POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL

(R18- R18A0214)

LECTURE NOTES

B.TECH

(III YEAR – II SEM)

(2019-20)

Prepared by: R.SAI KIRAN Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)

(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO
9001:2015 Certified)
 (R18A0214) POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL

Pre-requisites: Power System-I, Power System-II

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 To give the knowledge on per unit system and faults.
 Give the knowledge of iterative method in power systems.
 To understand the concepts load flow studies.
 To understand Power systems stability
 To understand PF and Computer control in power systems

UNIT- I:
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND FAULT CALCULATIONS: Significance of positive,
negative and zero sequence components, sequence impedances and sequence networks, fault
calculations, sequence network equations, single line to ground fault, line to line fault, double line to
ground fault, three phase faults, faults with fault impedance.

UNIT-II:
PER UNIT REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEMS: The one line diagram, impedance and
reactance diagrams, per unit quantities, changing the base of per unit quantities, advantages of per
unit system.

LOAD FLOW STUDIES I: Bus Incidence Matrix, Y-bus formation by Direct Methods, Numerical
Problems. Derivation of Static load flow equations. Load Flow Solutions Using Gauss Seidel
Method: Load flow solution with and without P-V buses.

UNIT-III:
LOAD FLOW STUDIES II: Numerical Load flow Solution for Simple Power Systems (Max. 3-
Buses): Determination of Bus Voltages, Injected Active and Reactive Powers (One Iteration only)
and finding Line Flows/Losses for the given Bus Voltages, Newton Raphson Method: Load Flow
Solution with and without P-V Buses, Derivation of Jacobian Elements, Fast Decoupled Method.

UNIT-IV:
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY: The stability problem – Concepts of Steady state stability,
transient stability and Dynamic Stability - Swing equation. Equal area criterion of stability -
Applications of Equal area criterion, Step by step solution of swing equation - Factors affecting
transient stability.

UNIT-V:
PF CONTROL: Basics of speed governing mechanism and modeling – Control area concept,
LFC control of a single area system, two area system.
COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS: System monitoring - data acquisition
and control. System hardware configuration – SCADA and EMS functions.
 TEXT BOOKS:
1. C.L.Wadhwa, Electrical Power Systems, 3rd Edn, New Age International Publishing Co.,
2001.
2. D.P.Kothari and I.J.Nagrath, Modern Power System Analysis, 4th Edn,
Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited2011.

REFERENCE BOOK:
1. D. P. Kothari: Modern Power System Analysis-Tata McGraw Hill Pub. Co. 2003.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course the student will be able to:
 Understand the concept of per unit system and faults in power systems.
 Evaluate the admittance matrix of a given power systems.
 Analyze the power system using iterative methods.
 Understand the concept of stability in power system.
 Understand the PF and computer control in power system.
 UNIT-1
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND FAULT CALCULATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION
 A fault is any abnormal condition in a power system. The steady state operating
mode of a power system is balanced 3-phase a.c. However, due to sudden
external or internal changes in the system, this condition is disrupted.
 When the insulation of the system fails at one or more points or a conducting
object comes into contact with a live point, a short circuit or a fault occurs.

1.1 CAUSES OF POWER SYSTEM FAULTS

The causes of faults are numerous, e.g.
 Lightning
 Heavy winds
 Trees falling across lines
 Vehicles colliding with towers or poles
 Birds shorting lines
 Aircraft colliding with lines
 Vandalism
 Small animals entering switchgear
 Line breaks due to excessive loading

1.2 COMMON POWER SYSTEM FAULTS

Power system faults may be categorized as one of four types; in order of frequency of
occurrence, they are:

 Single line to ground fault

 Line to line fault
 Double line to ground fault
 Balanced three phase fault
 The first three types constitutes severe unbalanced operating conditions which involves
only one or two phases hence referred to as unsymmetrical faults. In the fourth type, a
fault involving all the three phases occurs therefore referred to as symmetrical
(balanced) fault.

1.3 EFFECTS OF POWER SYSTEM FAULTS

Faults may lead to fire breakout that consequently results into loss of property, loss of
life and destruction of a power system network. Faults also leads to cut of supply in
areas beyond the fault point in a transmission and distribution network leading to power
blackouts; this interferes with industrial and commercial activities that supports
economic growth, stalls learning activities in institutions, work in offices, domestic
applications and creates insecurity at night.

1.4 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

The majority of faults in power systems are asymmetrical. To analyze an asymmetrical

fault, an unbalanced 3- phase circuit has to be solved. Since the direct solution of such a
circuit is very difficult, the solution can be more easily obtained by using symmetrical
components since this yields three (fictitious) single phase networks, only one of which
contains a driving emf. Since the system reactances are balanced the thee fictitious
networks have no mutual coupling between them, a fact that is making this method of
analysis quite simple.

1.4.1 General principles

Any set of unbalanced 3-phase voltages (or current) can be transformed into 3 balanced
sets. These are:
1. A positive sequence set of three symmetrical voltages (i.e. all numerically equal
and all displaced from each other by 1200) having the same phase sequence abc as
the original set and denoted by Va1,Vb1,Vc1 as shown in the fig(1a)
 Vc1 Va1

Vb1

Fig. (a)

2. A negative sequence set of three symmetrical voltages having the phase

sequence opposite to that of the original set and denoted by Va2, Vb2, Vc2 as
shown in fig(1b)

Va2

Vb2

Vc2

Fig. 1 (b)
3. A zero sequence set of three voltages, all equal in magnitude and in phase with
each other and denoted by Va0, Vb0, Vc0 as shown in fig (1c) below:

Va0

Vb0

Vc0

Fig. 1 (c )

The positive, negative and zero sequence sets above are known as symmetrical

components. Thus we have,

Va = Va1 +Va2 +Va0

Vb = Vb1 +Vb2 +Vb0

Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 +Vc0

The symmetrical components application to power system analysis is of fundamental

importance since it can be used to transform arbitrarily unbalanced condition into
symmetrical components, compute the system response by straightforward circuit
analysis on simple circuit models and transform the results back to the original phase
variables.

Generally the subscripts 1, 2 and 0 are used to indicate positive sequence, negative
sequence and zero sequence respectively.

The symmetrical components do not have separate existence; they are just mathematical
components of unbalanced currents (or voltages) which actually flow in the system.
 1.4.2 The “a” operator

The operator “a” as used in symmetrical components is one in which when multiplied to
a vector, rotates the vector through 1200 in a positive (anticlockwise) direction
without changing the magnitude.

The operator “a” is defined as 1 1200

1.5 THREE-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES AND SEQUENCE NETWORKS

Positive sequence currents give rise to only positive sequence voltages, the negative
sequence currents give rise to only negative sequence voltages and zero sequence
currents give rise to only zero sequence voltages, hence each network can be regarded
as flowing within in its own network through impedances of its own sequence only.

In any part of the circuit, the voltage drop caused by current of a certain sequence
depends on the impedance of that part of the circuit to current of that sequence.

The impedance of any section of a balanced network to current of one sequence may be
different from impedance to current of another sequence.

The impedance of a circuit when positive sequence currents are flowing is called impedance,

When only negative sequence currents are flowing the impedance is termed as negative
sequence impedance.

With only zero sequence currents flowing the impedance is termed as zero sequence
impedance.

The analysis of unsymmetrical faults in power systems is carried out by finding the
symmetrical components of the unbalanced currents. Since each sequence current causes
a voltage drop of that sequence only, each sequence current can be considered to flow in
an independent network composed of impedances to current of that sequence only.

The single phase equivalent circuit composed of the impedances to current of any one
sequence only is called the sequence network of that particular sequence.
The sequence networks contain the generated emfs and impedances of like sequence.

Therefore for every power system we can form three- sequence network s. These
sequence networks, carrying current Ia1, Ia2 and Ia0 are then inter-connected to
represent the different fault conditions.

1.6 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SEQUENCE COMPONENTS

This is achieved by considering the fields which results when these sequence voltages
are applied to the stator of a 3-phase machine e.g. an induction motor.

If a positive sequence set of voltages is applied to the terminals a, b, c of the machine, a

magnetic field revolving in a certain direction will be set up. If now the voltages to the
terminals band c are changed by interchanging the leads to terminals b and c, it is known
from induction motor theory that the direction of magnetic field would be reversed.

It is noted that for this condition, the relative phase positions of the voltages applied to
the motor are the same as for the negative sequence set.

Hence, a negative sequence set of voltages produces a rotating field rotating in an

opposite direction to that of positive sequence.

For both positive and negative sequence components, the standard convention of
counter clockwise rotation is followed.

The application of zero sequence voltages does not produce any field because these
voltages are in phase and the three -phase windings are displaced by 1200.The positive
and the negative sequence set are the balanced one. Thus, if only positive and negative
sequence currents are flowing, the phasor sum of each will be zero and there will be no
residual current. However, the zero sequence components of currents in the three phases
are in phase and the residual current will be three times the zero sequence current of one
phase. In the case of a fault involving ground, the positive and negative sequence
currents are in equilibrium while the zero sequence currents flow through the ground
and overhead ground wires.
 SEQUENCE NETWORKS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

An unloaded synchronous machine having its neutral earthed through impedance, zn, is
shown in fig. 2(a) below.

A fault at its terminals causes currents Ia, Ib and Ic to flow in the lines. If fault involves
earth, a current In flows into the neutral from the earth. This current flows through the
neutral impedance Zn.

Thus depending on the type of fault, one or more of the line currents may be zero.Ia1

Ea +
-
In Zn
n
- Eb +

- Ib1

Ec
+ b
c

Ic1

Fig.2 (a)

Positive sequence network

The generated voltages of a synchronous machine are of positive sequence only since
the windings of a synchronous machine are symmetrical.

The positive sequence network consists of an emf equal to no load terminal voltages and
is in series with the positive sequence impedance Z1 of the machine. Fig.2 (b) and
fig.2(c) shows the paths for positive sequence currents and positive sequence network
respectively on a single phase basis in the synchronous machine. The neutral
impedance Zn does not appear in the circuit because the phasor sum of Ia1, Ib1 and Ic1
is zero and no positive sequence current can flow through Zn. Since its a balanced
circuit, the positive sequence N
The reference bus for the positive sequence network is the neutral of the generator.

The positive sequence impedance Z1 consists of winding resistance and direct axis
reactance. The reactance is the sub-transient reactance X”d or transient reactance X’d or
synchronous reactance Xd depending on whether sub-transient, transient or steady state
conditions are being studied.

From fig.2 (b), the positive sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to the reference
bus is given by:

Va1= Ea - Z1Ia1 Ia1

Z1 +

- Eb +
Ib1
Z1
-

Ec
+ b

Ic1
Fig.2 (b)
Reference bus

Ea

Z1 a

Ia1

Fig.2(c)

2.02 Negative sequence network

A synchronous machine does not generate any negative sequence voltage. The
flow of negative sequence currents in the stator windings creates an mmf which rotates
at synchronous speed in a direction opposite to the direction of rotor, i.e., at twice the
synchronous speed with respect to rotor.

Thus the negative sequence mmf alternates past the direct and quadrature axis and sets
up a varying armature reaction effect. Thus, the negative sequence reactance is taken
as the average of direct axis and quadrature axis sub-transient reactance, i.e.,

X2 = 0.5 ( X”d + X”q ).

It not necessary to consider any time variation of X2 during transient conditions because
there is no normal constant armature reaction to be effected. For more accurate
calculations, the negative sequence resistance should be considered to account for power
dissipated in the rotor poles or damper winding by double supply frequency induced
currents.

The fig.2 (d) and fig.2 (e) shows the negative sequence currents paths and the negative
sequence network respectively on a single phase basis of a synchronous machine.
The reference bus for the negative sequence network is the neutral of the machine. Thus,
the negative sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to the reference bus is given
by:

Va2= -Z2Ia2

Ia2

Z2

Z2
Z2
Ib2
b

Ic2

Fig.2 (d)

Reference bus

Z2

Ia2

Fig.2 (e)
2.0.3 Zero sequence network

No zero sequence voltage is induced in a synchronous machine. The flow of zero

sequence currents in the stator windings produces three mmf which are in time phase. If
each phase winding produced a sinusoidal space mmf, then with the rotor removed, the
flux at a point on the axis of the stator due to zero sequence current would be zero at
every instant.

