Lecture Outline

3.1 Basic Definitions and Applications

3.2 Graph Traversal
3.4 Testing Bipartiteness
3.5 Connectivity in Directed Graphs
3.6 DAGs and Topological Ordering

Undirected Graphs

Undirected graph. G = (V, E)

„V = nodes.
„E = edges between pairs of nodes.
„Captures pairwise relationship between objects.
„Graph size parameters: n = |V|, m = |E|.

V = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }
E = { 1-2, 1-3, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 3-5, 3-7, 3-8, 4-5, 5-6 }
n=8
m = 11

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 Some Graph Applications

Graph Nodes Edges

transportation street intersections highways
communication computers fiber optic cables
World Wide Web web pages hyperlinks
social people relationships
food web species predator-prey
software systems functions function calls
scheduling tasks precedence constraints
circuits gates wires

World Wide Web

Web graph.
„Node: web page.
„Edge: hyperlink from one page to another.

cnn.com

netscape.com novell.com cnnsi.com timewarner.com

hbo.com

sorpranos.com

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 9-11 Terrorist Network

Social network graph.

„Node: people.
„Edge: relationship between
two people.

Reference: Valdis Krebs, http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue7_4/krebs

Ecological Food Web

Food web graph.

„Node = species.
„Edge = from prey to predator.

Reference: http://www.twingroves.district96.k12.il.us/Wetlands/Salamander/SalGraphics/salfoodweb.giff

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 Graph Representation: Adjacency Matrix

Adjacency matrix. n-by-n matrix with Auv = 1 if (u, v) is an edge.

„Two representations of each edge.
„Space proportional to n2.
„Checking if (u, v) is an edge takes Θ(1) time.
„Identifying all edges takes Θ(n2) time.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
3 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
5 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
7 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
8 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

Graph Representation: Adjacency List

Adjacency list. Node indexed array of lists.

„Two representations of each edge.
degree = number of neighbors of u
„Space proportional to m + n.
„Checking if (u, v) is an edge takes O(deg(u)) time.
„Identifying all edges takes Θ(m + n) time.

1 2 3

2 1 3 4 5

3 1 2 5 7 8

4 2 5

5 2 3 4 6

6 5

7 3 8

8 3 7

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 Paths and Connectivity

Def. A path in an undirected graph G = (V, E) is a sequence P of nodes

v1, v2, …, vk-1, vk with the property that each consecutive pair vi, vi+1 is
joined by an edge in E.

Def. A path is simple if all nodes are distinct.

Def. An undirected graph is connected if for every pair of nodes u and

v, there is a path between u and v.

Cycles

Def. A cycle is a path v1, v2, …, vk-1, vk in which v1 = vk, k > 2, and the
first k-1 nodes are all distinct.

cycle C = 1-2-4-5-3-1

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 Trees

Def. An undirected graph is a tree if it is connected and does not

contain a cycle.

Theorem. Let G be an undirected graph on n nodes. Any two of the

following statements imply the third.
„ G is connected.
„ G does not contain a cycle.
„ G has n-1 edges.

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Rooted Trees

Rooted tree. Given a tree T, choose a root node r and orient each edge
away from r.

Importance. Models hierarchical structure.

root r

parent of v

child of v

a tree the same tree, rooted at 1

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 Phylogeny Trees

Phylogeny trees. Describe evolutionary history of species.

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GUI Containment Hierarchy

GUI containment hierarchy. Describe organization of GUI widgets.

Reference: http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/uiswing/overview/anatomy.html

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 Connectivity

s-t connectivity problem. Given two node s and t, is there a path

between s and t?

s-t shortest path problem. Given two node s and t, what is the length
of the shortest path between s and t?

Applications.
„Friendster.
„Maze traversal.
„Kevin Bacon number.
„Fewest number of hops in a communication network.

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Breadth First Search

BFS intuition. Explore outward from s in all possible directions, adding

nodes one "layer" at a time.

s L1 L2 L
BFS algorithm. n-1

„L0 = { s }.
„L1 = all neighbors of L0.
„L2 = all nodes that do not belong to L0 or L1, and that have an edge
to a node in L1.
„Li+1 = all nodes that do not belong to an earlier layer, and that have
an edge to a node in Li.

Theorem. For each i, Li consists of all nodes at distance exactly i

from s. There is a path from s to t iff t appears in some layer.

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 Breadth First Search

Property. Let T be a BFS tree of G = (V, E), and let (x, y) be an edge of
G. Then the level of x and y differ by at most 1.

