of
of proficiency.”
texts, themselves, and the world, it
As Daniels notes, other researchers have found promotes “personal empowerment.” It gives
similar results. A 1998 study of 4th graders by importance to individuals and the oral and
Klinger, Vaughn, and Schumm found that: written texts they create and encounter and
fosters the kinds of language and thought
•S
 tudents in peer-led groups made greater gains
that mark good and sharp thinking.
than control groups in reading comprehension
and equal gains in content knowledge, as We have known for decades of the mutually
measured by standardized tests, after reading beneficial interrelationship among the four primary
and discussing social studies material in peer- language processes: listening, speaking, reading,
led groups. and writing. And recently, we have recognized that
•M
 ost encouragingly, student small-group talk “visual literacy” also makes a unique contribution to
was 65% academic and content-related, 25% our meaning-making tools (Common Core, 2010).
procedural, 8% feedback, with only 2% off-task. In the landmark Carnegie Institute report, Reading
Martinez-Roldan and López-Robertson (2000) Next, literacy researchers Gina Biancarosa and
examined the effect of book clubs in a first-grade Catherine Snow (2004) showcased 15 instructional
bilingual classroom. They found that: recommendations for improving middle and high
school adolescent achievement based on the
• “ Young bilingual children, no matter what their professional knowledge and research of nationally
linguistic background, are able to have rich known and respected literacy researchers. Their
discussions if they have regular opportunities to recommendations include an emphasis on writing
engage with books.” intensively, summarizing, and keeping track of
And Dana Grisham of San Diego State University one’s own understanding—all of which relate to
has catalogued book club research documenting the reader’s notebook. The Biancarosa and Snow
benefits for inner-city students (Garbarino, et al., recommendations for effective adolescent literacy
instruction align with the Common Core State

4
Standards, particularly their common vision of • It helps them to consolidate and review
an integrated model of literacy. information.

The Common Core State Standards • It inspires the reformulation of thinking.
promote an integrated model of literacy. • It requires students to organize and
The language arts—listening, speaking, integrate ideas.
reading and writing—should be integrated • It fosters explicitness.
across the curriculum. Students are asked to
• It facilitates reflection.
read and/or listen to texts read aloud and
respond critically through discussion and in • It encourages personal involvement.
writing. Their responses may take the form • It requires translation into the student’s own words.
of written or oral explanation and argument. In sum, both the Graham and Perin (2007) and
And they are invited to engage in critical Graham and Hebert (2010) meta-analyses provide
thinking, problem solving, and collaboration empirical support for another important role
with their peers (Common Core, 2010, p. 4). for writing: as an effective tool for improving
A reader’s notebook is a powerful tool for students’ reading.
supporting students’ reading across the year. The Common Core State Standards center on this
Students can use the notebook to organize and key goal: “Upon graduating high school, students
collect their thinking about each book they read. must be able to read and comprehend independ-
Students can use the notebook for multiple forms ently and proficiently the kinds of complex
of writing, including open-ended thinking about texts commonly found in college and careers.”
the text, responding to teacher-assigned prompts, What seems to distinguish students who succeed
and formal essay writing for assessment purposes. from those who don’t is the ability to engage
Regardless of the format the writing takes, the independently in a close analysis of demanding
research is clear as to the benefits of writing about text—and there may be no better way to
reading. The Common Core State Standards (2010) accomplish that goal than through writing
call for integrating the language arts: reading, (Graham and Hebert, 2010).
writing, talking, and listening. The reader’s notebook
makes this integration possible. Support for Challenged Readers and
English Language Learners
Writing to Read
As many as one in three American children finds
Two of the most comprehensive studies about the
learning to read challenging (Adams, 1990). This
reading-writing interrelationship are the Graham
makes our goal—to help all readers achieve grade
and Perin (Writing Next, 2007) meta-analysis based
level independent reading—all the more urgent and
on Grades 1–12 empirical evidence—which identifies
essential. Typically, the children who get off to a
specific writing practices that enhance students’
poor start in reading rarely succeed in catching up.
reading abilities—and the 2010 Graham and Hebert
On this point, the research is both extensive and
Writing to Read meta-analysis. Graham and Hebert
unequivocal (Neuman and Dickinson, 2001; Snow,
show that asking students to write about texts they
Burns, and Griffin, 1998). As Juel first noted in l988,
read, explicitly teaching writing skills and processes,
a child who struggles to read in the first grade is
and having students write more improves reading
88% more likely to struggle in the fourth grade as
skills and comprehension.
well. Clearly, the early prevention of reading
Summarizing the Graham and Perin report, difficulties is critical (Clay, 1991; Pinnell and Fountas,
Timothy Shanahan (2012) lists key findings that 2009) and, to that end, we need always to keep in
demonstrate how writing about a text provides mind those students in our classrooms who find
students with a way into the text that enables reading challenging.
them to crack it open and construct meaning and
Fortunately, the support we offer our students
knowledge in ways that are more effective and
through Comprehension Clubs is exactly what
precise than would be possible if they were only
all students need: text, talk, and teaching.
reading and rereading the text or reading and
These are the essential literacy experiences
discussing it. Writing about a text benefits students
that all children need on their way to becoming
in ways that are both abundant and profound:
proficient readers.
• It encourages deeper thinking about ideas.
Let’s examine each in turn:
• It requires students to draw on their own
knowledge and experience.