When the flux in the air gap or the leakage flux around slots or end connections is
considered, no point in these regions is equidistant from all the three –phase windings
of the stator.

The mmf produced by a phase winding departs from a sine wave, by amounts which
depend upon the arrangement of the winding.

The zero sequence currents flow through the neutral impedance Zn and the current
flowing through this impedance is 3Ia0.

Fig.2(f) and fig.2(g) shows the zero sequence current paths and zero sequence network
respectively, and as can be seen, the zero sequence voltage drop from point a to ground
is - 3Ia0Zn –Ia0Zg0 where Zg0 is the zero sequence impedance per phase of the
generator.

Since the current in the zero sequence network is Ia0 this network must have an
impedance of 3Zn +Zg0. Thus,

Z0 =3Zn +Zg0

The zero sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to the reference bus is thus:

Va0 = -Ia0Z0
 Ia0

a
Zg0

Ea
Ia0+ Ib0+ Ic0
n Zg0

Zn Ib0

Zg0
b
c

Fig.2 (f) Ic0

Reference bus

3Zn

Z0
Zg0

Ia0

Fig.2 (g)
 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF TRANSMISSION LINE

The positive and negative sequence impedances of linear symmetrical static circuits do
not depend on the phase sequence and are, therefore equal. When only zero sequence
currents flow in the lines, the currents in all the phases are identical. These currents
return partly through the ground and partly through overhead ground wires.

The magnetic field due to the flow of zero sequence currents through line, ground and
round wires is very different from the magnetic field due to positive sequence currents.
The zero sequence reactance of lines is about 2 to 4 times the positive sequence
reactance.

SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF TRANSFORMERS

A power system network has a number of transformers for stepping up and stepping
down the voltage levels.

A transformer for a 3-phase circuit may consist of three single phase transformers with
windings suitably connected in star or delta or it may be a 3-phase unit.

Modern transformers are invariably three-phase units because of their lower cost, lesser
space requirements and higher efficiency. The positive sequence impedance of a
transformer equals its leakage impedance. The resistance of the windings is usually
small as compared to leakage reactance.

For transformers above 1 MVA rating, the reactance and impedance are almost equal.
Since the transformer is a static device, the negative sequence impedance is equal to the
positive sequence impedance.

The zero sequence impedance of 3-phase units is slightly different from positive
sequence impedance. However the difference is very slight and the zero sequence
impedance is also assumed to be the same as the positive sequence impedance.
The flow of zero sequence currents through a transformer and hence in the system
depends greatly on the winding connections. The zero sequence currents can flow
through the winding connected in star only if the star point is grounded. If the star point
isolated zero sequence currents cannot flow in the winding.

The zero sequence currents cannot flow in the lines connected to a delta connected
winding because no return path is available for these zero sequence currents. However,
the zero sequence currents caused by the presence of zero sequence voltages can
circulate through the delta connected windings.

FORMATION OF SEQUENCE NETWORKS

A power system network consists of synchronous machines, transmission lines and

transformers.

The positive sequence network is the same as the single line reactance diagram used for
the calculation of symmetrical fault current. The reference bus for positive sequence
network is the system neutral.

The negative sequence network is similar to the positive sequence network except that
the negative sequence network does not contain any voltage source. The negative
sequence impedances for transmission line and transformers are the same as the positive
sequence impedances. But the negative sequence impedance of a synchronous machine
may be different from its positive sequence impedance.

Any impedance connected between a neutral and ground is not included in the positive
and negative sequence networks because the positive and the negative sequence currents
cannot flow through such impedance.

The zero sequence network also does not contain any voltage source. Any impedance
included between neutral and ground becomes three times its value in a zero sequence
network.

The following are the summary of the rules for the formation of sequence networks:-

 The positive sequence network is the same as single line impedance or reactance
diagram used in symmetrical fault analysis. The reference bus for this network is
the system neutral.
  The generators in power system produce balanced voltages. Therefore only
positive sequence network has voltage source. There are no voltage sources in
negative and zero sequence networks.
 The positive sequence current can cause only positive sequence voltage drop.
Similarly negative sequence current can cause only negative sequence voltage
drop and zero sequence current can cause only zero sequence voltage drop.
 The reference for negative sequence network is the system neutral. However, the
reference for zero sequence network is the ground. Zero sequence current can
flow only if the neutral is grounded.
 The neutral grounding impedance Zn appears as 3Zn in the zero sequence network.
 The three sequence networks are independent and are interconnected suitably
depending on the type of fault.

UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS

The basic approach to the analysis of unsymmetrical faults is to consider the general
situation shown in the fig.3.0 which shows the three lines of the three- phase power
system at the point of fault.

The general terminals brought out are for purposes of external connections which
simulate the fault. Appropriate connections of the three stubs represent the different
faults, e.g., connecting stub `a’ to ground produces a single line to ground fault, through
zero impedance, on phase

`a’. The currents in stubs b and c are then zero and Ia is the fault current.

Similarly, the connection of stubs b and c produces a line to line fault, through zero
impedance, between phases b and c, the current in stub a is then zero and Ib is equal to
Ic.The positive assignment of phase quantities is important. It is seen that the currents
flow out of the system.

The three general sequence circuits are shown in fig.3.1 (a). The ports indicated
correspond to the general 3- phase entry port of fig.3.1. A suitable inter- connection of
the three- sequence networks depending on the type fault yields the solution to the
problem.
The sequence networks of fig.3.1 (a) can be replaced by equivalent sequence networks
of fig.3.1 (b) . Z0, Z1 and Z2 indicate the sequence impedances of the network looking
into the fault.

Ia Ib Ic
+ +
+
n Va Vb Vc

Fig.3.0 General 3- phase access port

 Equivalent sequence networks
General sequence
networks

Z0 Ia0
Zero Ia0
sequenc
+
e +
network Va0
Va0

- -

Z1 Ia1
Ia1
Positive +
+
sequenc
+ E
e Va1
network Va1 -
-
-

Ia2 Z2 Ia2
Negative
+ +
sequenc
e
network Va2 Va2

-
Fig.3.1 Fig.3.1 -
(a) (b)

SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

The termination of the three- phase access port as shown in fig. 3.2 brings about a
condition of single line to ground fault through a fault impedance Zf .
Typically Zf is set to zero in all fault studies. I include Zf in the analysis for the
sake of generality. The terminal conditions at the fault point give the following
equations:

Ib = 0

Ic = 0

Va = IaZf

Ia + Ib Ic
Zf

Va + Vb + Vc
n

Fig. 3.2

Connections of sequence networks for a single line to ground fault and its simplified
equivalent circuit are shown in the fig. 3.3(a) and fig. 3.3 (b) below:
 General sequence networks Equivalent sequence networks

Ia0 Ia1
Ia0
Z0
Va0

Zero
+
Sequence
Ia1
network
Va0
Z1

+ Va1 3Zf
Ia1 -

Positive E0

Sequence + -
3Zf
network Va1
Ia2= Ia1

-
Z2 Va2

Ia2
Negative

Sequence
+
The
network Va2

Fig.3.3 (a) Fig.3.3 (b)

 LINE TO LINE FAULT

The termination of the three- phase access port as in the fig.3.4 below simulates a line
to line fault through a fault impedance Zf .

Ia Ib Ic

+ +
Zf
Va Vb Vc
n

Fig. 3.4

The terminal conditions at the fault point give the following equations,

Ia = 0

Ib = -Ic

Vb = Vc + Zf Ib

Ib = -Ic = Ia0 + a2Ia1 + aIa2

Connection of sequence networks for a line to line fault and its simplified equivalent
circuit are shown in the fig.3.5 (a) and fig.(b) below.
 Equivalent sequence
networks

General sequence networks

Zero
Ia0
Sequence
+
network

Ia1

Ia1
Positive
Z1
Sequence +

network + E0 Zf
Va1
Zf -

-
+ Ia2

Z2
Ia2 Va2

Fig. 3.5 (a) Fig.3.5 (b)

9
 DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

The termination of the three- phase access port as shown in fig.3.6

simulates a double line to ground fault through fault impedance Zf.

The terminal conditions at the fault point give the following equations,

Ia = 0

Vb = Vc = ( Ib + Ic ) Zf

Ia Ib Ic

+ +
Zf
Va Vb Vc
n

Fig. 3.6

The sequence networks and the equivalent circuit are shown by the
Fig.3.7 (a) and Fig. 3.7 (b) below

10
 General sequencenetworks Equivalent sequence
networks

Ia0 +
Zero 3Zf
Ia0 3Zf
Sequence Va0
network
Z0 Va0
-

Ia1
Ia1
Positive
+
Sequence Z1
+
network
Va1 E0 Va1
-
-
Ia2
Negative +
Ia2
Sequence

Network Va2
Z2

Va2

Fig. 3.7(a) Fig.3.7 (b)

11
 UNIT-II

(PART-I)

PER UNIT REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEMS

One Line Diagram

In practice, electric power systems are very complex and their size is unwieldy. It
is very difficult to represent all the components of the system on a single frame.
The complexities could be in terms of various types of protective devices,
machines (transformers, generators, motors, etc.), their connections (star, delta,
etc.), etc. Hence, for the purpose of power system analysis, a simple single
phase equivalent circuit is developed called, the one line diagram (OLD) or the
single line diagram (SLD). An SLD is thus, the concise form of representing a
given power system. It is to be noted that a given SLD will contain only such
data that are relevant to the system analysis/study under consideration. For
example, the details of protective devices need not be shown for load flow
analysis nor it is necessary to show the details of shunt values for stability
studies.

Symbols used for SLD

Various symbols are used to represent the different parameters and machines as
single phase equivalents on the SLD,. Some of the important symbols used are
as listed in the table of Figure 1.

12
 Example system
Consider for illustration purpose, a sample example power system and data as
under:
Generator 1: 30 MVA, 10.5 KV, X”= 1.6 ohms, Generator 2: 15 MVA, 6.6
KV, X”=
ohms, Generator 3: 25 MVA, 6.6 KV, X”= 0.56 ohms, Transformer 1 (3-phase): 15
MVA, 33/11 KV, X=15.2 ohms/phase on HT side, Transformer 2 (3-phase): 15 MVA,
33/6.2 KV, X=16.0 ohms/phase on HT side, Transmission Line: 20.5 ohms per phase,
Load A: 15 MW, 11 KV, 0.9 PF (lag); and Load B: 40 MW, 6.6 KV, 0.85 PF (lag). The
corresponding SLD incorporating the standard symbols can be shown as in figure 2.

13
It is observed here, that the generators are specified in 3-phase MVA, L-L
voltage and per phase Y-equivalent impedance, transformers are specified in 3-
phase MVA, L-L voltage transformation ratio and per phase Y-equivalent
impedance on any one side and the loads are specified in 3-phase MW, L-L
voltage and power factor.

Impedance Diagram

The impedance diagram on single-phase basis for use under balanced conditions
can be easily drawn from the SLD. The following assumptions are made in
obtaining the impedance diagrams.

Assumptions:
1. The single phase transformer equivalents are shown as ideals with impedances on
appropriate side (LV/HV),
2. The magnetizing reactances of transformers are negligible,
3. The generators are represented as constant voltage sources with series resistance or
reactance,
4. The transmission lines are approximated by their equivalent -Models,
5. The loads are assumed to be passive and are represented by a series branch of
resistance or reactance and
6. Since the balanced conditions are assumed, the neutral grounding impedances do not
appear in the impedance diagram.

Example system
As per the list of assumptions as above and with reference to the system of
figure 2, the impedance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure 3.

