Photochem Photobiology - 2007 - Godar - UV Doses Worldwide

Photochemistry and Photobiology, 2005, 81: 736-749
Invited Review
UV Doses WorldwideTf
Dianne E. Godar*
Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD
Received 24 August 2004; accepted 6 April 2005
ABSTRACT 2000&50000 J/m2 per year (excluding vacation, which can

increase the dose by 30% or more).
UV radiation affects human health. Human exposure to UV
radiation causes a few beneficial health effects like vitamin D3
formation but it causes many detrimental health effects: sunburn, INTRODUCTION
ocular damage, photoaging, immune suppression, DNA damage Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) affects human health (1). It primarily
and skin cancer. In countries with fair-skinned populations, skin causes detrimental health effects: sunburn (2); photoaging (3,4); eye
cancer is the most diagnosed of all cancers. In the United States in damage, especially cataracts (5); immune suppression (6,7); DNA
2002, there were over one million new skin cancer cases. That damage and mutations (8) and skin cancers (9-1 I). However, UV
means one out of every 285 people got skin cancer. Skin cancer of exposure can also affect human health in beneficial ways. It is used to
fair-skinned individuals is increasing at an alarming rate ( 4 4 % treat skin and other diseases, is necessary for vitamin D3 formation
per year) around the world and has now reached so-called (12), possibly lowers hypertension (13,14) and reduces the
“pandemic” proportions. Thus, it is important to know what UV occurrence of some internal cancers such as prostate cancer (15).
doses people around the world get throughout their lives. This The public considers a tan to be the major benefit of UV exposure but
review covers how the outdoor UV doses are weighted for some scientists view a tan, along with sunburn, as a warning that too
different biological effects, the most commonly used measuring much UV exposure and subsequent damage has occurred to the skin.
devices for terrestrial and personal UV doses, the natural and UVR exposure can cause skin cancer (16). Most personal
other effects on terrestrial and personal UV doses, the time people exposures to UVR occur from outdoor activities in the sun;
spend outside, their ambient exposures and the terrestrial and however, some UV exposures can come from the sun through
personal UV doses of adult outdoor and indoor workers as well as windows and from indoor devices that are either for the medical
children and adolescents around the world. Overall, outdoor- treatment of skin disorders ( e g . psoriasis) or for the cosmetic
working adults get about lo%,while indoor-working adults and purpose of tanning (17). The UV waveband regions reaching the
children get about 3% ( 2 4 % ) of the total available annual UV earth’s surface are only ultraviolet-A (UV-A, 320-400 nm) and
(on a horizontal plane). People’s UV doses increase with ultraviolet-B (UV-B, 290-320 nm). The extreme UV (10-120 nm),
increasing altitude and decreasing latitude; most indoor-working far UV (120-200 nm), vacuum UV (< 240 nm) and middle UV
adult Europeans get 10000-20 000 J/m2 per year, Americans get or ultraviolet-C radiation (200-290 nm) waveband regions are
20 000-30 OOO J/m2 per year and Australians are estimated to get screened out by the oxygen in the atmosphere; most of the UV-B is
screened out by the stratospheric ozone layer (18-20). The UV-B
wavelengths have the most carcinogenic potential according to the
VPosted on the website on 7 April 2005 photocarcinogenesis action spectrum (21,22) accepted by the
*To whom correspondence should he addressed: Center for Devices and Commission Internationale de 1’Eclairage (CIE). Nonmelanoma
Radiological Health, Food and Drug Administration, 9200 Corporate skin cancers (NMSC), basal cell carcinomas (BCC) and squamous
Boulevard (HFZ-120), Rockville, MD 20850, USA. Fax: 301-796-9826;
cell carcinomas (SCC) are almost exclusively caused by cumula-
e-mail: [email protected]
?This paper is dedicated to the memory of Frederick Urhach, M.D., tive UV exposure, while cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM)
a renowned dermatologist and pioneering photobiologist; he won the has one or more additional contributing factors: sunburns, number
prestigious Finsen Medal of the Association of Internationale de Pho- of nevi, genetic background, chemical exposure or other factors.
tobiologie and the Lifetime Achievement Award of the American Society Skin cancers are a worldwide problem for fair-skinned indi-
for Photobiology (deceased July 2004 at the age of 82).
Abbreviations: BCC, basal cell carcinoma; CIE, Commission Internationale viduals. The incidence of skin cancers among fair-skinned in-
de 1’Eclairage; CMM, cutaneous malignant melanoma; EPA, Environ- dividuals has been increasing by 4 4 % every year (23,24). The
mental Protection Agency; MED, minimal erythemal dose; NHAPS, incidence of NMSC correlates with the annual erythemally
National Human Activity Pattern Survey; NMSC, nonmelanoma skin weighted UV doses fair-skinned people get in different parts of
cancer; R-B, Robertson-Berger; SCC, squamous cell carcinoma; SED,
standard erythema1dose; SPF, sun protection factor; UV-A, ultraviolet-A
the world: about 1100/million per year (25) with 12.5 kJ/m2 per
radiation (320-400 nm); UV-A1, ultraviolet-A1 radiation (34WOO nm); year in the Netherlands (26), about 2300/million per year (27) with
UV-B, ultraviolet-B radiation (290-320 nm); UVR, ultraviolet radiation. 25 H/m2 per year in the United States (28) and about 8200/million
0 2005 American Society for Photobiology 0031-8655/05 per year (29) with about 37 kJ/m2 per year in Australia (30-32). In
736
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Photochemistry and Photobiology, 2005, 81 737
-
0
10
a
- Erythema
1996, further increased to one out of 74 in 2000, and reached one
out of 67 in the year 2003 (34,35).
.-0m
-0- 0.1
4
I
- NMSC
Because skin cancer in fair-skinned populations has now reached
so-called “pandemic” proportions, it is important to know what
UV doses people around the world get throughout their lives. This
.2g review is by no means an exhaustive presentation of all the UV
* * 0.01 exposure data that is available, but rather covers most outdoor,
erythemally weighted UV doses (for indoor tanning see reference
.i!a Z i 0.001
Y
17). However, to understand how these UV doses are ultimately
obtained, this review also includes the most common action spectra
0.0001 used to weight the different biological effects, the most common
u measuring devices of terrestrial and personal UV doses, the natural
280 320 360 400 and other effects on the available terrestrial and personal UV doses,
the time people spend outside, their personal ambient exposures
Wavelength (nm) and finally the terrestrial and personal erythemally weighted UV
doses of adult indoor and outdoor workers as well as of children
and adolescents around the world.
b
10
1 WEIGHTING BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS:
r
‘E 0.1 ACTION SPECTRA