L0

L1

L2

L3

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Breadth First Search: Analysis

Theorem. The above implementation of BFS runs in O(m + n) time if

the graph is given by its adjacency representation.

Pf.
„ Easy to prove O(n2) running time:
– at most n lists L[i]
– each node occurs on at most one list; for loop runs ≤ n times
– when we consider node u, there are ≤ n incident edges (u, v),
and we spend O(1) processing each edge

„ Actually runs in O(m + n) time:

– when we consider node u, there are deg(u) incident edges (u, v)
– total time processing edges is Σu∈V deg(u) = 2m ▪

each edge (u, v) is counted exactly twice

in sum: once in deg(u) and once in deg(v)

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 Connected Component

Connected component. Find all nodes reachable from s.

Connected component containing node 1 = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }.

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Flood Fill

Flood fill. Given lime green pixel in an image, change color of entire
blob of neighboring lime pixels to blue.
„ Node: pixel.
„ Edge: two neighboring lime pixels.
„ Blob: connected component of lime pixels.
recolor lime green blob to blue

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 Flood Fill

Flood fill. Given lime green pixel in an image, change color of entire
blob of neighboring lime pixels to blue.
„ Node: pixel.
„ Edge: two neighboring lime pixels.
„ Blob: connected component of lime pixels.
recolor lime green blob to blue

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Connected Component

Connected component. Find all nodes reachable from s.

R
s

u v

it's safe to add v

Theorem. Upon termination, R is the connected component containing s.

„BFS = explore in order of distance from s.
„DFS = explore in a different way.

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 Bipartite Graphs

Def. An undirected graph G = (V, E) is bipartite if the nodes can be

colored red or blue such that every edge has one red and one blue end.

Applications.
„Stable marriage: men = red, women = blue.
„Scheduling: machines = red, jobs = blue.

a bipartite graph

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Testing Bipartiteness

Testing bipartiteness. Given a graph G, is it bipartite?

„ Many graph problems become:
– easier if the underlying graph is bipartite (matching)
– tractable if the underlying graph is bipartite (independent set)
„ Before attempting to design an algorithm, we need to understand
structure of bipartite graphs.

v2
v2 v3
v1
v4

v6 v5 v4 v3
v5

v6
v7 v1
v7

a bipartite graph G another drawing of G

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 An Obstruction to Bipartiteness

Lemma. If a graph G is bipartite, it cannot contain an odd length cycle.

Pf. Not possible to 2-color the odd cycle, let alone G.

bipartite not bipartite

(2-colorable) (not 2-colorable)

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Bipartite Graphs

Lemma. Let G be a connected graph, and let L0, …, Lk be the layers

produced by BFS starting at node s. Exactly one of the following holds.
(i) No edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G is bipartite.
(ii) An edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G contains an
odd-length cycle (and hence is not bipartite).

L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3

Case (i) Case (ii)

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 Bipartite Graphs

Lemma. Let G be a connected graph, and let L0, …, Lk be the layers

produced by BFS starting at node s. Exactly one of the following holds.
(i) No edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G is bipartite.
(ii) An edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G contains an
odd-length cycle (and hence is not bipartite).

Pf. (i)
„ Suppose no edge joins two nodes in the same layer.
„ By previous lemma, this implies all edges join nodes on same level.
„ Bipartition: red = nodes on odd levels, blue = nodes on even levels.

L1 L2 L3

Case (i)
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Bipartite Graphs

Lemma. Let G be a connected graph, and let L0, …, Lk be the layers

produced by BFS starting at node s. Exactly one of the following holds.
(i) No edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G is bipartite.
(ii) An edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G contains an
odd-length cycle (and hence is not bipartite).

Pf. (ii)
„ Suppose (x, y) is an edge with x, y in same level Lj.
„ Let z = lca(x, y) = lowest common ancestor. z = lca(x, y)
„ Let Li be level containing z.
„ Consider cycle that takes edge from x to y,
then path from y to z, then path from z to x.
„ Its length is 1 + (j-i) + (j-i), which is odd. ▪

(x, y) path from path from

y to z z to x

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 Obstruction to Bipartiteness

Corollary. A graph G is bipartite iff it contain no odd length cycle.

5-cycle C

bipartite not bipartite

(2-colorable) (not 2-colorable)

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Directed Graphs

Directed graph. G = (V, E)

„ Edge (u, v) goes from node u to node v.