14
 Reactance Diagram

With some more additional and simplifying assumptions, the impedance

diagram can be simplified further to obtain the corresponding reactance
diagram. The following are the assumptions made.
Additional assumptions:
 The resistance is often omitted during the fault analysis. This causes a very
negligible error since, resistances are negligible
 Loads are Omitted
 Transmission line capacitances are ineffective &
 Magnetizing currents of transformers are neglected.

Example system
as per the assumptions given above and with reference to the system of figure 2
and figure 3, the reactance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure 4.

Note: These impedance & reactance diagrams are also refered as the Positive Sequence
Diagrams/ Networks.

Per Unit Quantities

during the power system analysis, it is a usual practice to represent current,
voltage, impedance, power, etc., of an electric power system in per unit or
percentage of the base or reference value of the respective quantities. The
numerical per unit (pu) value of any quantity is its ratio to a chosen base value
of the same dimension. Thus a pu value is a normalized quantity with respect to
the chosen base value.
Definition: Per Unit value of a given quantity is the ratio of the actual value in any
given unit to the base value in the same unit. The percent value is 100 times the pu
value. Both the pu and percentage methods are simpler than the use of actual values.
Further, the main advantage in using the pu system of computations is that the result

15
that comes out of the sum, product, quotient, etc. of two or more pu values is
expressed in per unit itself.

16
 In an electrical power system, the parameters of interest include the current,
voltage, complex power (VA), impedance and the phase angle. Of these, the
phase angle is dimensionless and the other four quantities can be described by
knowing any two of them. Thus clearly, an arbitrary choice of any two base
values will evidently fix the other base values.
Normally the nominal voltage of lines and equipment is known along with the
complex power rating in MVA. Hence, in practice, the base values are chosen
for complex power (MVA) and line voltage (KV). The chosen base MVA is the
same for all the parts of the system. However, the base voltage is chosen with
reference to a particular section of the system and the other base voltages (with
reference to the other sections of the systems, these sections caused by the
presence of the transformers) are then related to the chosen one by the turns-
ratio of the connecting transformer.
If Ib is the base current in kilo amperes and Vb, the base voltage in kilovolts, then
the base MVA is, Sb = (VbIb). Then the base values of current & impedance are
given by
Base current (kA), Ib = MVAb/KVb
= Sb/Vb (1.1)
Base impedance, Zb = (Vb/Ib)
= (KVb2 / MVAb) (1.2)
Hence the per unit impedance is given by
Zpu = Zohms/Zb
= Zohms (MVAb/KVb2) (1.3)
In 3-phase systems, KVb is the line-to-line value & MVAb is the 3-phase MVA.
[1-phase MVA = (1/3) 3-phase MVA].

Changing the base of a given pu

value:
It is observed from equation (3) that the pu value of impedance is proportional
directly to the base MVA and inversely to the square of the base KV. If Zpunew
is the pu impedance required to be calculated on a new set of base values:
MVAbnew & KVbnew from the already given per unit impedance Zpuold,
specified on the old set of base values, MVAbold & KVbold , then we have

Zpunew = Zpuold (MVA new/MVA old)

b b (KV old/KV
b
new)2
b (1.4)

On the other hand, the change of base can also be done by first converting the
given pu impedance to its ohmic value and then calculating its pu value on the
new set of base values.

Merits and Demerits of pu System

Following are the advantages and disadvantages of adopting the pu system of

17
computations in electric power systems:

Merits

18
  The pu value is the same for both 1-phase and & 3-phase systems
 The pu value once expressed on a proper base, will be the same when
refereed to either side of the transformer. Thus the presence of transformer is
totally eliminated
 The variation of values is in a smaller range 9nearby unity). Hence the errors
involved in pu computations are very less.
 Usually the nameplate ratings will be marked in pu on the base of the name
plate ratings, etc.

Demerits:
 If proper bases are not chosen, then the resulting pu values may be highly
absurd (such as 5.8 pu, -18.9 pu, etc.). This may cause confusion to the user.
However, this problem can be avoided by selecting the base MVA near the
high-rated equipment and a convenient base KV in any section of the system.

pu Impedance / Reactance Diagram

for a given power system with all its data with regard to the generators,
transformers, transmission lines, loads, etc., it is possible to obtain the
corresponding impedance or reactance diagram as explained above. If the
parametric values are shown in pu on the properly selected base values of the
system, then the diagram is refered as the per unit impedance or reactance
diagram. In forming a pu diagram, the following are the procedural steps
involved:
1. Obtain the one line diagram based on the given data
2. Choose a common base MVA for the system
3. Choose a base KV in any one section (Sections formed by transformers)
4. Find the base KV of all the sections present
5. Find pu values of all the parameters: R,X, Z, E, etc.
6. Draw the pu impedance/ reactance diagram.

9
 UNIT-II
PER UNIT REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEMS

One Line Diagram

In practice, electric power systems are very complex and their size is
unwieldy. It is very difficult to represent all the components of the system on
a single frame. The complexities could be in terms of various types of
protective devices, machines (transformers, generators, motors, etc.), their
connections (star, delta, etc.), etc. Hence, for the purpose of power system
analysis, a simple single phase equivalent circuit is developed called, the one
line diagram (OLD) or the single line diagram (SLD). An SLD is thus, the
concise form of representing a given power system. It is to be noted that a
given SLD will contain only such data that are relevant to the system
analysis/study under consideration. For example, the details of protective
devices need not be shown for load flow analysis nor it is necessary to show
the details of shunt values for stability studies.

Symbols used for SLD

Various symbols are used to represent the different parameters and machines
as single phase equivalents on the SLD,. Some of the important symbols
used are as listed in the table of Figure 1.

10
 Example system
Consider for illustration purpose, a sample example power system and data
as under:
Generator 1: 30 MVA, 10.5 KV, X”= 1.6 ohms, Generator 2: 15 MVA, 6.6
KV, X”=
ohms, Generator 3: 25 MVA, 6.6 KV, X”= 0.56 ohms, Transformer 1 (3-
phase): 15 MVA, 33/11 KV, X=15.2 ohms/phase on HT side, Transformer 2
(3-phase): 15 MVA, 33/6.2 KV, X=16.0 ohms/phase on HT side,
Transmission Line: 20.5 ohms per phase, Load A: 15 MW, 11 KV, 0.9 PF
(lag); and Load B: 40 MW, 6.6 KV, 0.85 PF (lag). The corresponding SLD
incorporating the standard symbols can be shown as in figure 2.

11
It is observed here, that the generators are specified in 3-phase MVA, L-L
voltage and per phase Y-equivalent impedance, transformers are specified in
3-phase MVA, L-L voltage transformation ratio and per phase Y-equivalent
impedance on any one side and the loads are specified in 3-phase MW, L-L
voltage and power factor.

Impedance Diagram

The impedance diagram on single-phase basis for use under balanced

conditions can be easily drawn from the SLD. The following assumptions
are made in obtaining the impedance diagrams.

Assumptions:
1. The single phase transformer equivalents are shown as ideals with
impedances on appropriate side (LV/HV),
2. The magnetizing reactances of transformers are negligible,
3. The generators are represented as constant voltage sources with series
resistance or reactance,
4. The transmission lines are approximated by their equivalent -Models,
5. The loads are assumed to be passive and are represented by a series
branch of resistance or reactance and
6. Since the balanced conditions are assumed, the neutral grounding
impedances do not appear in the impedance diagram.

Example system
As per the list of assumptions as above and with reference to the system of
figure 2, the impedance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure 3.

12
 Reactance Diagram

With some more additional and simplifying assumptions, the impedance

diagram can be simplified further to obtain the corresponding reactance
diagram. The following are the assumptions made.
Additional assumptions:
 The resistance is often omitted during the fault analysis. This causes a
very negligible error since, resistances are negligible
 Loads are Omitted
 Transmission line capacitances are ineffective &
 Magnetizing currents of transformers are neglected.

Example system
as per the assumptions given above and with reference to the system of
figure 2 and figure 3, the reactance diagram can be obtained as shown in
figure 4.

Note: These impedance & reactance diagrams are also refered as the Positive
Sequence Diagrams/ Networks.

Per Unit Quantities

during the power system analysis, it is a usual practice to represent current,
voltage, impedance, power, etc., of an electric power system in per unit or
percentage of the base or reference value of the respective quantities. The
numerical per unit (pu) value of any quantity is its ratio to a chosen base
value of the same dimension. Thus a pu value is a normalized quantity with
respect to the chosen base value.
Definition: Per Unit value of a given quantity is the ratio of the actual value
in any given unit to the base value in the same unit. The percent value is 100
times the pu value. Both the pu and percentage methods are simpler than the
use of actual values. Further, the main advantage in using the pu system of
computations is that the result that comes out of the sum, product, quotient,
etc. of two or more pu values is expressed in per unit itself. 13
 In an electrical power system, the parameters of interest include the current,
voltage, complex power (VA), impedance and the phase angle. Of these, the
phase angle is dimensionless and the other four quantities can be described
by knowing any two of them. Thus clearly, an arbitrary choice of any two
base values will evidently fix the other base values.
Normally the nominal voltage of lines and equipment is known along with
the complex power rating in MVA. Hence, in practice, the base values are
chosen for complex power (MVA) and line voltage (KV). The chosen base
MVA is the same for all the parts of the system. However, the base voltage is
chosen with reference to a particular section of the system and the other base
voltages (with reference to the other sections of the systems, these sections
caused by the presence of the transformers) are then related to the chosen
one by the turns-ratio of the connecting transformer.
If Ib is the base current in kilo amperes and Vb, the base voltage in kilovolts, then
the base MVA is, Sb = (VbIb). Then the base values of current & impedance are
given by
Base current (kA), Ib = MVAb/KVb
= Sb/Vb (1.1)
Base impedance, Zb = (Vb/Ib)
= (KVb2 / MVAb) (1.2)
Hence the per unit impedance is given
by
Zpu = Zohms/Zb
= Zohms (MVAb/KVb2) (1.3)
In 3-phase systems, KVb is the line-to-line value & MVAb is the 3-phase
MVA. [1-phase MVA = (1/3) 3-phase MVA].

Changing the base of a given pu

value:
It is observed from equation (3) that the pu value of impedance is proportional
directly to the base MVA and inversely to the square of the base KV. If
Zpunew is the pu impedance required to be calculated on a new set of base
values: MVAbnew & KVbnew from the already given per unit impedance
Zpuold, specified on the old set of base values, MVA bold & KVbold , then
we have
Zpunew = Zpuold (MVA bnew/MVAbold) (KV bold/KV bnew)2 (1.4)

On the other hand, the change of base can also be done by first converting
the given pu impedance to its ohmic value and then calculating its pu value
on the new set of base values.

14
  The pu value is the same for both 1-phase and & 3-phase systems
 The pu value once expressed on a proper base, will be the same when refereed to
either side of the transformer. Thus the presence of transformer is totally eliminated
 The variation of values is in a smaller range 9nearby unity). Hence the errors
involved in pu computations are very less.
 Usually the nameplate ratings will be marked in pu on the base of the name plate
ratings, etc.

Demerits:
 If proper bases are not chosen, then the resulting pu values may be highly absurd
(such as 5.8 pu, -18.9 pu, etc.). This may cause confusion to the user. However, this
problem can be avoided by selecting the base MVA near the high-rated equipment
and a convenient base KV in any section of the system.

pu Impedance / Reactance Diagram

for a given power system with all its data with regard to the generators, transformers,
transmission lines, loads, etc., it is possible to obtain the corresponding impedance or
reactance diagram as explained above. If the parametric values are shown in pu on the
properly selected base values of the system, then the diagram is refered as the per unit
impedance or reactance diagram. In forming a pu diagram, the following are the procedural
steps involved:
1. Obtain the one line diagram based on the given data
2. Choose a common base MVA for the system
3. Choose a base KV in any one section (Sections formed by transformers)
4. Find the base KV of all the sections present
5. Find pu values of all the parameters: R,X, Z, E, etc.
6. Draw the pu impedance/ reactance diagram.