s
(v 0.01 UVR can be measured directly in W/m2 for every wavelength,
E which can then be weighted for different biological effects if an
3 0.001 action spectrum exists for that endpoint. To obtain the “effective”
0.0001 W/m2 one simply multiplies the emission spectrum of a given
source, wavelength by wavelength, by the appropriate biological
0.00001
action spectrum. Once weighted, or convoluted, the area under the
280 300 320 340 360 380 400 resulting curve is integrated to get the total contribution toward that
biological effect in W/m2. To get the “effective” UV dose one
Wavelength (nm)
1
simply multiplies the effective W/m2 by the number of seconds of
E
0.04
0.03
A
............. .............................
I w h e m a
exposure to that particular source and this is called the effective
dose for only that biological endpoint. The most common action
spectra used for weighting biological effects are the CIE erythema1
action spectrum (36) and the CIE photocarcinogenesis action
spectrum (19,20) shown in Fig. la. However, unweighted UV
readings can be convoluted by other action spectra: tanning or
5E 0.02 ....~~......
..... ..........................
melanogenesis (37), SCC (19,20,38,39), DNA damage (40,411,
immune suppression (42,43), photoaging (44,45), ocular damage
5 0.01 (46) and previtamin D3 production (47). All of these action spectra
show that UV-B is primarily responsible for most biological effects.
0 UV-A also contributes toward these effects, but usually to a lesser
degree. UV-B appears to be three to four orders of magnitude more
280 300 320 340 360 380 400 effective than UV-A but is really only one order of magnitude more
effective after weighting by the sun’s emission spectrum because
Wavelength (nm)
there is much more UV-A than UV-B reaching the earth’s surface.
Figure la. Action spectra for erythema and NMSC (SCC) for terrestrial For example, although UV-A contributes toward erythema, tanning
wavelengths. and SCC (21,22,36,37), it is about three to 10 times less effective
Figure lb. Standard CIE air mass 1 (AM1) solar spectral irradiance than UV-B after convoluting by the solar spectrum. But this is not
measured at sea level at noon on a clear day in July. always the case, because another action spectrum suggests that solar
Figure lc. Erythema or photocarcinogenesis (SCC) action spectra (Fig. la) UV-A may contribute almost as much as solar UV-B toward the
multiplied by the solar spectral irradiance (Fig. lb). induction of melanoma in a fish model (48). However, this action
spectrum can only be used to calculate the “worst-case” scenario
2002 there were over one million new cases of nonmelanoma and for the influence of UV-A toward human melanoma.
melanoma skin cancers in the United States (33). That means one UV-A is also known to affect different biological endpoints than
out of every 285 people got a new skin cancer in the United States those affected by UV-B. For example, UV-A contributes towards
in one year. CMM has been increasing in fair-skinned individuals photoaging but mainly causes skin sagging rather than wrinkling,
at a logarithmic rate over the past seven decades (F. Urbach, which is largely caused by UV-B (4). In addition, different cell
personal communication). It has the highest fatality rate among the death mechanisms are induced by UV-A1 (340400 nm) and
skin cancers because it is very invasive and metastasizes to other UV-B (49-55). Another example is UV-A1 phototherapy, which
organs. The risk for an American getting CMM during their decreases systemic lupus erythematosus symptoms (56,57), where-
lifetime was one out of 250 in 1980, increased to one out of 87 in as UV-B increases them. Furthermore, because UV-A induces
738 Dianne E. Godar
collagenases (58) and UV-B does not, UV-A is used to treat sclero- 40” (64). R-B meters are also sensitive to temperature changes for
derma (59). The different wavelength regions can have similar or wavelengths below 320 nm, deviating up to 6% for every 10°C
opposite effects, which are not only important in phototherapeutic change in sensor temperature (65). They are fairly reliable for long-
approaches, but are also important when assessing the risks term field studies, showing little drift over long periods of time,
associated with UV exposure by weighting the different biological although some drift was detected over a 10-year period (65, 66).
effects using action spectra. These meters report the data in “R-B counts” that have to be
When weighting data using action spectra it is important to calibrated and normalized in order to be converted into erythemally
recognize that the interaction between wavelength regions, i.e. UV- effective J/m’ doses. An R-B count was originally determined to
A and UV-B, is not incorporated into the calculations because the be equivalent to 0.2 J/m2, extrapolated from zenith angles greater
data were originally collected at discrete wavelength intervals. The than 34” and relative to 297 nm (64). However, since then, different
interaction between UV-A and UV-B can change the outcome of values for R-B counts have been published, ranging from 0.16
the data because UV-A could negate or enhance the effects of UV- J/m2 per count (67) to 0.357 J/m2 per count (68). One study in
B and vice versa. Another caveat concerns the model used to obtain New Zealand calibrated the R-B meters using spectroradiometers,
the action spectrum. For example, a fish or a mouse is not a man, normalized the data to 300 nm, and found that one R-B count was
and they not only have different skin thicknesses, but also have equivalent to 0.25 2 0.02 J/m2 (69).
different amounts and types of skin chromophores. Although skin The U.S. Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the Na-
thickness and chromophore amounts and differences between the tional Park Service, uses R-B meters to monitor terrestrial UVR
species can be mathematically corrected using transmission data throughout the United States (70).
(22), the possible different biological outcomes from their presence In Europe, the European Light Dosimeter Network monitors
during irradiation cannot be reconciled. Only experiments on UVR and photosynthetically active radiation (400-700 nm) using
humans can truly answer this question, and they are unethical. R-B meters (71). The network has about 33 stations with 40
Figure la shows the CIE erythemal and photocarcinogenesis broadband instruments, which covers all of Europe and some
action spectra from 288 to 400 nm. If the area under both curves is locations around the world, including Argentina, Brazil, Egypt,
integrated, a ratio close to unity is obtained (1.03). But once the India, Israel, Japan and New Zealand.
solar irradiance (Fig. lb) is multiplied by the erythemal or SCC In New Zealand, the Meteorological Service has used R-B
action spectrum, a weighting difference is clearly seen (Fig. lc). If meters to monitor solar UVR since 1981 but the full potential of
one now integrates the area under both curves and forms a ratio, one those readings cannot be exploited because calibration uncertain-
finds the ratio of SCC to erythema is actually 2.2 at noon. So, the ties exist (69).
effective dose toward SCC is about 2.08 times the effective dose In Australia, the Australian Radiation Laboratory set up a net-
toward one minimum erythemal dose (MED) from 1O:OO A.M. to work of modified R-B meters in the early 1980s to monitor solar
4:OO P.M. (D. E. Godar, unpublished calculations), but note that this UVR at 16 sites in Australia and four in Antarctica (72,73).
ratio will change throughout the day and year as the ratio of UV-B
to UV-A changes. This is an important point to remember because Spectroradiometers
most of the terrestrial and personal UV doses are weighted by the An example of a spectroradiometer commonly used to monitor
erythemal action spectrum. Therefore, unless specified otherwise, the changes in UVR reaching the earth’s surface is the Brewer
all the UV doses in this review are erythemally weighted UV doses. spectroradiometer (Kipp and Zonen Instruments, Inc., Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada). Brewer spectroradiometers are automated
MEASURING TERRESTRIAL UV DOSES instruments that not only measure the amount of UVR that reaches
the earth’s surface but also infers the total column of ozone in the
Although many devices and modifications of devices exist today, atmosphere (in Dobson units). They measure full-sky, spectrally
the two most commonly used for terrestrial measurements are resolved solar radiation in the UV-B and UV-A waveband regions.
radiometers and spectroradiometers. The former makes broadband Brewers spectrally resolve UVR between 286.5 and 363 nm
measurements, while the latter makes spectrally resolved measure- wavelengths, usually measuring 0.5 nm wavelength increments.
ments. In addition, portable data-loggers and handheld monitors Each reading is stored separately and not integrated over the entire
are available. An example of a handheld monitor is the Model 500- day, so that changes throughout the day can be detected.
C (National Biological Corporation, Twinsburg, OH), which was The consolidated daily readings are weighted by the erythemal
used by Rigel et al. (60) to measure changes in UVR with altitude action spectrum.
and latitude. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had a pro-
gram operating a network of Brewer MKIV spectroradiometers
Radiometers
monitoring UVR throughout the United States, with 14 sites in
An example of a radiometer commonly used to monitor changes in national parks and seven in urban areas (74). The readings were
the UVR reaching the earth’s surface is the Robertson-Berger taken 20-30 times during the daylight hours for every day of the
meter (R-B meter) (61). R-B meters measure UVR at discrete year and the spectroradiometers were in operation from the early
wavelength intervals and are time-integrating radiometers that 1990s to 2004.
compound the readings taken during the day into one represen-
tative daily graph (62). The total amount of UVR reaching the
earth’s surface is not measured by these meters, but rather only the
MEASURING PERSONAL UV DOSES
“burning” UV-B rays, 290-330 nm (63). Thus, these meters have Surveys, questionnaires and time diary reports can give the time
a spectral sensitivity similar to the human erythemal response. people spend outside during the day, which can be converted into
However, they deviate from the human erythemal action spectrum a personal ambient exposure (the fraction of the total available
for wavelengths greater than 300 nm and solar zenith angles below UVR that a person gets relative to a horizontal plane) and then into
a personal UV dose, if the terrestrial UV doses are known for that terrestrial UV dose. The doses can be expressed as J/m2, as MED
time frame. On the other hand, people’s ambient exposures can be (20S250 J/m2 for skin type 11) or as standard erythemal dose
measured with badges, using polysulphone or spore-containing (SED; 100 J/m2).
biofilms or portable data-loggers. An example of a portable data- Most studies have used polysulphone film badges to measure