5
Text: High Quality and Varied Using books on tape for struggling readers
and auditory learners exposes these
Text matters—hugely—and we have long showcased
students to literature above their reading
text as a critical component of the reading process.
levels. Struggling readers . . . are often
All texts share certain essential reading reading different books than their class-
components. Readers must solve the mates, and these books are not on grade
words, recognize how the text is organized level. Sometimes students reading below
(the text structure), make sense of the grade level want to read the same books
sentences and paragraphs (language as their classmates, but they are not able
structure), and understand what they are to. Audio books can help students to feel
reading. To skillfully comprehend, readers self-confident and improve reading skills.
need exposure with teaching—to a wide
variety of texts. Learning to make Talk: Intentional Conversation
adjustments to accommodate different The conversations we share with our students
kinds of texts requires this exposure (Pinnell around texts aren’t incidental—they are essential!
and Fountas, 2009). It’s through our rich and dynamic conversations
Hargis (2006) discovered that the typical fourth- about texts that all students, challenged and not,
grade classroom reflects a reading range that spans are helped to effectively construct meaning.
2nd to 9th grades. Teachers and kids need access to Conversation, in general, is invaluable—the stories
a wide range of texts—unleveled for independent children bring from home, their thoughts about
reading and leveled for guided reading. As Dick their learning experiences at school, and so forth—
Allington reminds us, “Good readers read with but it’s the deep, academic conversation about
accuracy almost all the time.” If we want our kids to texts that packs the greatest learning punch.
sprint ahead—to become reading champions on Our students need to converse about texts every
their way to college and beyond—they must read day—during interactive read alouds, with their book
with 98% accuracy or higher. Not only do our kids clubs, and with partners or parents at home while
miss out on accelerated reading when their they are completing their independent reading.
accuracy rate slips to 90% or below, but also, even All reading experiences should be grounded in
more alarmingly, they fail to make any reading talk about the text. And as our students hear
progress at all (Allington, 2012). Our students new vocabulary and text structures that we can
grow as readers when they read books they highlight through intentional conversation,
can understand. It’s just that simple—and that they can incorporate them into their own
critical. We can’t take chances with our students’ language repertoire.
reading lives.
Teaching: An Exemplary
Audiobooks Teaching-Assessing Loop
Struggling readers and English Language Learners
need help with fluency and comprehension as well Intentional and intensive instruction, informed
as with building their confidence to handle both. by continuous formative assessment, characterizes
One of the most effective strategies is to invite the daily routine of the thoughtful teacher. He or
students to read along with an audio recording of she continuously monitors students’ progress:
the book. In this way, they learn about fluency, Are they mastering the foundational skills of
expression, and reading at an appropriate rate. They reading (Common Core, 2010)? Are they learning
also learn about the role of punctuation and how the to control the powerful linguistic and cognitive
various punctuation marks they encounter while understandings and strategies that enable
reading affect their reading style and pace. Fluency mature, skillful, independent reading? Teachers
and pace affect comprehension (Rasinski, 2010), so recognize that intellectual and academic growth
reading along creates a winning cycle of support for occurs across time, developmental benchmarks,
challenged readers and ELLs. What’s more, with the and disciplines. But working with finely honed
aid of audio, students can read more challenging texts instruction and expertly selected texts gives
than they could otherwise handle on their own—and teachers the best shot at maximizing the
then they are able to participate in the student book instructional leverage of every text (Pinnell and
club, which provides additional support. Fountas, 2009; Serravallo, 2012).