15
 LOAD FLOW STUDIES 1

FORMATION OF YBUS AND ZBUS

The bus admittance matrix, YBUS plays a very important role in computer aided power
system analysis. It can be formed in practice by either of the methods as under:
1. Rule of Inspection
2. Singular Transformation
3. Non-Singular Transformation
4. ZBUS Building Algorithms, etc.

The performance equations of a given power system can be considered in three different
frames of reference as discussed below:

Frames of Reference:
Bus Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of buses) relating the
bus vectors of currents and voltages through the bus impedance matrix and bus admittance
matrix:

EBUS = ZBUS IBUS

IBUS = YBUS EBUS
Branch Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a
selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and
voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:

EBR = ZBR IBR

IBR = YBR EBR
Loop Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a
selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and
voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:

ELOOP = ZLOOP ILOOP

ILOOP = YLOOP ELOOP

Of the various network matrices refered above, the bus admittance matrix (YBUS) and the
bus impedance matrix (ZBUS) are determined for a given power system by the rule of
inspection as explained next.

Rule of Inspection

Consider the 3-node admittance network as shown in figure5. Using the basic branch
relation: I = (YV), for all the elemental currents and applying Kirchhoff‟s Current Law
principle at the nodal points, we get the relations as under:

At node 1: I1 =Y1V1 + Y3 (V1-V3) + Y6 (V1 – V2)

At node 2: I2 =Y2V2 + Y5 (V2-V3) + Y6 (V2 – V1)
At node 3: 0 = Y3 (V3-V1) + Y4V3 + Y5 (V3 – V2) (12)

Fig. 3 Example System for finding YBUS

These are the performance equations of the given network in admittance form and
they can be represented in matrix form as:

In other words, the relation of equation (9) can be represented in the form
IBUS = YBUS EBUS (14)
Where, YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, IBUS & EBUS are the bus current and bus
voltage vectors respectively. By observing the elements of the bus admittance matrix,
YBUS of equation (13), it is observed that the matrix elements can as well be obtained by
a simple inspection of the given system diagram:
Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (Yii) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is
equal to the sum total of the admittance values of all the elements incident at the bus/node
i,
Off Diagonal elements: An off-diagonal element (Yij) of the bus admittance matrix,
YBUS, is equal to the negative of the admittance value of the connecting element present
between the buses I and j, if any. This is the principle of the rule of inspection. Thus the
algorithmic equations for the rule of inspection are obtained as:

Yii = S yij (j = 1,2,…….n)

Yij = - yij (j = 1,2,…….n) (15)

For i = 1,2,….n, n = no. of buses of the given system, yij is the admittance of element
connected between buses i and j and yii is the admittance of element connected between
bus i and ground (reference bus).
Bus impedance matrix

In cases where, the bus impedance matrix is also required, it cannot be formed by direct
inspection of the given system diagram. However, the bus admittance matrix determined
by the rule of inspection following the steps explained above, can be inverted to obtain the
bus impedance matrix, since the two matrices are interinvertible.
Note: It is to be noted that the rule of inspection can be applied only to those power
systems that do not have any mutually coupled elements.

Examples on Rule of Inspection:

Example 6: Obtain the bus admittance matrix for the admittance network shown aside by
the rule of inspection

Example 7: Obtain YBUS for the impedance network shown aside by the rule of
inspection. Also, determine YBUS for the reduced network after eliminating the eligible
unwanted node. Draw the resulting reduced system diagram.
SINGULAR TRANSFORMATIONS

The primitive network matrices are the most basic matrices and depend purely on the
impedance or admittance of the individual elements. However, they do not contain any
information about the behaviour of the interconnected network variables. Hence, it is
necessary to transform the primitive matrices into more meaningful matrices which can
relate variables of the interconnected network.
Bus admittance matrix, YBUS and Bus impedance matrix, ZBUS

In the bus frame of reference, the performance of the interconnected network is described
by n independent nodal equations, where n is the total number of buses (n+1nodes are
present, out of which one of them is designated as the reference node).
For example a 5-bus system will have 5 external buses and 1 ground/ ref. bus). The
performance equation relating the bus voltages to bus current injections in bus frame of
reference in admittance form is given by

IBUS = YBUS EBUS (17)

Where EBUS = vector of bus voltages measured with respect to reference bus
IBUS = Vector of currents injected into the bus
YBUS = bus admittance matrix
The performance equation of the primitive network in admittance form is given by
i + j = [y] v
Pre-multiplying by At (transpose of A), we obtain

At i +At j = At [y] v (18)

However, as per equation (4),

At i =0,
since it indicates a vector whose elements are the algebraic sum of element currents
incident at a bus, which by Kirchhoff‟s law is zero. Similarly, At j gives the algebraic sum
of all source currents incident at each bus and this is nothing but the total current injected
at the bus. Hence,

At j = IBUS (19)
Thus from (18) we have, IBUS = At [y] v (20)
However, from (5), we have
v =A EBUS
And hence substituting in (20) we get,

IBUS = At [y] A EBUS (21)

Comparing (21) with (17) we obtain,

YBUS = At [y] A (22)

The bus incidence matrix is rectangular and hence singular. Hence, (22) gives a singular
transformation of the primitive admittance matrix [y]. The bus impedance matrix is given
by ,

ZBUS = YBUS-1 (23)

Note: This transformation can be derived using the concept of power invariance, however,
since the transformations are based purely on KCL and KVL, the transformation will
obviously be power invariant.
Examples on Singular Transformation:

Example 8: For the network of Fig E8, form the primitive matrices [z] & [y] and obtain
the bus admittance matrix by singular transformation. Choose a Tree T(1,2,3). The data is
given in Table E8.

Fig E8 System for Example-8

Table E8: Data for Example-8

Solution:
The bus incidence matrix is formed taking node 1 as the reference bus.

The primitive incidence matrix is given by

The primitive admittance matrix [y] = [z]-1 and given by,

The bus admittance matrix by singular transformation is obtained as

Power System Analysis R17A0215

SUMMARY

The formulation of the mathematical model is the first step in obtaining the solution of any
electrical network. The independent variables can be either currents or voltages.
Correspondingly, the elements of the coefficient matrix will be impedances or
admittances.

Network equations can be formulated for solution of the network using graph theory,
independent of the nature of elements. In the graph of a network, the tree-branches and
links are distinctly identified. The complete information about the interconnection of the
network, with the directions of the currents is contained in the bus incidence matrix.

The information on the nature of the elements which form the interconnected network is
contained in the primitive impedance matrix. A primitive element can be represented in
impedance form or admittance form. In the bus frame of reference, the performance of the
interconnected system is described by (n-1) nodal equations, where n is the number of
nodes. The bus admittance matrix and the bus impedance matrix relate the bus voltages
and currents. These matrices can be obtained from the primitive impedance and
admittance matrices.
Power System Analysis R17A0215

REVIEW OF NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS

The numerical analysis involving the solution of algebraic simultaneous equations forms
the basis for solution of the performance equations in computer aided electrical power
system analyses, such as during linear graph analysis, load flow analysis (nonlinear
equations), transient stability studies (differential equations), etc. Hence, it is necessary to
review the general forms of the various solution methods with respect to all forms of
equations, as under:

1. Solution Linear equations:

* Direct methods:
- Cramer‟s (Determinant) Method,
- Gauss Elimination Method (only for smaller systems),
- LU Factorization (more preferred method), etc.

* Iterative methods:
- Gauss Method
- Gauss-Siedel Method (for diagonally dominant systems)

3. Solution of Nonlinear
equations: Iterative methods only:
- Gauss-Siedel Method (for smaller systems)
- Newton-Raphson Method (if corrections for variables are small)

4. Solution of differential equations:

Iterative methods only:
- Euler and Modified Euler method,
- RK IV-order method,
- Milne‟s predictor-corrector method, etc.

It is to be observed that the nonlinear and differential equations can be solved only by the
iterative methods. The iterative methods are characterized by the various performance
features as under:
_ Selection of initial solution/ estimates
_ Determination of fresh/ new estimates during each iteration
_ Selection of number of iterations as per tolerance limit
_ Time per iteration and total time of solution as per the solution method selected
_ Convergence and divergence criteria of the iterative solution
_ Choice of the Acceleration factor of convergence, etc.
Power System Analysis R17A0215

A comparison of the above solution methods is as under:

In general, the direct methods yield exact or accurate solutions. However, they are suited
for only the smaller systems, since otherwise, in large systems, the possible round-off
errors make the solution process inaccurate. The iterative methods are more useful when
the diagonal elements of the coefficient matrix are large in comparison with the off
diagonal elements. The round-off errors in these methods are corrected at the successive
steps of the iterative process.The Newton-Raphson method is very much useful for
solution of non –linear equations, if all the values of the corrections for the unknowns are
very small in magnitude and the initial values of unknowns are selected to be reasonably
closer to the exact solution.

LOAD FLOW STUDIES

Introduction: Load flow studies are important in planning and designing future expansion
of power systems. The study gives steady state solutions of the voltages at all the buses,
for a particular load condition. Different steady state solutions can be obtained, for
different operating conditions, to help in planning, design and operation of the power
system. Generally, load flow studies are limited to the transmission system, which
involves bulk power transmission. The load at the buses is assumed to be known. Load
flow studies throw light on some of the important aspects of the system operation, such as:
violation of voltage magnitudes at the buses, overloading of lines, overloading of
generators, stability margin reduction, indicated by power angle differences between buses
linked by a line, effect of contingencies like line voltages, emergency shutdown of
generators, etc. Load flow studies are required for deciding the economic operation of the
power system. They are also required in transient stability studies. Hence, load flow
studies play a vital role in power system studies. Thus the load flow problem consists of
finding the power flows (real and reactive) and voltages of a network for given bus
conditions. At each bus, there are four quantities of interest to be known for further
analysis: the real and reactive power, the voltage magnitude and its phase angle. Because
of the nonlinearity of the algebraic equations, describing the given power system, their
solutions are obviously, based on the iterative methods only. The constraints placed on the
load flow solutions could be:
_ The Kirchhoff‟s relations holding good,
_ Capability limits of reactive power sources,
_ Tap-setting range of tap-changing transformers,
_ Specified power interchange between interconnected systems,
_ Selection of initial values, acceleration factor, convergence limit, etc.

Classification of buses for LFA: Different types of buses are present based on the
specified and unspecified variables at a given bus as presented in the table below:
Power System Analysis R17A0215

Table 1. Classification of buses for LFA

Importance of swing bus: The slack or swing bus is usually a PV-bus with the largest
capacity generator of the given system connected to it. The generator at the swing bus
supplies the power difference between the “specified power into the system at the other
buses” and the “total system output plus losses”. Thus swing bus is needed to supply the
additional real and reactive power to meet the losses. Both the magnitude and phase angle
of voltage are specified at the swing bus, or otherwise, they are assumed to be equal to 1.0
p.u. and 00 , as per flat-start procedure of iterative
solutions. The real and reactive powers at the swing bus are found by the computer routine
as part of the load flow solution process. It is to be noted that the source at the swing bus is
a perfect one, called the swing machine, or slack machine. It is voltage regulated, i.e., the
magnitude of voltage fixed. The phase angle is the system reference phase and hence is
fixed. The generator at the swing bus has a torque angle and excitation which vary or
swing as the demand changes. This variation is such as to produce fixed voltage.

Importance of YBUS based LFA:

The majority of load flow programs employ methods using the bus admittance matrix, as
this method is found to be more economical. The bus admittance matrix plays a very
important role in load flow analysis. It is a complex, square and symmetric matrix and
hence only n(n+1)/2 elements of YBUS need to be stored for a n-bus system. Further, in
the YBUS matrix, Yij = 0, if an incident element is not present in the system connecting
the buses „i‟ and „j‟. since in a large power system, each bus is connected only to a fewer
buses through an incident element, (about 6-8), the coefficient matrix, YBUS of such
systems would be highly sparse, i.e., it will have many zero valued elements in it. This is
defined by the sparsity of the matrix, as under:

The percentage sparsity of YBUS, in practice, could be as high as 80-90%, especially

for very large, practical power systems. This sparsity feature of YBUS is extensively used
Power System Analysis R17A0215
in reducing the load flow calculations and in minimizing the memory required to store the
Power System Analysis R17A0215

coefficient matrices. This is due to the fact that only the non-zero elements YBUS can be
stored during the computer based implementation of the schemes, by adopting the suitable
optimal storage schemes. While YBUS is thus highly sparse, it‟s inverse, ZBUS, the bus
impedance matrix is not so. It is a FULL matrix, unless the optimal bus ordering schemes
are followed before proceeding for load flow analysis.

