ELECTRONICS

Electronics is the study of devices use to control the current of charges and volage in an
electrical/electronic circuit.

Control of charges may involve:

1. Increase the current/voltage (amplification)

2. Reduce the current/voltage.
3. Convert from ac to dc (rectification)
4. Convert from dc to ac (inversion)
5. Maintain the current/voltage (regulation)

Electronic devices are classified into two:

1. Passive devices – those devices that does not require electrical power to operate.
2. Active devices – those that require electrical power in order to operate.

PASSIVE DEVICES
1. RESISTOR

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance

as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal
levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other
uses.

RESISTOR COLOR CODE

The value of the resistor and its tolerance may be marked on the body of the component. This
may be done either by direct numerical indication or by using a standard color code.

The colored bands are located on the component towards one end. If the resistor is turned so
that this end is towards the left, then the bands are read from left to right,
See Figure 26.
 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Band Band Band Band

Four Band Resistor

1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Band Band Band Band

Figure 26.
s

Five band Resistor

s

Six Band resistors

 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
Band Band Band Band Band Band

Figure 26

Resistor Color Code Mnemonic

z
Mnemonic to Remember the Resistor Color Code:

Better Be Right Or Your Great Big Venture Goes Wrong

Resistor Tolerance
The last resistor color band indicates the resistor tolerance. This is commonly gold or silver (or
some other colors as shown above) indicating a tolerance of 5% for gold or 10% for silver.
Sometimes the colored bands are not clearly oriented towards one end. In this case, first identify
the tolerance band and turn the resistor so that this is to the right.

Example 1: Find the value of the resistor below.

Example:

1st 2nd 3rd Band 4th

Band Band Band
brown black brown gold
1 0 101 5%

Solution: s

The value of the resistor

R = 10 X 101 = 10 X 10 = 100Ω ±5%

Tolerance = 100 X 5% = 100 0.05 = 5 Ω

Rmin = 100 - 5 Ω = 95 Ω
Rmax = 100 + 5 Ω = 105 Ω

1st 2nd 3rd 4th Value Rmin Rmax

Band Band Band Band
brown black brown gold 100Ω ±5% 95 Ω 105 Ω

Thus; the resistor has a value of 100 resistor with a 5% tolerance will have a value of
somewhere between 95 and 105, since 5% of 100 is 5.

Example 2: Find the value of the resistor below

Solution:

1st 2nd 3rd 4th Value Rmin Rmax

Band Band Band Band
blue grey red gold 6,800Ω ±5% 6,460 Ω 7,140 Ω

Thus; the resistor value is 6,800  with a 5% tolerance. This resistor will have an ohmic value
between 6,460 and 7,140 ohms.

Example 3: Find the value of the resistor below

Solution:

1st 2nd 3rd 4th Value Rmin Rmax

Band Band Band Band
brown black yellow gold 100,000±10% 99,000 Ω 101,000 Ω

Thus; the resistor value is 100000  with a 10 % tolerance. This resistor will have an ohmic
value between 99,000 to 101,000 ohms.
Homework 1

Read the value base on color code of given 6 different resistors and calculate the tolerance
range values.

1st 2nd 3rd 4th Value Rmin Rmax

Band Band Band Band

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Value Rmin Rmax

Band Band Band Band Band

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Value Rmin Rmax TCP
Band Band Band Band Band Band
 MULTITESTER

Learning objective:

After reading this information sheet, you must be able to:

1. Identify the parts of the multitester,
2. Discuss the function of each part of the multitester.
3. Determine how to measure resistance
4. Determine how to measure voltage
5. Determine how to measure current

The Multitester or multimeter is sometimes called the VOM (voltmeter, ohmmeter,

milliammeter). It is the best instrument that can measure voltage, resistance and current. It is
generally made of two types: the analog and the digital.

PARTS
Parts of OF
the THE
multiMULTITESTER
tester

Meter scale

Pointer Infinite position

Adjusting screw

Zero ohms
Adjust knob
witch

Test probes

Range Selector
switch

FUNCTION OF EACH PARTS OF A MULTITESTER

Meter scale is used to identify the amount of Pointer is a movable part of the multi-tester
voltage current and resistance of the circuit which deflects. It indicates the value of
being measured. electrical quantity that has been measured.
 ererer

Multimeter
scale

Pointer
Test Probe - Serves as the input portion of Ohmmeter Scale - Nonlinear scale where
the ohmmeter. Red test probe becomes reading of the resistance is based. It is usually
positive in some instances, ewhile the black found in the uppermost part of the VOM.
one is negative. Ohmmeter scale

Range Multiplier- The portion of the Zero Ohm Adjustment – It is the portion of the
ohmmeter where the actual reading is being ohmmeter where it is adjusted when the pointer
multiplied. will not point to zero.

s
D
 Zero Position Adjuster - is used to adjust Selector knob/Switch - Serves as the as the
the pointer to zero before testing is stitch for selecting among three measurements
performed in order to gain an accurate voltage, current, and resistance
measurement.

Zero Position
Adjuster

Selector Switch

OHMMETER

Ohmmeter is a measuring instrument used to determine the resistance of a component

or equipment. This instrument is a great help in knowing the actual resistance of the resistors
we use in the two operation sheets.

The commonly used ohmmeter in electro-electrical laboratories now nowadays is

embedded in a multi-function testing instrument called the (Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter ) VOM. For
this discussion the VOM will be used but confined only to the ohmmeter section.

Measuring Resistance

An ohmmeter scale is nonlinear which means the value of one line or calibration may not
be true to other lines. It is therefore proper to assign values to every line for proper and accurate
interpretation

As shown, the scale can be divided

into eight areas where individual
treatment has to be made. Several
mathematical computations will be
involved to show the manner how values
of individual lines are resolved.
1. Compute the value of each line where the pointer has to deflects. The areas involved are:

0 - 2, 10 - 20, 50 – 100, 200 – 300,

2 - 10, 20 - 50, 100 - 200, 300 – 500.

