2.3.

Wireless Transmission

Modern wireless digital communication began in the Hawaiian Islands, where large chunks of Pacific Ocean
separated the users and the telephone system was inadequate.

2.3.1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum

When electrons move, they create electromagnetic waves that can propagate through free space. The number of
oscillation per second of an electromagnetic wave is called its frequency, f, and measured in hertz (Hz). The distance
of two consecutive maxima is called wavelength and universally designated by l (lambda).

By attaching an antenna of the appropriate size to an electrical circuit, the electromagnetic waves can be broadcasted
efficiently and received by a receiver some distance away. All wireless communication is based on this principle.

In vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed, usually called the speed of light, c, approximately 3 x
108 m/sec. In copper or fiber the speed slows to about 2/3 of this value and becomes slightly frequency dependent.

The fundamental relation between f, l, and c (in vacuum) is

lf = c

For example: 1-MHz waves are about 300 m long and 1-cm waves have a frequency of 30 GHz.

Fig. 2-11. The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.

The electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Fig. 2-11. The radio, microwave, infrared, and visible light portions of the
spectrum can all be used for transmitting information by modulating the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the wave.
Ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays would be even better, due to their higher frequencies, but they are hard to
produce and modulate, do not propagate well through buildings, and are dangerous to living things.

LF, MF, ... are official ITU (International Telecommunication Union) names and are based on wavelengths.

The amount of information that an electromagnetic wave can carry is related to its bandwidth. With current
technology, it is possible to encode a few bits per Hertz at low frequencies, but often as many as 40 under certain
conditions at high frequencies, so a cable with 500 MHz bandwidth can carry several gigabits/sec.

There are national and international agreement about who gets to use which frequencies. World-wide, it is an agency
of ITU-R (WARC), in US the work is done by FCC (Federal Communication Commission).
Most transmissions use a narrow frequency band ((f/f<<1)to get the best reception (many watts/Hz). However, there
are some exception from this rule (i.e. spread spectrum popular in military communications).

2.3.2. Radio Transmission

Radio Waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances, and penetrate building easily, so they are widely used for
communications, both indoors and outdoors. They are also omnidirectional, so the transmitter and receiver do not
have to be aligned physically. This feature is sometimes good, but sometimes bad.

The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent. At low frequencies they pass through obstacles well, but the
power falls off sharply with distance from the source. At high frequencies, radio waves tend to travel in straight lines
and bounce off obstacles. They are also absorbed by rain. At all frequencies, they are subject to interference from
motors and other electrical equipment.

Due to radio's ability to travel long distances, interference between users is a problem. For this reasons, all
governments license the use user of radio transmitters.

Fig. 2-12. (a) In the VLF, VF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF they bounce off the ionosphere.

In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the ground (Fig. 2-12(a)) and can be detected for about 1000 km
at the lower frequencies, less at the higher ones. The main problem with using these bands for data communication is
relatively low bandwidth they offer.

In the HF and VHF bands, the ground waves tend to be absorbed by the earth, but if they reach the ionosphere (a
layer of charged particles circling the earth at a height of 100 to 500 km) are refracted (Fig. 2-12(b)) by it and sent
back to earth. Amateur radio operators use these bands to talk long distance.

2.3.3. Microwave Transmission

Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in straight lines and can therefore be narrowly focused. Concentrating all the
energy into a small beam using parabolic antenna gives a much higher signal to noise ratio, but the transmitting and
receiving antennas must be accurately aligned with each other.

Before fibre optics, for decades, these microwaves formed the heart of the long-distance telephone transmission
system.

Microwaves do not pass through buildings well. In addition, even though the beam is well focused, there is still some
divergence in space. Some waves may be refracted off low lying atmospheric layers and may take slightly longer to
arrive than direct waves. Being out of phase they can cancel the signal. This effect is called multipath fading and is
often a serious problem. It is weather and frequency dependent.

Bands up to 10 GHz are now in routine use, but at about 8 GHz a new problem sets in: absorption by water (rain).
The only solution is to shut off links that are being rained on and route around them.

Microwave is also relatively inexpensive. Putting up two simple towers (maybe just big poles with four guy wires)
and putting antennas on each one may be cheaper than burying 50 km of fibre through a congested urban area, and it
may also be cheaper than leasing the telephone company fibre.
Microwaves have also another important use. We are speaking about cordless telephones, garage door openers,
wireless hi-fi speakers, security gates etc. These devices use so called Industrial/Scientific/Medical bands forming an
exception to the licensing rule: transmitters using these bands do not require government licensing. One band is
allocated world-wide: 2.400-2.484 GHz. These bands are popular also for various forms of short-range wireless
networking.

2.3.4. Infrared and Millimeter Waves

Unguided infrared and millimeter waves are widely used for short-range communication (remote control of
televisions and stereos). They are relatively directional, cheap and easy to build, but they do not pass through the
solid objects. For this reason, no government license is needed to operate an infrared system.

These properties have made infrared an interesting candidate for indoor wireless LANs (i.e. portable computers with
infrared capability can be on local LAN without having to physically connect to it.