THE LOAD FLOW PROBLEM

Here, the analysis is restricted to a balanced three-phase power system, so that the analysis
can be carried out on a single phase basis. The per unit quantities are used for all
quantities. The first step in the analysis is the formulation of suitable equations for the
power flows in the system. The power system is a large interconnected system, where
various buses are connected by transmission lines. At any bus, complex power is injected
into the bus by the generators and complex power is drawn by the loads. Of course at any
bus, either one of them may not be present. The power is transported from one bus to other
via the transmission lines. At any bus i, the complex power Si (injected), shown in figure
1, is defined as

where Si = net complex power injected into bus i, SGi = complex power injected by the
generator at bus i, and SDi = complex power drawn by the load at bus i. According to
conservation of complex power, at any bus i, the complex power injected into the bus must
be equal to the sum of complex power flows out of the bus via the transmission lines.
Hence,

Si = _Sij " i = 1, 2, .............. n

(3)
where Sij is the sum over all lines connected to the bus and n is the number of buses in the
system (excluding the ground). The bus current injected at the bus-i is defined as

Ii = IGi – IDi " i = 1, 2, ………..n (4)

where IGi is the current injected by the generator at the bus and IDi is the current drawn
by the load (demand) at that bus. In the bus frame of reference

IBUS = YBUS VBUS

(5)
Equations (9)-(10) and (13)-(14) are the „power flow equations‟ or the „load flow
equations‟ in two alternative forms, corresponding to the n-bus system, where each bus-i is
characterized by four variables, Pi, Qi, |Vi|, and di. Thus a total of 4n variables are
involved in these equations. The load flow equations can be solved for any 2n unknowns,
if the other 2n variables are specified. This establishes the need for classification of buses
of the system for load flow analysis into: PV bus, PQ bus, etc.

DATA FOR LOAD FLOW

Irrespective of the method used for the solution, the data required is common for any load
flow. All data is normally in pu. The bus admittance matrix is formulated from these data.
The various data required are as under:

System data: It includes: number of buses-n, number of PV buses, number of loads,

number of transmission lines, number of transformers, number of shunt elements, the slack
bus number, voltage magnitude of slack bus (angle is generally taken as 0o), tolerance
limit, base MVA, and maximum permissible number of iterations.

Generator bus data: For every PV bus i, the data required includes the bus number,
active power generation PGi, the specified voltage magnitude i sp V , , minimum reactive
power limit Qi,min, and maximum reactive power limit Qi,max.

Load data: For all loads the data required includes the the bus number, active power
demand PDi, and the reactive power demand QDi.

Transmission line data: For every transmission line connected between buses i and k the
data includes the starting bus number i, ending bus number k,.resistance of the line,
reactance of the line and the half line charging admittance.

Transformer data:
For every transformer connected between buses i and k the data to be given includes: the
starting bus number i, ending bus number k, resistance of the transformer, reactance of the
transformer, and the off nominal turns-ratio a.

Shunt element data: The data needed for the shunt element includes the bus number
where element is connected, and the shunt admittance (Gsh + j Bsh).

GAUSS – SEIDEL (GS) METHOD

The GS method is an iterative algorithm for solving non linear algebraic equations. An
initial solution vector is assumed, chosen from past experiences, statistical data or from
practical considerations. At every subsequent iteration, the solution is updated till
convergence is reached. The GS method applied to power flow problem is as discussed
below.

Case (a): Systems with PQ buses only:

Initially assume all buses to be PQ type buses, except the slack bus. This means that (n–1)
complex bus voltages have to be determined. For ease of programming, the slack bus is
generally numbered as bus-1. PV buses are numbered in sequence and PQ buses are
ordered next in sequence. This makes programming easier, compared to random ordering
of buses. Consider the expression for the complex power at bus-i, given from (7), as:
Equation (17) is an implicit equation since the unknown variable, appears on both sides of
the equation. Hence, it needs to be solved by an iterative technique. Starting from an initial
estimate of all bus voltages, in the RHS of (17) the most recent values of the bus voltages
is substituted. One iteration of the method involves computation of all the bus voltages. In
Gauss–Seidel method, the value of the updated voltages are used in the computation of
subsequent voltages in the same iteration, thus speeding up convergence. Iterations are
carried out till the magnitudes of all bus voltages do not change by more than the tolerance
value. Thus the algorithm for GS method is as under:

Algorithm for GS method

1. Prepare data for the given system as required.

2. Formulate the bus admittance matrix YBUS. This is generally done by the rule of
inspection.
3. Assume initial voltages for all buses, 2,3,…n. In practical power systems, the magnitude
of the bus voltages is close to 1.0 p.u. Hence, the complex bus voltages at all (n-1) buses
(except slack bus) are taken to be 1.0 00. This is normally refered as the flat start solution.
4. Update the voltages. In any (k +1)st iteration, from (17) the voltages are given by
Here note that when computation is carried out for bus-i, updated values are already
available for buses 2,3….(i-1) in the current (k+1)st iteration. Hence these values are used.
For buses (i+1)…..n, values from previous, kth iteration are used.

Where,e is the tolerance value. Generally it is customary to use a value of 0.0001 pu.
Compute slack bus power after voltages have converged using (15) [assuming bus 1 is
slack bus].

7. Compute all line flows.

8. The complex power loss in the line is given by Sik + Ski. The total loss in the system is
calculated by summing the loss over all the lines.

Case (b): Systems with PV buses also present:

At PV buses, the magnitude of voltage and not the reactive power is specified. Hence it is
needed to first make an estimate of Qi to be used in (18). From (15) we have
Case (c): Systems with PV buses with reactive power generation limits specified:
In the previous algorithm if the Q limit at the voltage controlled bus is violated during any
iteration, i.e (k +1) i Q computed using (21) is either less than Qi, min or greater than
Qi,max, it means that the voltage cannot be maintained at the specified value due to lack
of reactive power support. This bus is then treated as a PQ bus in the (k+1)st iteration and
the voltage is calculated with the value of Qi set as follows:

If in the subsequent iteration, if Qi falls within the limits, then the bus can be switched
back to PV status.
Acceleration of convergence
It is found that in GS method of load flow, the number of iterations increase with increase
in the size of the system. The number of iterations required can be reduced if the
correction in voltage at each bus is accelerated, by multiplying with a constant α, called
the acceleration factor. In the (k+1)st iteration we can let

where is a real number. When =1, the value of (k +1) is the computed value. If 1<
<2 then the value computed is extrapolated. Generally _ is taken between 1.2 to 1.6, for
GS load flow procedure. At PQ buses (pure load buses) if the voltage magnitude violates
Power System Analysis R17A0215

the limit, it simply means that the specified reactive power demand cannot be supplied,
with the voltage maintained within acceptable limits.

Examples on GS load flow analysis:

Power System Analysis R17A0215

Since the difference in the voltage magnitudes is less than 10-6 pu, the iterations can be
stopped. To compute line flow
Power System Analysis R17A0215

The total loss in the line is given by S12 + S21 = j 0.133329 pu Obviously, it is observed
that there is no real power loss, since the line has no resistance.
Power System Analysis R17A0215

Example-2:
For the power system shown in fig. below, with the data as given in tables below, obtain
the bus voltages at the end of first iteration, by applying GS method.
Example-3:
Obtain the load flow solution at the end of first iteration of the system with data as given
below. The solution is to be obtained for the following cases
(i) All buses except bus 1 are PQ Buses
(ii) Bus 2 is a PV bus whose voltage magnitude is specified as 1.04 pu
Power System Analysis R17A0215

(iii) Bus 2 is PV bus, with voltage magnitude specified as 1.04 and 0.25_Q2_1.0 pu.
Limitations of GS load flow analysis

GS method is very useful for very small systems. It is easily adoptable, it can be
generalized and it is very efficient for systems having less number of buses. However, GS
LFA fails to converge in systems with one or more of the features as under:
• Systems having large number of radial lines
• Systems with short and long lines terminating on the same bus
• Systems having negative values of transfer admittances
• Systems with heavily loaded lines, etc.

GS method successfully converges in the absence of the above problems. However,

convergence also depends on various other set of factors such as: selection of slack bus,
initial solution, acceleration factor, tolerance limit, level of accuracy of results needed,
type and quality of computer/ software used, etc.
UNIT III

LOAD FLOW STUDIES-II

Here, the matrix [J] is called the Jacobian matrix. The vector of unknown variables is
updated using (30). The process is continued till the difference between two successive
iterations is less than the tolerance value.
 FINAL WORD

In this chapter, the load flow problem, also called as the power flow problem, has been considered in
detail. The load flow solution gives the complex voltages at all the buses and the complex power flows
in the lines. Though, algorithms are available using the impedance form of the equations, the sparsity
of the bus admittance matrix and the ease of building the bus admittance matrix, have made algorithms
using the admittance form of equations more popular. The most popular methods are the Gauss-Seidel
method, the Newton-Raphson method and the Fast Decoupled Load Flow method. These methods
have been discussed in detail with illustrative examples. In smaller systems, the ease of programming
and the memory requirements, make GS method attractive. However, the computation time increases
with increase in the size of the system. Hence, in large systems NR and FDLF methods are more
popular. There is a trade off between various requirements like speed, storage, reliability, computation
time, convergence characteristics etc. No single method has all the desirable features.
 UNIT-IV

POWER SYSTEM STABILITY:

INTRODUCTION

Power system stability of modern large inter-connected systems is a major problem for
secure operation of the system. Recent major black-outs across the globe caused by
system instability, even in very sophisticated and secure systems, illustrate the problems
facing secure operation of power systems. Earlier, stability was defined as the ability of a
system to return to normal or stable operation after having been subjected to some form
of disturbance. This fundamentally refers to the ability of the system to remain in
synchronism. However, modern power systems operate under complex interconnections,
controls and extremely stressed conditions. Further, with increased automation and use of
electronic equipment, the quality of power has gained utmost importance, shifting focus
on to concepts of voltage stability, frequency stability,
inter-area oscillations etc.

The IEEE/CIGRE Joint Task Force on stability terms and conditions have proposed the
following definition in 2004: “Power System stability is the ability of an electric power
system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium
after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded, so
that practically the entire system remains intact”. The Power System is an extremely
non-linear and dynamic system, with operating parameters continuously varying.
Stability is hence, a function of the initial operating condition and the nature of the
disturbance. Power systems are continually subjected to small disturbances in the form of
load changes. The system must be in a position to be able to adjust to the changing
conditions and operate satisfactorily. The system must also withstand large disturbances,
which may even cause structural changes due to isolation of some faulted elements. A
power system may be stable for a particular (large) disturbance and unstable for another
disturbance. It is impossible to design a system which is stable under all disturbances.
The power system is generally designed to be stable under those disturbances which have
a high degree of occurrence. The response to a disturbance is extremely complex and
involves practically all the equipment of the power system. For example, a short circuit
leading to a line isolation by circuit breakers will cause variations in the power flows,
network bus voltages and generators rotor speeds. The voltage variations will actuate the
voltage regulators in the system and generator speed variations will actuate the prime
mover governors; voltage and frequency variations will affect the system loads. In stable
systems, practically all generators and loads remain connected, even though parts of the
system may be isolated to preserve bulk operations. On the other hand, an unstable
system condition could lead to cascading outages and a shutdown of a major portion of
the power system.