logger is the “SunsaverTM”wristband, which gives time-stamped people’s outdoor UV exposures. Polysulphone film (P1700, Union
readings every 10 minutes (with 75 compounded readings). The Carbide Corporation, Somerset, NJ) is mounted as a 40-pm-thick
SunsaverTMwristband houses a digital watch, a data-logger and sheet in standard 35-mm transparency mounts and worn as a badge.
a silicon carbide photodiode (model JECFl-IDE; Laser Compo- These badges are usually placed on the lapel site (83) but they can
nents, Olching, Germany) as the sensor, which has a spectral also be placed on various parts of the body to get doses to those
response similar to the CIE erythemal action spectrum (75). sites. Polysulphone film badges are most responsive to wavelengths
below 315 nm and have sensitivity close to the human erythemal
Surveys, questionnaires, and time diary reports response. The change in optical absorbance is measured using
a spectrophotometer at 330 nm, where the change in absorbance of
There have been large-scale (>200 people) and small-scale (<200
the film is proportional to the erythemal UV exposure.
people) surveys on time spent outdoors and exposure to the sun.
One type of biofilm used to measure personal UV exposures is
Usually telephone surveys are used, but sometimes written surveys
made using spores from Bacillus subtilis (84). The spores are
are given. Surveys are based on either long-term, e.g. years to
isolated and immobilized in agarose on a biofilm. These spores
decades, or short-term, e g . weeks to months (76, 77), memory
have an action spectrum for inactivation of germination similar to
recall. Long-term memory recall is not as reliable as short-term
the absorption spectrum of DNA and can be modified to reflect the
memory recall. In addition, people’s perceptions of their tendencies
erythemal response of human skin by using appropriate filters.
to bum and their abilites to tan does not agree with their Fitzpatrick
Each badge has its own “dark control” and both the dark control
skin types (78). An example of a large survey (about 10000
and the exposed parts of the badge are incubated in a nutrient broth
people) based on short-term memory recall is the EPA’s National
for about 4 h to allow spore germination and synthesis of proteins.
Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS). NHAPS used telephone
After staining with Coomassie blue for the presence of proteins, the
surveys based on previous-day recall to obtain minute-by-minute
absorbance at 590 nm is measured using a spectrophotometer.
activity and location data for 24 h, every day of the year for 2
Some studies used biofilms to measure UV exposures in extreme
years. From that survey, only the outdoor daylight data was ex-
conditions: sports (85,86), high elevations (87), extremely cold
tracted and used to get the UV doses of Americans (28).
regions like Antarctica (88) and in a spacecraft orbiting around the
Questionnaires are usually based on long-term memory recall,
earth (89). The UV-B passing through car windows was also tested
but some have been based on shorter terms: weeks, months or
but, as expected, only UV-A passed through the glass (90). This is
seasons. To check their accuracy, time diary reports can be kept
also true for windows in buildings (Godar et al., unpublished
and compared to questionnaires (79). Time diary reports are kept
results).
throughout the day by the person and/or by a child’s parent or
guardian who keeps track of when the child is actually outside and
the length of time they spend outdoors. Time diary reports correlate
well with actual UVR measurements of people (75, 80). However,
NATURAL AND OTHER EFFECTS ON
time diary reports and telephone surveys, aided by badge
TERRESTRIAL UVR
measurements of people’s ambient UV doses, showed a poor cor- Solar zenith angle, time of day, season, and hemisphere
relation between actual UV exposures and people’s short-term
At any given latitude and altitude, the solar zenith angle has the
memory recall of their previous week’s outdoor activities (81).
most profound effect on the terrestrial UV-B readings (91). The
Besides actual measurements, time diary reports and previous-
solar zenith angle changes with time of day and season; the smaller
day recall surveys are the most reliable approaches for ultimately
the zenith angle (higher the sun appears in the sky) the more UV-B
determining people’s UV doses. However, to assure accuracy,
reaches the earth’s surface because there is less air and ozone for it
children 10 years or younger must be supported by parental or
to pass through.
caretaker observations either to keep their time diary reports for
Because the sun’s zenith angle changes throughout the day, UV
them or to confirm as many of the child’s outdoor activities as
intensity also changes; UV-B changes much more dramatically
possible (82).
than does UV-A because UV-B is readily absorbed and reflected
by the clouds and atmosphere and is attenuated at dawn and dusk
Badges
when a thicker layer of ozone and air has to be penetrated. UV-B is
The two common types of badges used to measure people’s most intense from 11:OO A.M. to 1:00 P.M. all year long (92).
ambient UV exposures are polysulphone film badges (83) and Other than time of day, seasons have the most profound effect on
spore-containing biofilms (84). Polysulphone film badges and the terrestrial UV readings: summer>spring>fall>winter. For
biofilms can be calibrated using a variety of UV sources, but the example, the erythemal dose during the winter in the contiguous
best calibration sources are broad-spectrum sources that emit ra- United States can be anywhere from 44000 J/m2 (Boston,
diation similar to the sun, i.e. solar simulators. To obtain personal Massachusetts) to 102 000 J/m2 (Riverside, California), and in
ambient exposures, a film badge or biofilm is left out on a rooftop the summer from 272 000 J/m2 (Boston) to 393 000 J/m2 (Riverside)
with a full-sky view all day to get the total available outdoor UV (28). The summer seasonal doses can exceed the winter seasonal
irradiance. The UV exposure a person gets is expressed as the doses by four to six times or more.
fraction of that total available UVR, and this value is called their The earth’s distance from the sun, especially during the summer,
personal ambient exposure. Their personal ambient exposure can also affects the intensity of UV-B reaching the surface. The
be converted into a personal dose by multiplying by the available Northern Hemisphere is 1.7% farther away from the sun in the
740 Dianne E. Godar
Table la. Latitude effects on terrestrial UV radiation
Change in % increase
Latitude Altitude J/m2 J/m2 per year UV/"N
Northern Hemisphere Sites (ON) (km) per year per "N decrease
~ ~ ~
Godar er a1 (28) East Coast Atlanta, GA 33.65 0.315 743 030* 17490 3
Boston, MA 42.37 <O.l 590514
Godar et a1 (28) West Coast Riverside, CA 33.93 <o. 1 967 926 36 474 6.8
Bozeman, MT 45.78 1.36 535711*
Rigel et ui (60) East Coast Orlando, FL 28.54 <o. I - - 3
New York 40.71 <o. 1
Japan
Ono ( 102,i 03) Tsukuba 36 - - - 3.6
Sapporo 43
Finland
Jokela er al. (104) Helsinki 60.2 - 587 200 18317 4.2
Saariselka 68.4 437 000
Change in % increase
Latitude Altitude J/m2 J/m2 per year UV/"S
Southern Hemisphere Sites (OS) (km) per year per "S decrease
Roy et ai.(73) East Coast Sydney 33.9 (0.1 950 200 25 214 3.5
Hobart 42.8 0.11 725 797*
New Zealand (clear-sky)
McKenzie et a!. (93) Leigh 36.3 <o. 1 1281 150 34 456 3.5
Lauder 45.0 0.369 98 I 379*
New Zealand (all weather)
McKenzie et al. (93) Leigh 36.3 <o. 1 923 450 22 359 3.1
Lauder 45.0 0.369 728 923*
*Altitude corrected values: 3.8%, 4% and 2.1% were used to adjust the data of Godar et al., Roy et al. and McKenzie et al., respectively,
summer than the Southern Hemisphere is and, as a result, Zealand apparently increased by about 20% (91). From 1976 to
represents a 3.5% variation in distance that results in about a 7% 1997, an increase in annual UV-B radiation of about 6.1% 2 2.9%
decrease in UV-B intensity (73). per decade was noted from all-weather R-B meter readings in
Belsk, Poland (67). Using the all-weather averaged UV readings
Clouds, particulate matter/air pollution and ozone from R-B meters in the United States from 1974-1979 (68) and
from Brewer spectroradiometers in the United States from 1996-
Cloud cover can reduce UV-B values 25-30% (93) but reflections
1998 (28), after correcting for altitude and latitude differences
off the edges of cumulus clouds near the solar disk can increase
between the four quadrant sites, one can calculate an average
UV-B values 25-30% (94). However, the decrease caused by
increase in UV-B radiation of about 6% (?5%) per decade. A
clouds blocking the sun is rarely compensated for by the increase
decrease of 1% in the total column of ozone can result in a 2%
in UV-B reflected off cumulus clouds near the solar disk. The mean
reduction in UV-B radiation by clouds is usually 15-30% (91). (1.25-3%) increase in UV-B radiation (97,98) and a 2.5-2.7%
Particulate matter or air pollution can reduce the UV-B radiation increase in the incidence of NMSC (for the U.S. population: 3.5%
SCC, 2% BCC and 2.5% NMSC) (19,99). Cloud cover, climate,
reaching the earth's surface because particles absorb, scatter and
aerosols and particulate matter make it difficult to know exactly
reflect the shorter wavelengths much more than they affect longer
how much stratospheric ozone depletion has occurred over the
wavelengths. A famous example of apparent decreases in terrestrial
decades ( I 8,100,101).
UV-B doses was reported to occur from 1974 to 1985 in the United
States; these readings were actually caused by an increase in air
pollution from airports near the R-B meters (68). In reality, the
Latitude effects
stratospheric ozone had slightly decreased during that time. At the
same latitude and altitude, air pollution can cause urban sites to At midlatitudes (28-46") around the world the increase in ery-
have 20-50% lower UV-B readings than nearby rural sites, but themally effective UVR for every degree of latitude toward the
they are usually below 20% (95). equator is between 3% and 3.6% (Table la). At higher latitudes
Stratospheric ozone column differences at different locations or (60-68"), the change is even bigger: 4.2%. The change is greater
on different days can contribute to significant variations in UV-B toward the poles because the ozone layer gets thinner. The readings
readings (96). In New Zealand, differences in stratospheric ozone vary because they were taken with different meters in different
can change the terrestrial UV-B radiation by as much as 10% (93). countries that had varying cloud cover and stratospheric ozone
From 1979 to 2000, the summertime UV-B radiation in New levels.
Photochemistryand Photobiology, 2005,81 741
Table Ib. Altitude effects on terrestrial UV radiation
Change in % decrease
Altitude Latitude J/m2 Jim2 per year UV/300 m
United States Sites (km) (ON) per year per 300 m descent
Godar ef al. (28) Bowman, MT 1.36 45.78 714 308t 27 308 3.8
Boston, MA <0.1 42.37 590514
Scotto et al. (68) Albuquerque, NM 1.51 35.0 703 214 25 194 3.6
Oakland, CA <o. 1 37.7 5764047
McKenzie et al. (105) Mauna Loa, HI 3.4 19.5 - - 2.1 (20.6%)