Educator Margo Dill (2010) points out an essential Remember—our struggling readers and English
advantage of giving challenged readers books on tape: Language Learners need to spend more time
actually reading than doing activities related to

6
reading. There’s simply no better way to help Technical Subjects (2010). Washington, D.C.: Common
challenged readers and new English speakers than Core Standards Initiative.
to get them reading, writing about, and talking Daniels, H. (2002). Literature Circles: Voice and Choice in
about a wide range of engaging texts. Book Clubs and Reading Groups. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.
Day, J, Spiegel, D. L., McLellan, J. & Brown, V. (2002).
Final Thoughts Moving Forward with Literature Circles: How to Plan,
Manage, and Evaluate Literature Circles that Deepen
In sum, books and reading—and conversation about
Understanding and Foster a Love of Reading.
both—are not only one of life’s greatest pleasures New York: Scholastic.
but one of the primary ways in which we learn
Dickinson, D. K., & Smith, M. W. (1994). “Long-Term
about life. Comprehension Clubs, comprising fiction
Effects of Preschool Teachers’ Book Readings on Low-
and informational books, is life-stretching and Income Children’s Vocabulary and Story Comprehension.”
life-enhancing and becomes even more so as the Reading Research Quarterly, 29(2), 104–122.
books are discussed, analyzed, written about,
Dill, M. (2010). Using Audio Books For Children Struggling
and enjoyed by all the members of the learning with Reading. Retrieved from: http://www.brighthub.com/
community. In this way, all members grow education/special/articles/44946.aspx
intellectually and academically in ways that far
Duke, N., Pearson, D., Strachan, S., & Billman, A. (2011).
surpass what they could do on their own. “Essential Elements of Fostering and Teaching Reading
Comprehension.” In S. J. Samuels and A. Farstrup, What
References Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction, 4th
Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to Read. Cambridge, MA: edition. Newark, DE.: International Reading Association.
M.I.T. Press. Fountas, I., & Pinnell, G. S. (2006). Teaching for
Allington, R. (2012). What Really Matters for Struggling Comprehending and Fluency: Thinking, Talking, and
Readers. New York: Pearson. Writing about Reading, K–8. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Alvermann, D., Young, J. P., Weaver, D., Hinchman, K. A., Fountas, I., & Pinnell, G. S. (2012). Genre Study:
Moore, D. W., Phelps, S. F., Thrash, E. C., & Zalewski, P. Teaching with Fiction and Nonfiction Books. Portsmouth,
(1996). “Middle and High School Students’ Perceptions of NH: Heinemann.
How They Experience Text-Based Discussions: A Multicase Fox & Wilkinson, (1997). “No Longer Travelers in a Strange
Study.” Reading Research Quarterly, 31, 3, 244–267. Country.” Journal of Children’s Literature. 23 (1): 6–15.
Anderson, R., Wilson, R., & Fielding, L. (1988). Growth in Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelyn, K., & Prado, C. (1992).
reading and how children spend their time outside of Children in Danger: Coping with the Consequences of
school. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 285-303. Community Violence. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Beck, I., McKeown, M., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing Words Graham, S., & Hebert. M. (2010). “Writing to Read:
to Life. New York: The Guilford Press. A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Writing and Writing
Bennet-Armistead, S. (2009). Literacy-Building Play in Instruction on Reading.” Harvard Educational Review.
Preschool. New York: Scholastic. Vol. 81. No. 4 Winter.

Bettis, P. & Roe, M. F. (2008). “Reading Girls: Living Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). “A Meta-Analysis of
Literate and Powerful Lives.” Research in Middle Level Writing Instruction for Adolescent Students.” Journal of
Education Online, 32, 1, 1–18. Educational Psychology, 99, pp. 445–476)

Biancarosa, G., & Snow, C. (2004). “Reading Next: Graham, S., & Perin, D, (2007) “WritingtNext: Effective
A Vision for Action and Research in Middle and High Strategies to Improve Writing of Adolescents in Middle
School Literacy.” Report to Carnegie Corporation of New and High Schools”. A report to the Carnegie Corporation
York. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education. of New York.

Biemiller, A. (1999). Language and Reading Success. Hanning, E. (1998). What we’ve learned: The reading
New York: Brookline Express . connections book club after two years. Journal of Children
and Poverty, 4(1), 25-37.
Biemiller, A. (2006). “Vocabulary Development and
Instruction: A Prerequisite for School Learning.” In D. Hargrave, A. C., & Sénéchal, M. (2000). “A Book Reading
Dickinson & S. B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of Early Intervention with Preschool Children Who Have Limited
Literacy Research (Vol. II, pp. 41–51). New York: Guilford. Vocabularies: The Benefits of Regular Reading and
Dialogic Reading.” Early Childhood Research Quarterly.
Boyd, F. B. (2002). “Motivation to Continue: Enhancing
Special Issue: Evaluating, Interpreting, and Debating Early
Literacy Learning for Struggling Readers and Writers.”
Interventions: The Case of the Comprehensive Child
Reading and Writing Quarterly, 18, 3, 257–277.
Development Program, 15, 75–90.
Clay, M. (1991). Becoming literate: The construction of inner
Hansen-Krening, N., & Mizokawa, D. T. (1997). “Exploring
control. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Ethnic-Specific Literature: A Unity of Parents, Families, and
Common Core State Standards for English Language Educators.” Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy,
Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and 41(3), 1807189.