1
ROTOR ANGLE STABILITY

Rotor angle stability refers to the ability of the synchronous machines of an

interconnected power system to remain in synchronism after being subjected to a
disturbance. Instability results in some generators accelerating (decelerating) and losing
synchronism with other generators. Rotor angle stability depends on the ability of each
synchronous machine to maintain equilibrium between electromagnetic torque and
mechanical torque. Under steady state, there is equilibrium between the input mechanical
torque and output electromagnetic torque of each generator, and its speed remains a
constant. Under a disturbance, this equilibrium is upset and the generators
accelerate/decelerate according to the mechanics of a rotating body. Rotor angle stability
is further categorized as follows:

Small single (or small disturbance) rotor angle stability

It is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under small disturbances. In
this case, the system equation can be linearized around the initial operating point and the
stability depends only on the operating point and not on the disturbance. Instability may
result in
(i) A non oscillatory or a periodic increase of rotor angle
(ii) (ii) Increasing amplitude of rotor oscillations due to insufficient
damping. The first form of instability is largely eliminated by modern fast acting
voltage regulators and the second form of instability is more common. The time frame
of small signal stability is of the order of 10-20 seconds after a disturbance.

Large-signal rotor angle stability or transient stability

This refers to the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under large
disturbances, such as short circuit, line outages etc. The system response involves large
excursions of the generator rotor angles. Transient stability depends on both the initial
operating point and the disturbance parameters like location, type, magnitude etc.
Instability is normally in the form of a periodic angular separation. The time frame of
interest is 3-5 seconds after disturbance. The term dynamic stability was earlier used to
denote the steady- state stability in the presence of automatic controls (especially
excitation controls) as opposed to manual controls. Since all generators are equipped
with automatic controllers today, dynamic stability has lost relevance and the Task Force
has recommended against its usage.

MECHANICS OF ROTATORY MOTION

Since a synchronous machine is a rotating body, the laws of mechanics of rotating

bodies are applicable to it. In rotation we first define the fundamental quantities. The
angle _m is defined, with respect to a circular arc with its center at the vertex of the
angle, as the ratio of the arc length s to radius r.
4
5
8
Power System Analysis R17A0215

This is the equivalent inertia constant on a base of 100 MVA and can be used when the two
machines swing coherently.

POWER–ANGLE EQUATION:

In solving the swing equation, certain assumptions are normally made (i) Mechanical
power nput Pm is a constant during the period of interest, immediately after the
disturbance (ii) Rotor speed changes are insignificant. (iii) Effect of voltage regulating
loop during the transient is neglected i.e the excitation is assumed to be a constant. As
discussed in section 9.4, the power–angle relationship plays a vital role in the solution of
the swing equation.

POWER–ANGLE EQUATION FOR A NON–SALIENT POLE MACHINE:

The simplest model for the synchronous generator is that of a constant voltage behind an
impedance. This model is called the classical model and can be used for cylindrical rotor
(non–salient pole) machines. Practically all high–speed turbo alternators are of
cylindrical rotor construction, where the physical air gap around the periphery of the
rotor is uniform. This type of generator has approximately equal magnetic reluctance,
regardless of the angular position of the rotor, with respect to the armature mmf.
Power System Analysis R17A0215

POWER ANGLE EQUATION FOR A SALIENT POLE MACHINE:

Here because of the salient poles, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit in which flows
the flux produced by an armature mmf in line with the quadrature axis is higher than that
of the magnetic circuit in which flows the flux produced by the armature mmf in line with
the direct axis. These two components of armature mmf are proportional to the
corresponding components of armature current. The component of armature current
producing an mmf acting in line with direct axis is called the direct component, Id. The
component of armature current producing an mmf acting in line with the quadrature axis
is called the quadrature axis component, Iq.

(9.42) gives the steady state power angle relationship for a salient pole machine. The
second term does not depend on the excitation and is called the reluctance power
component. This component makes the maximum power greater than in the classical
model. However, the angle at which the maximum power occurs is less than 90o.

TRANSIENT STABILITY:

As defined earlier, transient stability is the ability of the system to remain stable under
large disturbances like short circuits, line outages, generation or load loss etc. The
evaluation of the transient stability is required offline for planning, design etc. and online
for load management, emergency control and security assessment. Transient stability
analysis deals with actual solution of the nonlinear differential equations describing the
dynamics of the machines and their controls and interfacing it with the algebraic
equations describing the
Power System Analysis R17A0215

interconnections through the transmission network. Since the disturbance is large,

linearized analysis of the swing equation (which describes the rotor dynamics) is not
possible. Further, the fault may cause structural changes in the network, because of which
the power angle curve prior to fault, during the fault and post fault may be different. Due
to these reasons, a general stability criteria for transient stability cannot be established, as
was done in the case of steady state stability (namely PS > 0). Stability can be
established, for a given fault, by actual solution of the swing equation. The time taken for
the fault to be cleared (by the circuit breakers) is called the clearing time. If the fault is
cleared fast enough, the probability of the system remaining stable after the clearance is
more. If the fault persists for a longer time, likelihood of instability is increased. Critical
clearing time is the maximum time available for clearing the fault, before the system
loses stability. Modern circuit breakers are equipped with auto reclosure facility, wherein
the breaker automatically recloses after two sequential openings. If the fault still persists,
the breakers open permanently. Since most faults are transient, the first reclosure is in
general successful. Hence, transient stability has been greatly enhanced by auto closure
breakers.

Some common assumptions made during transient stability studies are as follows:
1. Transmission line and synchronous machine resistances are neglected. Since
resistance introduces a damping term in the swing equation, this gives pessimistic
results.
2. Effect of damper windings is neglected which again gives pessimistic results.
3. Variations in rotor speed are neglected.
4. Mechanical input to the generator is assumed constant. The governor control
loop is neglected. This also leads to pessimistic results.
5. The generator is modeled as a constant voltage source behind a transient
reactance, neglecting the voltage regulator action.
6. Loads are modeled as constant admittances and absorbed into the bus admittance matrix.

The above assumptions, vastly simplify the equations. A digital computer program for
transient stability analysis can easily include more detailed generator models and effect
of controls, the discussion of which is beyond the scope of present treatment. Studies on
the transient stability of an SMIB system, can shed light on some important aspects of
stability of larger systems. The figure below shows an example of how the clearing time
has an effect on the swing curve of the machine.
Power System Analysis R17A0215

Modified Euler’s method:

Euler‟s method is one of the easiest methods to program for solution of differential
equations using a digital computer . It uses the Taylor‟s series expansion, discarding all
second–order and higher–order terms. Modified Euler‟s algorithm uses the derivatives at
the beginning of a time step, to predict the values of the dependent variables at the end of
the step (t1 = t0 +∆t). Using the predicted values, the derivatives at the end of the
interval are computed. The average of the two derivatives is used in updating the
variables.

Consider two simultaneous differential equations:

Power System Analysis R17A0215

Starting from initial values x0, y0, t0 at the beginning of a time step and a step size h
we solve as follows:

Let

x 1 and y1 are used in the next iteration. To solve the swing equation by Modified Euler‟s
method, it is written as two first order differential equations:
Starting from an initial value _o, _o at the beginning of any time step, and choosing a
step size _t s, the equations to be solved in modified Euler‟s are as follows:
7.7
7.8
 NIT-V
PF CONTROL

Introduction:
The main objective of power system operation and control is to maintain continuous supply of
power with an acceptable quality, to all the consumers in the system. The system will be in
equilibrium, when there is a balance between the power demand and the power generated. As the
power in AC form has real and reactive components: the real power balance; as well as the reactive
power balance is to be achieved.
There are two basic control mechanisms used to achieve reactive power balance (acceptable
voltage profile) and real power balance (acceptable frequency values). The former is called the
automatic voltage regulator (AVR) and the latter is called the automatic load frequency control
(ALFC) or automatic generation control (AGC).

Automatic Load Frequency Control:

The ALFC is to control the frequency deviation by maintaining the real power balance in the
system. The main functions of the ALFC are to i) to maintain the steady frequency; ii) control the
tie-line flows; and iii) distribute the load among the participating generating units. The control
(input) signals are the tie-line deviation ∆Ptie (measured from the tie line flows), and the frequency
deviation ∆f (obtained by measuring the angle deviation ∆δ). These error signals ∆f and ∆Ptie are
amplified, mixed and transformed to a real power signal, which then controls the valve position.
Depending on the valve position, the turbine (prime mover) changes its output power to establish
the real power balance. The complete control schematic is shown in Fig1.1.

Fig.1.1: The Schematic representation of ALFC system

Speed Governing System:

Fig. 1.2 is the schematic representation of Turbine Speed Governing system. It has mainly four
major components.
Speed governor: Speed governor senses the change in speed (or frequency) hence it can be
regarded as heart of the system. The standard model of speed governor operates by fly-ball
mechanism. Fly-balls moves outward when
speed increases and the point Q on the linkage mechanism moves downwards. the reverse happens
when the speed decreases. The movement of point Q is proportional to change in shaft speed.
Linage mechanism: PQR is a rigid link pivoted at Q and RST is another rigid link pivoted at S.
This link mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in proportion to change in speed.
It also provides a feedback from the steam valve movement.
Hydraulic amplifier: It comprises a pilot valve and main piston arrangement. It converts low
power level pilot valve movement into high power level piston valve movement. This is necessary
in order to open or close the steam valve against high pressure steam.
Speed changer: It provides a steady state power output setting for the turbine. Its downwards
movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to the turbine under steady
conditions the reverse happens for upward movement of speed changer. By adjusting the linkage
position of point P the scheduled speed/frequency can be obtained at the given loading condition.

Fig.1.2: Schematic of Speed Governing System

For the analysis, the models for each of the blocks in Fig1.1 are required. The generator and the
electrical load constitute the power system. The valve and the hydraulic amplifier represent the
speed governing system. Using the swing equation, the generator can be modeled by

Expressing the speed deviation in pu,

This relation can be represented as shown in Fig.1.3.

 Fig.1.3:The block diagram representation of the Generator

Fig1.4:The block diagram representation of the Generator and load

The turbine can be modeled as a first order lag as shown in the Fig1.5

Fig1.5.The turbine model

Gt(s) is the TF of the turbine; ∆PV(s) is the change in valve output (due to action).
∆Pm(s) is the change in the turbine output the governor can similarly modeled as shown in Fig1.4.
The output of the governor is by
 Fig1.6: The block diagram representation of the Governor

All the individual blocks can now be connected to represent the complete ALFC loop as
Shown in Fig 1.7.

Fig1.7: The block diagram representation of the ALFC.

SINGLE AREA AND TWO AREA LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

Modern day power systems are divided into various areas. For example in India, there are five
regional grids, e.g., Eastern Region, Western Region etc. Each of these areas is generally
interconnected to its neighboring areas. The transmission lines that connect an area to its
neighboring area are called tie-lines. Power sharing between two areas occurs through these tie-
lines. Load frequency control, as the name signifies, regulates the power flow between different
areas while holding the frequency constant.

As we have an Example 1 that the system frequency rises when the load decreases if ΔPref is kept
at zero. Similarly the frequency may drop if the load increases. However it is desirable to maintain
the frequency constant such that Δf=0. The power flow through different tie-lines are scheduled -
for example, area- i may export a pre-specified amount of power to area- j while importing another
 pre-specified amount of power from area- k . However it is expected that to fulfill this obligation,
area- i absorbs its own load change, i.e., increase generation to supply extra load in the area or
decrease generation when the load demand in the area has reduced. While doing this area- i must
however maintain its obligation to areas j and k as far as importing and exporting power is
concerned. A conceptual diagram of the interconnected areas is shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.8: Interconnected areas in a power system

We can therefore state that the load frequency control (LFC) has the following two objectives:
 Hold the frequency constant ( Δf = 0) against any load change. Each area must contribute to
absorb any load change such that frequency does not deviate.
 Each area must maintain the tie-line power flow to its pre-specified value.

The first step in the LFC is to form the area control error (ACE).
Where Ptie and Psch are tie-line power and scheduled power through tie-line respectively and the
constant Bf is called the frequency bias constant.