Lauder, New Zealand 0.4 45.0
Change in % decrease
Altitude Latitude Jimz Jim2 per year UV/300 m
Australia Sites (km) ("9 per year per 300 m descent
?Latitude corrected values: 3% was used to adjust the data of Godar et al. and Scotto et al.
At midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, one can calculate averaged readings between 1974 and 1985 (Albuquerque, NM
a 3% increase in UVRPN decrease (28,60) from the data of Godar compared to Oakland, C A cloud cover 0.44 and 0.48, re-
et al. (28). Rigel et al. (60) measured UVR using a handheld spectively). Comparing Hawaii and New Zealand, McKenzie
monitor on the east coast of the United States, in New York City et al. (105) only got a 2.1% change in UVR/300 m for the same
and in Orlando, Florida, and also got a 3% change in UVWN. In overhead ozone column. The greatest increases occurred at solar
the western United States, there is an increase of 6.8% in UVRPN zenith angles of 60-70" on a clear day. They accounted for surface
decrease in latitude (28). However, note that it is not valid to reflections (albedo) and other artifacts that affect the readings.
compare these western sites because the cloud cover differences In Australia, Robertson (63) got a 4% change in UVR/300 m,
between the southwest and northwest in the United States are quite similar to the U.S. readings (68).
dramatic (0.48 versus >0.6) unlike the northwest and northeast These values are useful for adjusting sites to the same altitude,
where they are very similar (>0.6 cloud cover) (68). In Japan, which is usually sea level.
when similar latitudes as those in the United States are compared,
there is about a 3.6% increase in UVRPN decrease in latitude
(102,103). At higher latitudes in northern Europe, two Finland
sites, one at 60.2"N and the other at 68.4"N, gave a 4.2% increase Longitudinal changes or climate effects
in UVWN decrease (104). The northwestern and northeastern US. sites have very similar
At midlatitudes in the Southern Hemisphere, the all-weather cloud cover (68), making these sites best for finding altitude UVR
annual averages between Sydney (33.9"s) and Hobart (42.8"S), changes because very little longitudinal difference is observed. The
which are about the same distances away from the equator as the northeast and southeast are best for obtaining latitudinal differences
U.S. sites, give a slightly higher value of 3.5% increase in UVRPS in the United States.
decrease (73). In New Zealand, clear-sky data give a value of 3.5% In the United States (28), after correcting for latitude and altitude
increase in UVRPS decrease (93), but the all-weather data give differences between sites, a longitudinal change of 0.126% occurs
a value similar to the United States, or a 3.1% increase in U V W S in the northern United States, whereas a 3 1% increase occurs in the
decrease. The difference between the clear-sky data and the all- southern United States (Table lc), where the cloud covers are very
weather data exemplifies the importance of weather, or cloud different from east to west. However, from the study of Scotto
cover, on the terrestrial UVR readings. et al. (68), from 1974 to 1985 one can calculate a difference of only
These values are needed for adjusting latitude differences 7.37% between the southeast and the southwest.
between sites. In Australia, after correcting for latitude differences between
Sydney (southeast) and Perth (southwest), the longitudinal change
from southeast to southwest is about 22% (73). The summer cloud
Altitude effects
cover in the west is low compared to that in the east, similar to the
The northwestern and northeastem U.S. sites can be compared for pattern observed in the United States.
altitude effects because the cloud cover is very similar (>0.6) (68). Although the total column of ozone is usually thinner in the
From the data of Godar et al. (28) using a 3% increase in UVR for Southern Hemisphere, Sydney, Australia gets about the same
every degree decrease in O N , one can calculate a 3.8% decrease in annual terrestrial UV dose (950200 J/m2 per year) as does
UVR/300 m (or 1000 feet) of descent in elevation from averaged Riverside, California (967926 J/m2 per year), and both sites
readings between 1996 and 1998 (Table lb). From the data of are about the same distance away from the equator. In addition,
Scotto et al. (68), one can calculate a 3.6% decrease in UVR/300 m Berger and Urbach (106) found values within 1% for Melbourne,
of descent in elevation in the southwestern United States from Australia and Oakland, California during an earlier decade. These
742 Dianne E. Godar
Table lc. Longitude (cloud cover) effects on terrestrial UV radiation
J/m2 Change in J/m2 % change/year % increase from