7
 Hauschildt, P., & McMahon, S. (1996). “Reconceptualizing Neuman, S. & Dickinson, D., Editors. (2001). The handbook
Resistant Learners and Rethinking Instruction: Risking a of early literacy research. New York: Guilford.
Trip to the Swamp.” Language Arts, 73.8, 576–586. Noll, E. (1994). “Experiencing Literacy in and out of School:
Hiebert, E. (2011). “The Common Core State Standards and Case Studies of Two American Indian Youths.” Journal of
TextyComplexity.” In M. Hougen and S.Smartt (Eds.), Literacy Research.
Becoming an Effective Literacy Teacher: Integrating Pinnell, G. S. & Fountas, I. (2009). When readers struggle:
Research and the NewCommon Core State Standards. Teaching that works. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Baltimore, MD: Paul Brookes Publishing.
Purcell-Gates, V., McIntyre, E., and Freppon, P. (1995).
Hill, M. H., & Van Horn, L. (1995). “Extensive Reading “Learning Written Storybook Language in School:
through Book Clubs: How Book Clubs Have Changed A Comparison of Low-SES Children in Skills-Based and
Lives.” In G. M. Jacobs, C. Davis, and W. A. Renandya Whole Language Classrooms.” American Educational
(Eds.), Successful Strategies for Extensive Reading (pp. Research Journal, 32: 659–685.
98–108). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
Rasinski, T. (2010). The Fluent Reader (2nd Edition): Oral
Hoyt, L. (2007). The Interactive Read Aloud. Portsmouth, and silent reading strategies forbBuildingfFluency, Word
NH: Heinemann. Recognition, an&nComprehension. New York: Scholastic.
Johnston, P. (2004). Choice Words: How Our Language Scharer, P. L., and Peters, D. (1996). “An Exploration of
Affects Children’s Learning. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. Literature Discussions Conducted by Two Teachers Moving
Klinger, J. K., Vaughn, S., & Schumm, J. S. (1998). toward Literature-Based Reading Instruction.” Reading
“Collaborative Strategic Reading During Social Studies in Research and Instruction, 36, 1, 33–50.
Heterogeneous Fourth-Grade Classrooms.” Elementary Serravallo, J. (2012). Independent Reading Assessment.
School Journal, 99, 3–22. New York: Scholastic.
Laminack, L. & Wadsworth, R. (2006). Learning Under Shanahan, T. (2012). “What Is Close Reading?”
the Influence of Language and Literature. Portsmouth, Shanahan on Literacy. Retrieved from: http://www.
NH: Heinemann. shanahanonliteracy.com
Langer, J. A., & Filhan, S. (2000). “Writing and Reading Smith, F. (1987). Joining the Literacy Club: Further Essays
Relationships: ConstructivesTasks. In S. R. Copeland & E. B. into Literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Keefe, Effective Literacy Instruction for Students with
Snow, C., Burns, S., & Griffin, P. (Eds). (1998). Preventing
Moderate or Severe Disabilities. Newark, DE: International
Reading Difficulties in YoungnChildren.Washington, DC:
Reading Association.
National Academy Press, 314.
Lehman, B., Freeman, E., & Scharer, P. (2010). Reading
Van den Broek, P. (1997). “Discovering the Cements of the
Globally, K–8: Connecting Students to the World through
Universe: The Development of Event Comprehension from
Literature. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Childhood to Adulthood.” In P. van den Broek, P. Bauer,
MacGillivray, L., Tse, L., & McQuillan, J. (1995). “Second and T. Bourg (Eds.), Developmental Spans in Event
Language and Literacy Teachers Considering Literature Comprehension: Bridging Fictional and Actual Events.
Circles: A Play. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
39, 36–44.
Wasik, B., Bond, M. A., Hindman, A. (2001). “The Effects of
Martinez-Roldan, C., & Lopez-Robertson, J. (2000). a Language and Literacy Intervention on Head Start
“Initiating Literature Circles in a First-Grade Bilingual Children and Teachers.” Journal of Educational Psychology,
Classroom.” The Reading Teacher, Dec 1999/Jan 2000; Vol. 98(1), Feb 2006, 63–74.
53, 4; Research Library p. 270.
Whitehurst, G., Falco F. L., Longian, C., Fischel, J. E.,
Marzano, R., & Pickering, D. (2005). Building Academic DeBarsyshe, B. D., Valdez-Menchaca, M.C., & Caufield, M.B.
Vocabulary: Teacher’s Manual. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. (1988). “Accelerating Language Development through
Nichols, M. (2009). Expanding Comprehension with Picture-Book Reading.” Developmental Psychology, 24,
Multigenre Text Sets. New York: Scholastic. 552–559.

scholastic.com/comprehensionclubs

615935 / July 2012