The change in the reference of the power setting ΔPref, i , of the area- i is then obtained by

The feedback of the ACE through an integral controller of the form where Ki is the integral gain.
The ACE is negative if the net power flow out of an area is low or if the frequency has dropped or
both. In this case the generation must be increased. This can be achieved by increasing ΔPref, i .
This negative sign accounts for this inverse relation between ΔPref, i and ACE. The tie-line power
flow and frequency of each area are monitored in its control center. Once the ACE is computed
and ΔPref, i is obtained , commands are given to various turbine-generator controls to adjust their
reference power settings.
supplementary controls); ii) and to maintain the scheduled tie-line flows. A secondary objective of the AGC is
to distribute the required change in generation among the connected generating units economically (to obtain
least operating costs).
 Derivation of Steady state error for single area load frequency control:
From the single area load frequency control block diagram we have,
∆PG(s) = kgkt / (1+sTg)(1+sTt)[∆Pc(s)-1/R∆F(s)]
The generator is synchronized to a network of very large size. So, the speed or frequency will be
essentially independent of any changes in a power output of the generator
ie, ∆F(s) =0
Therefore ∆PG(s) =kgkt / (1+sTg) (1+sTt)* ∆Pc(s)
Steady state response:
(i) Controlled case:
To find the resulting steady change in the generator output:
Let us assume that we made a step change of the magnitude ∆Pc of the speed changer For step
change, ∆Pc(s) = ∆Pc/s
∆PG(s) =[kgkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt)]∆Pc(s)/s s∆PG (s) =[kgkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt)] ∆Pc(s)
Applying final value theorem,
(ii) Uncontrolled case
Let us assume that the load suddenly increases by small amount ∆PD.
Consider there is no external work and the generator is delivering a power to a single load.
∆Pc = 0
Kg Kt = 1
∆PG(s) = 1/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt) [-
∆F(s)/R] For a step change ,∆F(s) =
∆f/s Therefore
∆PG(s) = 1/(1+sTg)(1+sTt)[-∆F/sR]
∆f/∆PG (stat) =-R Hz/MW

Steady State Performance of the ALFC Loop

In the steady state, the ALFC is in open state, and the output is obtained by substituting s→0
in the TF.
With s→0, Gg(s) and Gt(s) become unity, then,(note that
∆Pm =∆PT = PG =∆Pe = ∆PD;

That is turbine output = generator/electrical output = load demand)

∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R) ∆ω or ∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R)∆f
When the generator is connected to infinite bus (∆f = 0, and ∆V = 0), then
∆Pm =∆Pref .

If the network is finite, for a fixed speed changer setting (∆Pref = 0), then
∆Pm =(1/R)∆f or∆f=RPm.
 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF SINGLE AREA LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL:
Now we are going to study the effect of a disturbance in the system derived above. Both loss of
generation and loss of load can be simulated by imposing a positive or negative step input on the
variable Pload. A change of the set value of the system frequency f0 is not considered as this is not
meaningful in real power systems. From the block diagram in Figure.

In order to calculate an equivalent time constant Teq, Tt is put to 0. This can be done since for
realistic systems the turbine controller time constant Tt is much smaller than the time constant.
 • Net interchange power (tie line flow) with neighboring areas at the scheduled
values
The supplementary control should ideally correct only for changes in that area. In other words, if
there is a change in Area1 load, there should be supplementary control only in Area1 and not in
Area 2. For this purpose the area control error (ACE) is used (Fig1.9). The ACE of the two areas
are given by
Fig.1.9:AGC for a multi-area operation
COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS

ENERGY CONTROL CENTRE:

The energy control center (ECC) has traditionally been the decision-center for the electric
transmission and generation interconnected system. The ECC provides the functions necessary for
monitoring and coordinating the minute-by-minute physical and economic operation of the power
system. In the continental U.S., there are only three interconnected regions: Eastern, Western, and
Texas, but there are many control areas, with each control area having its own ECC.

Maintaining integrity and economy of an inter-connected power system requires significant

coordinated decision-making. So one of the primary functions of the ECC is to monitor and
regulate the physical operation of the interconnected grid.

Most areas today have a two-level hierarchy of ECCs with the Independent System Operator (ISO)
performing the high-level decision-making and the transmission owner ECC performing the lower-
level decision-making.

A high-level view of the ECC is illustrated. Where we can identify the substation, the remote
terminal unit (RTU), a communication link, and the ECC which contains the energy management
system (EMS). The EMS provides the capability of converting the data received from the
substations to the types of screens observed.

In these notes we will introduce the basic components and functionalities of the ECC. Note that
there is no chapter in your text which provides this information.

Regional load control centre:

It decides generation allocation to various generating stations within the region on the basics of
equal incremental operating cost considering line losses are equal and Frequency control in the
region.

Plant load control room:

It decides the allocation of generation of various units in the plant on the basis of:

1. Equal incremented operating cost of various units

2. Minimize the reactive power flow through line so as to minimize line loss and maintain voltage
levels and Frequency control in the plant

ECC Components:

The system control function traditionally used in electric utility operation consists of three main
integrated subsystems: the energy management system (EMS), the supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA), and the communications interconnecting the EMS and the SCADA (which
is often thought of as part of the SCADA itself). Figure 3 provides a block diagram illustration of
 these three integrated subsystems. The SCADA and communications subsystems are indicated in

the dotted ovals at the top left hand corner of the figure. The res1of the figure indicates the EMS.
We will describe each one in the following subsections.

Fig.1:Block diagram of ECC

We distinguish EMS from distribution management systems (DMS). Both utilize their own SCADA, but for
different functions. Whereas EMS/SCADA serves the high voltage bulk transmission system from the ECC, the
DMS/SCADA serves the low voltage, distribution system from a distribution dispatch center. We are addressing in
these notes the EMS/SCADA.

Operation of control centre:

• Monitoring

• Data acquisition and Remote control level control

1. Turbine – governor to adjust generation to balance changing load-instantaneous

control.
2. AGC (called load frequency control (LFC)) maintains frequency and net power interchange.
3. Economic Dispatch Control (EDC) distributes the load among the units such that fuel cost is
minimum.
B. Primary Voltage control
1. Excitation control
2. Transmission voltage control, SVC, Shunt capacitors, transformer taps.

2. SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA)

There are two parts to the term SCADA Supervisory control indicates that the operator, residing in
the energy control center (ECC), has the ability to control remote equipment. Data acquisition
indicates that information is gathered characterizing the state of the remote equipment and sent to
the ECC for monitoring purposes.
The monitoring equipment is normally located in the substations and is consolidated in what is
known as the remote terminal unit (RTU). Generally, the RTUs are equipped with microprocessors
having memory and logic capability. Older RTUs are equipped with modems to provide the
communication link back to the ECC, whereas newer RTUs generally have intranet or internet
capability.
Relays located within the RTU, on command from the ECC, open or close selected control circuits
to perform a supervisory action. Such actions may include, for example, opening or closing of a
circuit breaker or switch, modifying a transformer tap setting, raising or lowering generator MW
output or terminal voltage, switching in or out a shunt capacitor or inductor, and the starting or
stopping of a synchronous condenser.
Information gathered by the RTU and communicated to the ECC includes both analog information
and status indicators. Analog information includes, for example, frequency, voltages, currents, and
real and reactive power flows. Status indicators include alarm signals (over-temperature, low relay
battery voltage, illegal entry) and whether switches and circuit breakers are open or closed. Such
information is provided to the ECC through a periodic scan of all RTUs. A 2 second scan cycle is
typical.
Functions of SCADA Systems
1. Data acquisition
2. Information display.
3. Supervisory Control (CBs: ON/OFF, Generator: stop/start, RAISE/LOWER command)
4. Information storage and result display.
5. Sequence of events acquisition.
6. Remote terminal unit processing.
7. General maintenance.
8. Runtime status verification.
9. Economic modeling.
10. Remote start/stop.
11. Load matching based on economics.
12. Load shedding.

Control Functions:
1.Control and monitoring of switching devices, tapped transformers, auxiliary devices etc..
2. Bay-and a station-wide interlocking Automatic functions such as load shedding,
power restoration, and high speed bus bar transfer, Time synchronization by radio clock satellite
signal.
Monitoring Functions:
1. Measurement and displaying of current, voltage, frequency, active and reactive power, energy,
temperature, etc..
Alarm Functions:
1. Storage and evaluation of time stamped events.

Protection functions:

1. Substation protection functions includes the monitoring of events like start and trip.
2. Protection of bus bars. Line feeders, transformers, generators.
Communication technologies:
The form of communication required for SCADA is telemetry. Telemetry is the measurement of a
quantity in such a way so as to allow interpretation of that measurement at a distance from the
primary detector. The distinctive feature of telemetry is the nature of the translating means, which
includes provision for converting the measure into a representative quantity of another kind that
can be transmitted conveniently for measurement at a distance. The actual distance is irrelevant.

Telemetry may be analog or digital. In analog telemetry, a voltage, current, or frequency

proportional to the quantity being measured is developed and transmitted on a communication
channel to the receiving location, where the received signal is applied to a meter calibrated to
indicate the quantity being measured, or it is applied directly to a control device such as a ECC
computer.

Forms of analog telemetry include variable current, pulse-amplitude, pulse- length, and pulse-
rate, with the latter two being the most common. In digital telemetry, the quantity being measured
is converted to a code in which the sequence of pulses transmitted indicates the quantity. One of
 the advantages to digital telemetering is the fact that accuracy of data is not lost in transmitting
the data from one location to another. Digital telemetry requires analog to digital (A/D) and

possible digital to analog (D/A) converters, as illustrated in the earliest form of signal circuit used
for SCADA telemetry consisted of twisted pair wires; although simple and economic for short
distances, it suffers from reliability problems due to breakage, water ingress, and ground potential
risk during faults.
Improvements over twisted pair wires came in the form of what is now the most common,
traditional type of telemetry mediums based on leased-wire, power-line carrier, or microwave.
These are voice grade forms of telemetry, meaning they represent communication channels
suitable for the transmission of speech, either digital or analog, generally with a frequency range
of about 300 to 3000 Hz.
SCADA requires communication between Master control station and Remote control
station:

Fig.2:Communication between master and remote control station

Master and Remote station:

Leased-wire means use of a standard telephone circuit; this is a convenient and straightforward
means of telemetry when it is available, although it can be unreliable, and it requires a continual
outlay of leasing expenditures. In addition, it is not under user control and requires careful
coordination between the user and the telephone company. Power-line carrier (PLC) offers an
inexpensive and typically more reliable alternative to leased-wire. Here, the transmission circuit
itself is used to modulate a communication signal at a frequency much greater than the 60 Hz
power frequency. Most PLC occurs at frequencies in the range of 30-500 kHz. The security of
PLC is very high since the communication equipment is located inside the substations through
open disconnects, i.e., when the transmission line is outaged. Often, this is precisely the time when
the communication signal is needed most. In addition, PLC is susceptible to line noise and
requires careful signal-to-noise ratio analysis. Most PLC is strictly analog although digital PLC
has become available from a few suppliers during the last few years.
Microwave radio refers to ultra-high-frequency (UHF) radio systems operating above 1 GHz.
The earliest microwave telemetry was strictly analog, but digital microwave communication is
now quite common for EMS/SCADA applications. This form of communication has obvious
advantages over PLC and leased wire since it requires no physical conducting medium and
therefore no right-of-way. However, line of sight clearance is required in order to ensure reliable
communication, and therefore it is not applicable in some cases.
A more recent development has concerned the use of fiber optic cable, a technology capable of
extremely fast communication speeds. Although cost was originally prohibitive, it has now
decreased to the point where it is viable. Fiber optics may be either run inside underground
power cables or they may be fastened to overhead transmission line towers just below the lines.
They may also be run within the shield wire suspended above the transmission lines.
One easily sees that communication engineering is very important to power system control.
Students specializing in power and energy systems should strongly consider taking
communications courses to have this background. Students specializing in communication should
consider taking power systems courses as an application area.
ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS):
The EMS is a software system. Most utility companies purchase their EMS from one or more
EMS vendors. These EMS vendors are companies specializing in design, development,
installation, and maintenance of EMS within ECCs. There are a number of EMS vendors in the
U.S., and they hire many power system engineers with good software development capabilities
during the time period of the 1970s through about 2000, almost all EMS software applications.