United States Sites Longitude (OW) per year per year per "long per "long east to west
Godar ef al. (28) Boston, MA 71.03 590514 18.5 0.003 1 3 0.126

Bozeman, MT 111.15 591 2571
Godar et al. (28) Atlanta, GA 84.43 743 0301 6860 0.923 31.36
Riverside, CA 118.4 976 0571
Scotto et al. (68) Tallahassee, F'L 84.4 605 357 1182 0.195 7.37
Oakland, CA 122.2 6499881
J/m2 Change in J/m2 % change/year % increase from

Australia Sites Longitude ("E) per year per year per "long per 'long east to west
Roy et al. (73) Sydney &Perth 151.2 1013 3881 6226 0.614 2 1.73
115.83 1233 600
$Latitude- and altitude-corrected values using 3% and 3.8% to correct for latitude and altitude, respectively, for the data of Godar et al., 3% to correct
for latitude for the data of Scotto et al. and 3.5% to correct for latitude for the data of Roy et a!.
observations, once again, exemplify the importance of cloud cover TIME PEOPLE SPEND OUTSIDE
on terrestrial UV readings. DURING THE DAY
In the United States, an indoor-working adult goes outside about
Surface reflections (albedo) 10% of the time during the daylight hours. Ten percent is an
average annual value for all Americans: males and females of all
Surface reflections can increase the terrestrial readings of UVR (see
ages in the north and south (28). Americans spend the most time
Table Id). For example, snow reflects 6 0 4 0 % of the UVR as
outside during the summer (north) and spring (south) and the least
measured from the ground (104), though airborne measurements
time outside during the winter. The percent time an American
show only a 30% reflection (107). Ice can reflect 7-75% (108).
indoor-working adult spends outside ranges from an average of
Gypsum sand reflects up to 25%, whereas desert sand only reflects
3.33% in the winter to 13.3% in the summer. Northern indoor-
about 5% of the incident UVR, similar to water. About 40% of the
working men over 40 spend the most time outside during the
incident UVR can penetrate some water to a depth of 50 cm, or 20
summer: they go outside about 17% of the time during the daylight
inches. Of course, ripples, waves and particles in the water will
hours. American children have similar outdoor times as adults,
alter the amount of UV that penetrates to that depth. A pine forest,
with the youngest children (0-5 years) going out a bit more during
green grass and farmland reflect 2 4 % and black asphalt reflects
the summer or spring (1 14). The males go outside more often than
4-1 1% of the incident UVR.
the females, and the adolescents go outside the least during the day
(28,114).
In England, no difference between boys and girls in either
NATURAL AND OTHER EFFECTS ON primary (9-10 years) or secondary (14-15 years) schools is
PEOPLE'S UV EXPOSURES observed during the school week, but boys go outside more than
The primary reason people do not get all the available terrestrial
UVR when they are outside is that trees provide a lot of shade.
Trees screen out most of the UVR while a person is outside;
however, a person can still get some UVR from reflection even Table Id. Surface UV reflections$
under the complete shade of trees (109). Trees are important in
% reflected % reflected
rural areas; both trees and buildings play important roles in urban Surface UV (ground) UV (air)(l07)
areas. In addition, awnings, umbrellas, porches and other structures
also decrease a person's UV exposure while they are outside. Snow 6040% (104) 30%
Overall, an individual's UV doses are highly dependent on their Ice 7-75% (108) -
personal choices of outdoor activities (1lo). Gypsum sand - 25%
Desert sand - 5%
In the United States, on average, a person gets about 30% of the
Water 5-10% (40% 6%
available terrestrial UVR while they are outside (28). The range is penetrates to (open ocean)
27.6-33.2% for children in the northeastern United States (60). 50 cm) (108)
About the same percentages were found in Australia, where Pine forest - 2%
children get about 32% (20.9-34.6%) of the available UVR while Green grass - 3%
Green or brown farmland - 4%
they are outside (1 1I), and outdoor-working adults are exposed to Blacktop asphalt 4 1 1 % (108) -
about the same extent, 27-36% (112). However, in England, the
children and adolescents only get about 25% of the available UVR §Surface UV reflection vaiues depend on solar zenith angle and surface
while they are outside (1 13). roughness.
Table 2. Personal ambient percent exposure of males and females around the world
Adolescent Adolescent
United Men Women Boys Girls Boys Girls males females
States (>21 (>21 (0-5 (0-5 (6-12 (6-12 (13-19 (13-19
(28) (39"N) years) Years) years) years) years) years) years) years)
South (34"N, annual) 3.6% 2.5% 3.5% 2.8% 3.6% 2.6% 3.3% 1.9%
North (44"N, annual) 3.6% 2.5% 3.4% 2.8% 3.2% 3.1% 2.8% 2.3%
South (34"N, summer) 3.6% 3.2% 3.5% 4.2% 3.6% 2.6% 3.3% 2.9%
North (44'N, summer) 3.9% 3.5% 4.4% 3.1% 3.7% 4.3% 3.2% 2.8%
Indoor Outdoor
workers workers Children Adolescents
United States 3.1% (>21 years) (0-12 years) 3.1% (13-19 years) 2.6%
(28,114)
(34"N, annual)
United States 3.1% (>21 years) 3.1% 2.6%
(28,114)
(44"N, annual)
Netherlands (26,116) 2.5% 7%
(52.5"N, annual)
England (50-55"N) (annual) (117,118) (annual) (118) 10% (summer, 9-10 years) (113) (summer, 14-15 years) (113)
3% ( 2 4 % ) females 6.1%. males 6.9% females 4%, males 4.2%
Denmark (75) 3.1% & 4.2% 6.6% (gardeners) (4-15 years) 4.1% (16-19 years) 4.7%
(55.4I0N, annual) (with vacation) (with vacation) (with vacation)
Sweden (58-60°N, 6% (119) 10% (119) 6.4% (0-5 years) (126)
summer)
Japan (120) 3.1% (9-12 years)
(40"N, annual)
Adult (120) Girls