Infrared communication cannot be used outdoors because the sun shines as brightly in the infrared as in visible
spectrum.

2.3.5. Lightwave Transmission

Unguided optical signaling has been in use for centuries.

A modern application is to connect the LANs in two building via lasers mounted on their rooftops. Optical signaling
using lasers is unidirectional, so each building needs its own laser and its own photodetector. This scheme offers very
high bandwidth and very low cost. It is also relatively easy to install and does not require license.

The laser's strength, a very narrow beam, is also a weakness here. Aiming a laser beam 1 mm wide at a target 1 mm
wide 500 m away could be a problem. Usually, lenses are put into the system to defocus the beam slightly.

A disadvantage is that laser beams cannot penetrate rain or thick fog. Some other phenomena in the atmosphere can
also influence the communication using laser (Fig. 2-13.).

Fig. 2-13. Convection currents can interfere with laser communication systems.
A bidirectional system, with two lasers, is pictured here.
 Communication Satellites
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunications signals
via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different
locations on Earth. Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet,
and military applications. There are about 2,000 communications satellites in Earth's orbit, used by both private
and government organizations.[1] Many are in geostationary orbit 22,236 miles (35,785 km) above the equator,
so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky, so the satellite dish antennas of ground
stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track it.
The high frequency radio waves used for telecommunications links travel by line of sight and so are obstructed
by the curve of the Earth. The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of
the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points.[2] Communications satellites
use a wide range of radio and microwave frequencies. To avoid signal interference, international organizations
have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use. This
allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference

LEO — Low Earth Orbit

Satellites in low Earth orbit, or LEO, are the closest devices to Earth. They’re only 500 to 1,000 miles above the
Earth’s surface, making them ideal for satellite phone and GPS communication. The relatively small distance
means there is a minimal delay between the data leaving the satellite and it reaching its target on Earth —
usually about 0.05 seconds.

It takes a lot of LEO satellites to cover the planet, which is why there are so many of them up there. The Iridium
Communications Network will consist of 66 satellites total, while the Starlink constellation will include nearly 12,000
satellites once they’ve all launched, though they won’t all be in LEO.
The International Space Station is also in low Earth orbit.

MEO — Medium Earth Orbit

Medium earth orbit, or MEO, satellites are a bit of a middle ground between LEO and GEO orbits, circling the
planet at an altitude of 8,000 miles. These satellites handle high-speed telephone signals and may, in the
future, find a place in the military sector as a tool to provide low-latency high-bandwidth internet to military
personnel around the globe.

In spite of a slightly higher signal lag of about 0.1 seconds, depending on the size of the antenna, these MEO
satellites can transmit data as quickly as 1.6 gigabits per second. For comparison, the fastest readily available
commercial internet, not counting Google Fiber cities, is usually around 100 MB/s — less than a tenth of the
speed these MEO satellites will be capable of providing.
As these devices move further out into the cold of space, they need more tools to protect the sensitive
computer equipment that makes them work. Heat pipes have two purposes — they can transport heat away from
the electronics to prevent them from overheating, and they can redirect that heat to different parts of the
satellite to prevent them from freezing.

GEO/GSO — Geosynchronous Equatorial and Geostationary Orbits

You’ll often hear the terms GEO and GSO used interchangeably, but they’re not always the same. Both types of
satellites sit at roughly 22,300 miles above Earth’s surface, but the way they orbit is different. Both orbits
synchronize with the orbit of the planet, so they appear in the same place every day. The difference between
them is that GEO satellites orbit on an angle between the planet’s poles, while GSO satellites carry out the
same high-altitude circular orbit around the Earth’s equator.
Both GEO and GSO satellites carry satellite television signals. GSOs can also forecast the weather and
support other types of global communication. It only takes three GEO or GSO satellites to cover the entire
planet because of their altitude. If you’re accessing satellite TV or radio, you don’t have to use the antenna to
track the satellite because it’s always going to be in the same place.

Satellites and Space Exploration

Satellites used to be a “last resort” for communicating with remote areas, but today they’re a vital tool to support
global information exchange. Eventually, they may even allow us to communicate quickly and easily between
bases and colonies on the Moon, Mars and beyond.

SpaceX, OneWeb and even Facebook are working on designing satellite constellations that will provide affordable
consumer internet to the entire planet. SpaceX got the ball rolling with the launch of the first 60 satellites of their
Starlink constellation. Eventually, these communication satellites will sit in all three orbits, providing fast and
affordable internet to anyone with a compatible device.
Satellite VS Optical Fiber
1- Optical Fiber is quicker but Satellite is slow in communication.
2- Optical Fiber higher bandwidth but Satellite Lower Bandwidth.
3- In case of any fault we can easily repair Fiber Optics but Satellite can not be repair.
4- Fiber Optics initial Cast is low but Satellite is very High.
5- Many People want to communication during jogging, driving, sailing and flying these all
possible in Satellite Communication But Fiber Optics not use for them.
6- Satellite cost low for long range communication, while optical fiber is very costly for long
range communication.