An attractive alternative today is, however, the application service provider, where the software
resides on the vendor‟s computer and control center personnel access it from the Internet. Benefits
from this arrangement include application flexibility and reliability in the software system and
reduced installation cost.

One can observe from Figure 3 that the EMS consists of 4 major functions: network model
building (including topology processing and state estimation), security assessment, automatic
 generation control, and dispatch. These functions are described in more detail in the following
subsections.

Energy management is the process of monitoring, coordinating, and controlling the generation, transmission
and distribution of electrical energy. The physical plant to be managed includes generating plants that produce
energy fed
through transformers to the high-voltage transmission network (grid), interconnecting generating
plants, and load centers. Transmission lines terminate at substations that perform switching,
voltage transformation, measurement, and control. Substations at load centers transform to sub
transmission and distribution levels. These lower-voltage circuits typically operate radially, i.e.,
no normally closed paths between substations through sub transmission or distribution
circuits.(Underground cable networks in large cities are an exception.)

Since transmission systems provide negligible energy storage, supply and demand must be
balanced by either generation or load. Production is controlled by turbine governors at generating
plants, and automatic generation control is performed by control center computers remote from
generating plants. Load management, sometimes called demand- Side management, extends
remote supervision and control to sub-transmission and distribution circuits, including control of
residential, commercial, and industrial loads.

Functionality Power EMS:

1. System Load Forecasting-Hourly energy, 1 to 7 days.

2. Unit commitment-1 to 7days.
3. Economic dispatch.
4. Hydro-thermal scheduling- up to 7 days.
5. MW interchange evaluation- with neighboring system.
6. Transmission loss minimization.
7. Security constrained dispatch.
8. Maintenance scheduling Production cost calculation.

Power System Data Acquisition and Control

A SCADA system consists of a master station that communicates with remote terminal units
(RTUs) for the purpose of allowing operators to observe and control physical plants. Generating
plants and transmission substations certainly justify RTUs, and their installation is becoming more
common in distribution substations as costs decrease. RTUs transmit device status and
measurements to, and receive control commands and setpoint data from, the master station.
Communication is generally via dedicated circuits operating in the range of 600 to 4800 bits/s with
the RTU responding to periodic requests initiated from the master station (polling) every 2 to 10 s,
depending on the criticality of the data.

The traditional functions of SCADA systems are summarized:

• Data acquisition: Provides telemetered measurements and status information to operator.

• Supervisory control: Allows operator to remotely control devices, e.g., open and close
circuit breakers. A “select before operate” procedure is used for greater safety.
• Tagging: Identifies a device as subject to specific operating restrictions and prevents
 unauthorized operation.
• Alarms: Inform operator of unplanned events and undesirable operating conditions. Alarms

are sorted by criticality, area of responsibility, and chronology. Acknowledgment may be required
• Logging: Logs all operator entry, all alarms, and selected information.
• Load shed: Provides both automatic and operator-initiated tripping of load in response to system
emergencies.
• Trending: Plots measurements on selected time scales.

Fig.3.Layers of EMS
Layers of a modern EMS:

Since the master station is critical to power system operations, its functions are generally
distributed among several computer systems depending on specific design. A dual computer
system configured in primary and standby modes is most common. SCADA functions are listed
below without stating which computer has specific responsibility.
• Manage communication circuit configuration
• Downline load RTU files
• Maintain scan tables and perform polling
• Check and correct message errors
• Convert to engineering units
• Detect status and measurement changes
 • Monitor abnormal and out-of-limit conditions

• Log and time-tag sequence of events

• Detect and annunciate alarms
• Respond to operator requests to:
– Display information
– Enter data
– Execute control action
– Acknowledge alarms Transmit control action to RTUs
• Inhibit unauthorized actions
• Maintain historical files
• Log events and prepare reports
• Perform load shedding

Automatic Generation Control:

Automatic generation control (AGC) consists of two major and several minorfunctions that
operate online in real time to adjust the generation against load at minimum cost. The major
functions are load frequency control and economic dispatch, each of which is described below.
The minor functions are reserve monitoring, which assures enough reserve on the system;
interchange scheduling, which initiates and completes scheduled interchanges; and other similar
monitoring and recording functions.
Load Frequency Control:

Load frequency control (LFC) has to achieve three primary objectives, which are stated below in
priority order:
1. To maintain frequency at the scheduled value
2. To maintain net power interchanges with neighboring control areas at the scheduled
values
3. To maintain power allocation among units at economically desired values.

The first and second objectives are met by monitoring an error signal, called area control error
(ACE), which is a combination of net interchange error andfrequency error and represents the
power imbalance between generation and load at any instant. This ACE must be filtered or
smoothed such that excessive and random changes in ACE are not translated into control action.
Since these excessive changes are different for different systems, the filter parameters have to be
tuned specifically for each control area.
The filtered ACE is then used to obtain the proportional plus integral control signal. This control
signal is modified by limiters, dead bands, and gain constants that are tuned to the particular
system. This control signal is then divided among the generating units under control by using
participation factors to obtain unit control errors (UCE).
These participation factors may be proportional to the inverse of the second derivative of the cost
of unit generation so that the units would be loaded according to their costs, thus meeting the third
objective. However, cost may not be the only consideration because the different units may have
different response rates and it may be necessary to move the faster generators more to obtain an
acceptable response. The UCEs are then sent to the various units under control and the generating
units monitored to see that the corrections take place. This control action is repeated every 2 to 6 s.
In spite of the integral control, errors in frequency and net interchange do tend to accumulate over
time. These time errors and accumulated interchange errors have to be corrected by adjusting the
controller settings according to procedures agreed upon by the whole interconnection. These

accumulated errors as well as ACE serve as performance measures for LFC.

The main philosophy in the design of LFC is that each system should follow its own load very
closely during normal operation, while during emergencies; each system should contribute
according to its relative size in the interconnection without regard to the locality of the emergency.
Thus, the most important factor in obtaining good control of a system is its inherent capability of
following its own load. This is guaranteed if the system has adequate regulation margin as well as
adequate response capability. Systems that have mainly thermal generation often have difficulty in
keeping up with the load because of the slow response of the units.

SECURITY ANALYSIS & CONTROL:

Security monitoring is the on line identification of the actual operating conditions of a power
system. It requires system wide instrumentation to gather the system data as well as a means for
the on line determination of network topology involving an open or closed position of circuit
breakers. A state estimation has been developed to get the best estimate of the status and the state
estimation provides the database for security analysis shown .
 Data acquisition:
1. To process from RTU
2. To check status values against normal value
3. To send alarm conditions to alarm processor
4. To check analog measurements against limits.
 Alarm processor:
1. To send alarm messages
2. To transmit messages according to priority
 Status processor:
1. To determine status of each substation for proper connection.
 Reserve monitor:
1. To check generator MW output on all units against unit limits
 State estimator:
1. To determine system state variables
2. To detect the presence of bad measures values.
3. To identify the location of bad measurements
4. To initialize the network model for other programs
Fig.4: Practical Security Monitoring System
System Security:

1. System monitoring.
2. Contingency analysis.
3. Security constrained optimal power flow
Security Assessment:

Security assessment determines first, whether the system is currently residing in an acceptable
state and second, whether the system would respond in an acceptable manner and reach an
acceptable state following any one of a pre-defined contingency set. A contingency is the
unexpected failure of a transmission line, transformer, or generator. Usually, contingencies result
from occurrence of a fault, or short-circuit, to one of these components. When such a fault occurs,
the protection systems sense the fault and remove the component, and therefore also the fault, from
the system. Of course, with one less component, the overall system is weaker, and undesirable
effects may occur. For example, some remaining circuit may overload, or some bus may
experience an under voltage condition. These are called static security problems.

Dynamic security problems may also occur, including uncontrollable voltage decline, generator
over speed (loss of synchronism), or undamped oscillatory behavior.
Security Control:
Power systems are designed to survive all probable contingencies. A contingency is defined as
an event that causes one or more important components such as transmission lines, generators,
and transformers to be unexpectedly removed from service. Survival means the system stabilizes
and continues to operate at acceptable voltage and frequency levels without loss of load.
Operations must deal with a vast number of possible conditions experienced by the system, many
of which are not anticipated in planning. Instead of dealing with the impossible task of analyzing
all possible system states, security control starts with a specific state: the current state if
executing the real-time network sequence; a postulated state if executing a study sequence.
Sequence means sequential execution of programs that perform the following steps:
1. Determine the state of the system based on either current or postulated conditions.
2. Process a list of contingencies to determine the consequences of each contingency on the
system in its specified state.
3. Determine preventive or corrective action for those contingencies which represent
unacceptable risk.
Security control requires topological processing to build network models and uses large-scale AC
network analysis to determine system conditions. The required applications are grouped as a
network subsystem that typically includes the following functions:
•Topology processor: Processes real-time status measurements to determine an electrical
connectivity (bus) model of the power system network.
• State estimator: Uses real-time status and analog measurements to determine the„„best‟‟

estimate of the state of the power system. It uses a redundant set of measurements; calculates
voltages, phase angles, and power flows for all components in the system; and reports overload
conditions.
•Power flow: Determines the steady-state conditions of the power system network fora specified
generation and load pattern. Calculates voltages, phase angles, and flows across the entire
system.
•Contingency analysis: Assesses the impact of a set of contingencies on the state ofthe power
system and identifies potentially harmful contingencies that cause operating limit violations.
•Optimal power flow: Recommends controller actions to optimize a specified objective function
(such as system operating cost or losses) subject to a set of power system operating constraints.
•Security enhancement: Recommends corrective control actions to be taken to alleviate an
existing or potential overload in the system while ensuring minimal operational cost.
•Preventive action: Recommends control actions to be taken in a “preventive” mode before a
contingency occurs to preclude an overload situation if the contingency were to occur.

•Bus load forecasting: Uses real-time measurements to adaptively forecast loads for the
electrical connectivity (bus) model of the power system network.
• Transmission loss factors: Determines incremental loss sensitivities for generating units;
calculates the impact on losses if the output of a unit were to be increased by 1 MW.

•Short-circuit analysis: Determines fault currents for single-phase and three-phase faults for fault
locations across the entire power system network.
 Fig.5:Real time network analysis sequence

VARIOUS OPERATING STATES:

Fig.6:Various operating states

Operating states are:

1. Normal state

2. Alert state

3. Emergency state

4. Extremis state

5. Restorative state

Normal state:
A system is said to be in normal if both load and operating constraints are satisfied
.It is one in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying all
the operating constraints.
Alert state:

A normal state of the system said to be in alert state if one or more of the postulated
contingency states, consists of the constraint limits violated. When the system security
level falls below a certain level or the probability of disturbance increases, the system
may be in alert state .All equalities and inequalities are satisfied, but on the event of a
disturbance, the system may not have all the inequality constraints satisfied. If severe
disturbance occurs, the system will push into emergency state. To bring back the system
to secure state, preventive control action is carried out.

Emergency state:

The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints are
violated, but the load constraint is satisfied .In this state, the equality constraints are
unchanged. The system will return to the normal or alert state by means of corrective
actions, disconnection of faulted section or load sharing.

Extremis state:

When the system is in emergency, if no proper corrective action is taken in time, then it
goes to either emergency state or extremis state. In this regard neither the load or nor the
operating constraint is satisfied, this result is islanding. Also the generating units are
strained beyond their capacity .So emergency control action is done to bring back the
system state either to the emergency state or normal state.

Restorative state:

From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure state .The
latter is a slow process. Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back to alert
state and then to the secure state .This is done using restorative control action.