indoor Adult (120) Boys (111) (111) (3/4
homc outdoor Adult (127) Adolescent (3/4 years & years &
workers yard workers fanners Children Adolescents boys (120) vacation vacation
(summer, (summer, (summer, (121) (121) (summer, included, included,
27.5%) 27.53) 27.5's) (summer) (summer) 27.5's) 21-28"s) 21-28"s)
Australia (21-28's) 4.2% 9.8% 14% 4.1% 4.5% 4.7% 8% 4.9%

(7-12 years) (13-19 years) (15-16 years) (12 years) (12 years)
whole body whole body
girls on the weekends, and adolescents go outside less than exposure by using indoor tanning devices (17,115). Unlike males,
children (1 13). females have a strong seasonal preference for outdoor activities:
In Australia, 12-year-old boys go outside more often during the summer> spring> fall> winter.
day than do girls and this was not only the case for weekends but In Europe, Dutch indoor-working adults have annual ambients
for school days as well (111). of about 2.5% (26) and outdoor-working adults have annual
ambients of about 7% (116). English indoor-working adults have
an annual personal ambient of 3% with a 2 4 % range (117) and
ANNUALANDSEASONALPERSONAL outdoor-working adults have an annual personal ambient of lo%,
AMBIENT UV EXPOSURES OF PEOPLE while English indoor laboratory workers only get about 2% of the
AROUND THE WORLD
available ambient UVR (118). English children 9-10 years have
A personal UV ambient is that fraction of UVR a person gets out summer personal ambients of 6.1% and 6.9% for girls and boys,
of the total available UVR, o n a horizontal plane (see Table 2). respectively, and adolescents 14-15 years have summer personal
In the United States, the average annual personal ambient for all ambients of 4% and 4.2% for girls and boys, respectively (1 13).
people in the north and south is 3.1% (28). In fact, the annual Danish indoor-working adults have annual personal ambients of
personal ambients are 3.1% in the north (44'N) and 3.1% in the 3.1% (like those of Americans and Australians) not including
south (34'N), which shows that latitude is not an important factor. vacation and a 4.2% ambient including vacation (75). The vacation
Men over 40 in the north and south have the highest annual doses can increase the annual indoor-working adult doses by about
personal ambients (4%), which vary from 4% to 5% during all the 30% as found by Thieden et al. (75) and estimated by Godar et al.
seasons, except winter. Adolescents (13-19 years) have lower (1 14). Danish outdoor-working adult gardeners have a 6.6%
personal ambients (2.6%) than do adults or children (3.1%) (114) personal ambient (73, similar to the Dutch (7%). In Sweden,
though some teenagers make up for this decrease in outdoor UV indoor workers and young children (0-5 years) have ambients of
744 Dianne E. Godar
Table 3a. Terrestrial UV doses in the Northern Hemisphere from 1974-1998
Reading J/m2 Altitude