Ex. Web graph - hyperlink points from one web page to another.
„ Directedness of graph is crucial.
„ Modern web search engines exploit hyperlink structure to rank web
pages by importance.

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 Graph Search

Directed reachability. Given a node s, find all nodes reachable from s.

Directed s-t shortest path problem. Given two node s and t, what is
the length of the shortest path between s and t?

Graph search. BFS extends naturally to directed graphs.

Web crawler. Start from web page s. Find all web pages linked from s,
either directly or indirectly.

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Strong Connectivity

Def. Node u and v are mutually reachable if there is a path from u to v

and also a path from v to u.

Def. A graph is strongly connected if every pair of nodes is mutually

reachable.

Lemma. Let s be any node. G is strongly connected iff every node is

reachable from s, and s is reachable from every node.

Pf. ⇒ Follows from definition.

Pf. ⇐ Path from u to v: concatenate u-s path with s-v path.
Path from v to u: concatenate v-s path with s-u path. ▪

ok if paths overlap

s u

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 Strong Connectivity: Algorithm

Theorem. Can determine if G is strongly connected in O(m + n) time.

Pf.
„ Pick any node s.
„ Run BFS from s in G. reverse orientation of every edge in G

„ Run BFS from s in Grev.

„ Return true iff all nodes reached in both BFS executions.
„ Correctness follows immediately from previous lemma. ▪

strongly connected not strongly connected

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Directed Acyclic Graphs

Def. An DAG is a directed graph that contains no directed cycles.

Ex. Precedence constraints: edge (vi, vj) means vi must precede vj.

Def. A topological order of a directed graph G = (V, E) is an ordering

of its nodes as v1, v2, …, vn so that for every edge (vi, vj) we have i < j.

v2 v3

v6 v5 v4 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7

v7 v1

a DAG a topological ordering

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 Precedence Constraints

Precedence constraints. Edge (vi, vj) means task vi must occur before vj.

Applications.
„Course prerequisite graph: course vi must be taken before vj.
„Compilation: module vi must be compiled before vj. Pipeline of
computing jobs: output of job vi needed to determine input of job vj.

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Directed Acyclic Graphs

Lemma. If G has a topological order, then G is a DAG.

Pf. (by contradiction)

„ Suppose that G has a topological order v1, …, vn and that G also has a
directed cycle C. Let's see what happens.
„ Let vi be the lowest-indexed node in C, and let vj be the node just
before vi; thus (vj, vi) is an edge.
„ By our choice of i, we have i < j.
„ On the other hand, since (vj, vi) is an edge and v1, …, vn is a
topological order, we must have j < i, a contradiction. ▪

the directed cycle C

v1 vi vj vn

the supposed topological order: v1, …, vn

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 Directed Acyclic Graphs

Lemma. If G has a topological order, then G is a DAG.

Q. Does every DAG have a topological ordering?

Q. If so, how do we compute one?

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Directed Acyclic Graphs

Lemma. If G is a DAG, then G has a node with no incoming edges.

Pf. (by contradiction)

„ Suppose that G is a DAG and every node has at least one incoming
edge. Let's see what happens.
„ Pick any node v, and begin following edges backward from v. Since v
has at least one incoming edge (u, v) we can walk backward to u.
„ Then, since u has at least one incoming edge (x, u), we can walk
backward to x.
„ Repeat until we visit a node, say w, twice.
„ Let C denote the sequence of nodes encountered between
successive visits to w. C is a cycle. ▪

w x u v

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 Directed Acyclic Graphs

Lemma. If G is a DAG, then G has a topological ordering.

Pf. (by induction on n)

„ Base case: true if n = 1.
„ Given DAG on n > 1 nodes, find a node v with no incoming edges.
„ G - { v } is a DAG, since deleting v cannot create cycles.
„ By inductive hypothesis, G - { v } has a topological ordering.
„ Place v first in topological ordering; then append nodes of G - { v }
„ in topological order. This is valid since v has no incoming edges. ▪

DAG

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Topological Sorting Algorithm: Running Time

Theorem. Algorithm finds a topological order in O(m + n) time.

Pf.
„ Maintain the following information:
– count[w] = remaining number of incoming edges
– S = set of remaining nodes with no incoming edges
„ Initialization: O(m + n) via single scan through graph.
„ Update: to delete v
– remove v from S
– decrement count[w] for all edges from v to w, and add w to S if c
count[w] hits 0
– this is O(1) per edge ▪

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