Value of each line = distance / total number of lines

 For 0- 2: For 50-100:
Distance = 2 - 0 =2 Distance = 100 – 50 = 50
Total no. of lines = 10 Total no. of lines = 10
Value of 1 line = 2/10 = 0.2 Value of 1 line = 50/10 = 5.0

For 2-10: For 100 – 200:

Distance = 10-2 =8 Distance = 200-100=100
Total no. of lines = 16 Total no. of lines = 5
Value of 1 line = 8/16 = 0.5 Value of 1 line = 100/5 = 20

For 10-20: For 200-300:

Distance = 20-10 =10 Distance= 300-200=100
Total no. of lines = 10 Total no. of lines = 2
Value of 1 line= 10 /10 = 1 Value of 1 line = 100/2 = 50

For 20 -50: For 300–500:

Distance = 50-20=30 Distance = 500-300=200
Total no. of lines = 15 Total no. of lines= 2
Value of 1 line = 30/15 = 2.0 Value of 1 line = 200/2 = 100

2. Identify the appropriate multiplier to be used. The multiplier can be any of the:

R X 1, R X 10, R X 100, R X 1K, R X 10K and R X 100K

Note: If you have no idea what range to be used, start from the highest multiplier.

3. Calibrate the Multitester.

Steps in calibrating the Multitester.
a. Points the selector switch to the Multiplier R X 1
 b. Short the test probes of the multimeter. The pointer must
point to zero scale because there is nothing to measure.

c. If it is not pointing to zero, we must calibrate it to set to

zero. Locate the zero-ohm adjuster and rotate the knob
until it points to zero.

Note: Calibrate the ohmmeter everytime you change the multiplier.

3. Before connecting an ohmmeter in circuit, it is important to ensure that:

a. There is no voltage across the component (supply disconnected).

b. The component to be measured is not connected in parallel with any other component.
c. The instrument has been set to infinity  with the leads separated.

5. Connect the test probe to the terminals whose resistance is to be measured.

Note: Do not hold both ends of the resistor during measurement. It will result into a wrong value
it is a wrong way of holding It is a correct way of It is a correct way of
the resistor during measuring a resistor. measuring a resistor.
measurement.
 Note: avoid twisting the
pins/terminals of the resistor

Note: If the pointer does not deflect, reduce the multiplier then repeats steps 2 to 5 until the
time when the pointer deflects about the center of the scale.

6. Read the deflection of the pointer then multiply the reading with the selected multiplier.

Example: If the Multiplier points to X10 and the pointer deflects to 26 Ω. The resistance of the
resistor is:

R = 26 X 10 = 260 Ω
Homework 2

Fill in the table from the resistance reading in the figure given the different multiplier.

If the multiplier is: Reading (ohms) 50 DC

RX1
R X 10
R X 1k
R X 10k
R X 100k
 MEASURING VOLTAGE: VOLTMETERS

To measure potential-difference, or voltage, a voltmeter must be connected between

two points at different potentials. In other words, a voltmeter must always be connected in
parallel with the part of the circuit under test.

RANGE CONNECTION POINTER DEFLECTION (READING)

Range = 10 volts

Range = 50 volts
l

Note: The Range is always higher than the voltage to be measured.

AC/DC Voltmeter Range

The scale reading in the AC/DC voltmeter range, depends also on the settings in the
range selector knob.

As shown in the illustration, there are

three scales 0 to 10, 0-50 and 0-250 in
the face of the VOM for different voltage
range. Several mathematical
computations will be involved to show the
manner how values of individual lines are
resolved which depends on ranges.

The scale 0 – 10
Maximum Range Volt/line
0.1 volt 0.01 volt/line
10 volt 1 volt / line
 1000 volt 10 volt/line
The scale 0m - 50
Maximum Range Volt/line
50 volt 1 volt / line

The scale 0 – 250

Maximum range Volt / line
0.25 volt 0.005 volt / line
2.5 volt 0.05 volt / line
250 volt 5 volt / line

Example:

If the range is: Reading (volts)

Range 0.25 V 0.005
Range 2.5V 0.05
Range 10V 0.2V
Range 50V 1V
Range 250V 5V
Range 1000V 20V
Homework 3

Direction: Fill in the table below from the reading on the figure below with the given range.

If the range is: Reading (volts)

Range 0.25 V
Range 2.5V
Range 10V
Range 50V
Range 250V
Range 1000V
 MEASURING CURRENT: AMMETERS

To measure current, the circuit must be broken at the point where we want that
current to be measured, and the ammeter inserted at that point. In other words, an ammeter
must be connected in series with the load under test.
w
RANGE CONNECTION DEFLECTION

l
Note: The Range is always higher than the voltage to be measured.

As shown in the figure, there are three

scales 0 to 10, 0-50 and 0-250 in the face
of the VOM for different ammeter range.
Several mathematical computations will
be involved to show the manner how
values of individual lines are resolved
which depends on ranges.

The scale 0 – 10
Maximum Range mA /line
0.1 mA 0.01 mA/line
10 mA 1 mA / line
10 A 1 A / line

The scale 0 – 250

Maximum range mA / line
2.5 mA 0.05 mA / line

Example:

If the range is: Reading (A)

0.1 mA 0.044 mA
10 mA 4.4 mA
10 A 4.4 A
2.5 mA 1.1 mA
Homework 4:

Direction: Fill in the table below from the reading on the figure below with the given
range.

If the range is: Reading (Ampere) 1000 AC

0.1 mA
10 mA
10 A
2.5 mA