Country/source/years Place (longitude) Latitude Altitude RB or MED per year corrected*
United States/Godar et al. Atlanta, GA (84.43"W) 33.65"N 315 m or 1000 feel 3871 MED 774 103 743 030
(28)/for 1996-1998 Riverside, CA (1 18.4"W) 33.93"N <0.1 km 4840 967 926 967 926
Boston, MA (71.03OW) 42.37"N <0.1 km 2953 590514 590514
Bozeman, MT (111.15"W) 45.78"N I .36 km 3240 648016 535711
United States/Scotto et al. Tallahassee, FL (84.4'W) 30.4"N co.1 km 169 500 RB 605 357 605 357
(68)/for 1974-1 985 El Paso, TX (106.4OW) 31.8"N 1.194 km 21 1600 755 714 647 956
Fort Worth, TX (97.0"W) 32.8'N 0.164 km 163 500 583 214 57 1 792
Albuquerque, NM (106.6"W) 35.0"N 1.51 km 196 900 703 214 576404
Oakland, CA (122.2"W) 37.7'" <0.1 km 149 300 533 214 533 214
Philadelphia, PA (75.2"W) 39.9"N <0.1 km 108400 387 143 387 143
Minneapolis, MN (93.2"W) 44.9"N 0.255 km 104 500 373 214 361 849
Bismarck, ND (100.7"W) 46.8"N 0.502 km 111900 398 929 375 013
United StatesDerger and Mauna Loa, HI 19.5"N 3.38 km 7078 MED 1415 600 844 194
Urbach (106)/for Tallahassee, FL 30.4"N <0.1 km 3825 765 000 765 000
1974-1979 El Paso, TX 3 1.8"N 1.14 km 4889 977 800 844 680
Fort Worth, TX 32.8"N 0.25 km 3583 716600 695 205
Albuquerque, NM 35.O"N 1.51 km 4511 902 200 739 507
Oakland, CA 37.7"N <0.1 km 3426 685 200 685 200
Philadelphia, PA 40.O"N <0.1 km 2441 488 200 488 200
Honey Brook, PA (75"W) 40.1"N 0.21 km 2566 513200 500 330
Des Moines, IA (93"W) 41.5"N 0.29 km 2759 551 800 532 690
Minneapolis, MN 44.9"N 0.25 km 2403 480 600 466 25 1
Bismarck, ND 46.8"N 0.51 km 2609 521 800 490019
AustraliaBerger and Melbourne, Australia (144.58%) 38.0"s <0.1 km 3388 677 600 677 600
Urbach (106)/for
1974-1979
EuropeBerger and Davos, Switzerland (9.49"E) 46.8"N 1.58 km 2436 487 200 395 27 1
Urbach (1 06)/for Belsk-Duzy, Poland (20.49"E) 51.8"N <0.1 km 1521 304 200 304 200
1974-1979
Netherlands/ Leiden (4.5'E) 52.2"N <0.1 km 2240 MED 448 000 448 000
Schothorst et al.
(116)/for 1983
*Altitudes were corrected by bringing the site to sea level using a 3.6% decrease for every 300 m of descent for the data of Berger and Urbach (106)
and Scotto et al. (68) and a 3.8% decrease in UV for every 300 m of descent for the data of Godar et al. (28).
6% and 6.4%, respectively, and outdoor workers have ambients of over time rather than lower. (Compare the slope of the thin line
about 10% (119). with the triangles to the dashed line with the squares in Fig. 2.)
In Asia, Japanese children have an average annual ambient of However, after careful examination of the R-B meters, it was
3.1% (120), exactly like children in the United States. concluded that their positions near airports were responsible for
In Australia, indoor-working adults also have personal ambients the apparent decrease in UVR due to increases in air pollution
of 2 4 % (1 2 1,122) and outdoor-working adults have ambients of over the years.
10-14% (122). Australian primary school children (7-12 years) Notice that dry,arid places with little cloud cover like Riverside,
have about a 4% summer ambient and adolescents (13-19 years) California (U.S. west coast) and, at the same latitude away from
have about a 4.5% summer ambient (121). the equator, Sydney, Australia (east coast), have almost identical
Thus, around the world, excluding vacation, indoor-working terrestrial UV doses. In addition, although New Zealand is closer to
adults and children get about 3% ( 2 4 % ) and outdoor workers get the ozone hole and has a thinner total ozone column on average
about 10% of the annual terrestrial UVR. compared to Australia, it falls on the line along with Australia,
probably because it has higher annual rainfall. On average, the
Southern Hemisphere gets more UVR than does the Northern
ANNUAL TERRESTRIAL UVR DOSES Hemisphere, primarily because it is closer to the sun during
MEASURED WORLDWIDE the summer months, but also because the total ozone column is
For some erythemally weighted terrestrial UV doses in the
usually thinner.
Northern and Southern hemispheres see Tables 3a and 3b,
respectively, and Fig. 2. Note that the effect of altitude was cor-
rected in Fig. 2 (the measured numbers and the altitude corrected
UV DOSES OF ADULT INDOOR AND
numbers are given in Table 3).
The UVR data in the United States from 1974-1979 (106) were
OUTDOOR WORKERS WORLDWIDE
higher than the UVR data from 1974-1985 (68) so at first it ap- See Tables 4a and 4b for the following discussion and note that
peared that the stratospheric ozone levels might be getting higher vacation UV doses are not included unless specified otherwise.
Table 3b. Terrestrial UV doses in the Southern Hemisphere for 1991 and 1994
~
Reading J/m2 per Altitude

Countrylsourcelyears Place (longitude) Latitude Altitude WED) Ye= corrected
Australia/Roy et al. Darwin (130.83"E) 12.49 0 8375 1 675 000 1 675 000
(73)/for 1991 Alice Springs (133.88"E) 23.73 0.608 km 7495 1 499 000 1377481t
Brisbane (153.02"E) 27.5"s <0.1 km 5849 1169800 1169800
Perth (115.83'E) 32.03 <0.1 km 61 18 1 233 600 1 233 600
Sydney (151.2"E) 33.93 0 475 1 950 200 950 200
Melbourne (14S"E) 37.8"s 0.114 km 4364 872 800 8595331
Hobart (147.33"E) 42.83 0.110 km 3683 736 600 725 797t
New Zealand/McKenzie Leigh (174.82"E) 36.53 0 - 923 450 923 4.50
et al. (93)/for 1994 Lauder (169.67"E) 45.03 0.369 km - 748 250 728 9237
On average, people living in the contiguous United States get and outdoor workers can be made by knowing their personal
about 25000 J/m2 of erythemally weighted UVR per year not ambients (3% and lo%, respectively), and by knowing the annual
including vacation or about 33000 J/m2 per year including terrestrial UV doses in Australia (Table 3b). From the data in Table
a conservative continental U.S. vacation (7800 J/m2 per year). 3b, we can estimate the UV doses an indoor-working adult should
Men get more UVR than women do in both the north and south, get in Townsville (19"s; 45000 J/m2 per year), Sydney (33.9"s;
and men over 40 get the highest UV doses compared to any other 28 500 J/m2 per year) and Melbourne, Australia (44"s; 26 000 J/m2
age group. Unlike men, women go outside to about the same extent per year), not including vacation. Using the same approach, we can
throughout their lives (see Table 4a). Based on an average personal estimate the doses of an Australian outdoor-working adult (see
ambient of 10% for outdoor workers in other countries and the Table 3b). If a conservative vacation is included, doses are usually
terrestrial U.S. doses (see Fig. 2), the average American outdoor at least 30% higher.
worker (39'N) is estimated to get about 75 kJ/m2 per year, not
including a vacation.
In Europe, Dutch indoor workers at 52.5"N get 13 800 J/m2 per UV DOSES OF CHILDREN AND
year (26), Danish indoor workers at 55"N get 13 000 J/m2 per year ADOLESCENTS WORLDWIDE
(75) and Swedish indoor workers at 60"N only get about 10000
J/m2 per year (1 19). Depending on their jobs, outdoor workers can Few studies actually measured the UV doses of very young
get two to 10 times the UV dose that indoor workers get and they children under the age of five using any sort of personal monitoring
also display a similar latitudinal pattern (see Tables 4a and 4b). devices. However, a couple of studies in Australia measured the
Because indoor workers around the world all have about a 3% doses of infants and very young children (30,31). Moise et al. (30)
personal ambient, they have increasing UV doses with decreasing found 1-year-old infants get 8400 J/m2 per year and 2.5-year-old
latitude as shown in Fig. 3. Thus, estimates for Australian indoor children get about 39400 J/m2 per year (31). In another study by
Moise et al. (32) about the same doses were observed for 13-14-
year-old teenagers: they get 36 680 J/m2 per year. From the data in
Fig. 3 and assuming that Australian children have about the same
2000000 ambients as Japanese and American children (3.1%), one can
I
I .*
o Europe 1974.1983
US 1974-1979
A US1974-1985
estimate Australian children's doses to be about 37000 J/m2 per
year, almost exactly that measured by Moise et al. (30-32).
1 \
. + us1996-1998 People's outdoor behavioral patterns are somewhat subject to
I y\.
.\.
1500000 0 Australia 1991 cultural changes, so that children and adolescents are evidently
E( New Zealand 1994 now going out less today than in previous generations. Now young
Linear (US 1974-1979)
adults get about the same UV doses as adults (Table 4). Children in
-Linear (US 1974-1985)
TI
0 1000000 - -Linear (US 1996-1998) the United States and Denmark are now getting about the same
c
r
.-m - - Linear (Australia 1991) doses as adults (28,75,114,123,124). This situation is apparently
s-h different than in previous generations, when children and
- -
adolescents were thought to go out about three times more than
500000 adults (125). Children now go outside less and have personal
E
c ambients and doses similar to adults, so that they now get less than
5
W 25% of their lifetime UV dose by the age of 18 (123,124). In fact,
I I
a person gets about 25% of their lifetime UV dose for every two
0
decades of life, assuming they live to be about 80 (Fig. 4).
Thus, the new public message should be, "Start young, but
continue to practice good UV protection throughout your life." In
the United States, the Public Health Service recommends that
people avoid the sun from 1O:OO A . M . 4 0 0 P.M., seek shade
746 Dianne E. Godar
Table 4a. UV doses of males and females in the Northern Hemisphere in J/m2 per year (excludes vacation doses, unless specified)
~~
Men Men Men Women Women Women

United States (39'N) (28) 2240 years 41-59 years 60-t years 22-40 years 41-59 years 60+ years
South (34"N) 26 000 35 000 34 000 21 000 26 000 25 000

North (44"N) 18000 28 000 24 000 16000 19000 21 000
Boys Boys Boys Girls Girls Girls

United States (39"N) (114) 0-5 years 6-12 years 13-19 years 0-5 years 6-12 years 13-19 years
South (34"N) 33 000 32 000 29 000 28 000 24 000 20 000

North (44"N) 24 000 21 000 18000 18000 22 000 15 000
Indoor workers Outdoor workers Children Adolescents
United States (34"N) (28) 28 000 87 102* (0-12 years) 29000 (13-19 years) 25000
United States (44"N) (28) 21 000. 61 927* 21 000 17 000
Netherlands (52.2"N) (26) 13800 (69 MED) 30000 (150 MED)
Denmark (55.41"N) (75) 13200 (with vacation) 22 400 gardeners ( 6 1 5 years) (16-19 years)
14700 (with vacation) 18 900 (with vacation)
Sweden (60"N) (119) 10000 20 00&60,000
*Estimates based on 10% personal ambients for outdoor workers and averaged UV terrestrial doses for the United States (1996-1998) from Table 3a.
whenever possible and use UV protection like sunscreens (SPF 15 Around the world with few exceptions males usually go out more
or higher), hats (especially broad-brimmed), sunglasses and than females, have higher personal ambients, get higher annual UV
protective clothing. doses and consequently have higher rates of skin cancer than do
females. Excluding vacation, indoor-working adults and children
around the world get about 3% (?1%) of the available annual
CONCLUSIONS terrestrial UVR, while outdoor-working adults get an average of
10% (6.6-17.7%), ranging from two to nine times what indoor
For the public, one established benefit of UV-B exposure is the workers get. Children now get similar outdoor UV doses as indoor-
formation of vitamin D3 in the skin, but there are many established working adults: teenagers can get the lowest outdoor UV doses,
risks: sunburn, photoaging, DNA damage, mutations, immune while men over 40 can get the highest UV doses. Most people get
suppression, eye damage and skin cancers. Many factors influence about 25% of their lifetime UV dose for every two decades of life,
the UVR reaching the earth's surface: solar zenith angle, season, assuming they live to be about 80.
time of day, hemisphere, latitude, altitude, clouds, air pollution,
surface reflections and stratospheric ozone. The major factors Acknowledgements-The author would like to acknowledge Dr. Frederick
influencing a person's UV dose, besides avoidance (staying Urbach, M.D. and Professor Jan van der Leun, Ph.D. for critically re-
indoors), is everything mentioned above, but especially shade viewing this manuscript prior to submission. In addition, I would like to
acknowledge Thomas A. Fuchs for literature and other online searches,
from trees and shade or protection from buildings, awnings, and Steven Wengraitis and Dr. David Sliney for providing helpful infor-
umbrellas and other sources (e.g. clothing, hats and sunscreens). mation.
Table 4b. UV doses of males and females in the Southern Hemisphere

in J/m2 per year (excluding vacation doses)
Australia Indoor workers Outdoor workers

~ ~~
(19"S)t 45 000 150000

(34"S)t 29 000 95 000
(43"S)t 22 000 74 000
Infants Children Teenagers

(30, 31) (30, 31) (32)
1 year 2.5 years 13-14 years
19's Townsville 14 600 32 850 36 680 0 20 40 60 80

19"s 8 400 39 400
Degrees (N or S)
?Estimates based on 3% personal ambient for indoor workers and 10% Figure 3. Indoor-working adults' annual erythemally weighted UV doses
personal ambients for outdoor workers and UV terrestrial doses in in the Northern Hemisphere and one estimate in the Southern Hemisphere
Table 3b or extrapolated from Fig. 2. (Townsville, Australia at 19"s).
* YY 19. de Gruijl, F. R. and J. C. van der Leun (1993) Influence of ozone

Q, depletion on the incidence of skin cancer. In Environmental UV
u)
Photobiology (Edited by A. R. Young, L. 0. Bjorn, J. Moan and W.
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C wavelength dependency of ultraviolet carcinogenesis in humans and
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i
P
Health Phys. 67, 319-325.
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Photochemistry and Photobiology, 2005, 81: 736-749

Received 24 August 2004; accepted 6 April 2005

ABSTRACT 2000&50000 J/m2 per year (excluding vacation, which can

‘E 0.1 ACTION SPECTRA

Table la. Latitude effects on terrestrial UV radiation

Table Ib. Altitude effects on terrestrial UV radiation

McKenzie et al. (105) Mauna Loa, HI 3.4 19.5 - - 2.1 (20.6%)

Table lc. Longitude (cloud cover) effects on terrestrial UV radiation

J/m2 Change in J/m2 % change/year % increase from

Godar ef al. (28) Boston, MA 71.03 590514 18.5 0.003 1 3 0.126

J/m2 Change in J/m2 % change/year % increase from

Adult (120) Girls

Australia (21-28's) 4.2% 9.8% 14% 4.1% 4.5% 4.7% 8% 4.9%

Table 3a. Terrestrial UV doses in the Northern Hemisphere from 1974-1998

Reading J/m2 Altitude

Reading J/m2 per Altitude

Men Men Men Women Women Women

South (34"N) 26 000 35 000 34 000 21 000 26 000 25 000

Boys Boys Boys Girls Girls Girls

South (34"N) 33 000 32 000 29 000 28 000 24 000 20 000

Indoor workers Outdoor workers Children Adolescents

Table 4b. UV doses of males and females in the Southern Hemisphere

Australia Indoor workers Outdoor workers

(19"S)t 45 000 150000

Infants Children Teenagers

19's Townsville 14 600 32 850 36 680 0 20 40 60 80

* YY 19. de Gruijl, F. R. and J. C. van der Leun (1993) Influence of ozone

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