CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Review

This chapter focuses on the discussion about the Error Analysis, Sentence, Grammar,
Writing, Recount text and Previous Study.

2.1.1 Error Analysis

a. The Definition of Error Analysis

Errors or errors in language learning can be considered as a reflection of a

person's learning process. Errors arise when learners have been engaged in learning
new concepts or information, but they make mistakes that may be due to a lack of
understanding or adequate knowledge. S. Pit Corder (1967) became a pioneer in
developing theories regarding error analysis. In his work entitled "The Signification
of Learner Errors," he states that error analysis includes language forms that do not
comply with grammatical rules and is also an indication of a level of knowledge and
mastery that is not yet fully mature in the learner. Apart from that, in 2003 Luo Xiao
Jie and Sun Lin developed the theory of error analysis. In their explanation, error
analysis is defined as analysis carried out on second language learners who make
language errors. Therefore, it is important to investigate the cause of the error so that
students can avoid making similar mistakes in the future. The purpose of error
analysis was stated by Corder (1974). Error analysis has two objectives, namely
theoretical and practical objectives. The theoretical aim is to provide an explanation
of what material should be studied and methods of how to learn a second language.
Meanwhile, the practical goal is a pedagogical goal which aims to facilitate students'
learning to be more effective by utilizing our knowledge about their language errors.

Based on the views of several experts above, it can be concluded that mistakes
are actually a natural part of the learning process. In this context, individuals actively
face challenges and strive to gain better understanding. Therefore, it is important for
learners and educators to view mistakes as opportunities to increase understanding
and make progress in their learning journey. Fauzan et al. (2020) also reported that
the errors that often occur in students are related to errors in word pronunciation and
inaccurate spelling. This shows that these mistakes are an inevitable part of the
learning process and are not something to worry about. Therefore, understanding that
making mistakes is normal can help change the perspective of mistakes as a negative
thing. Conversely, errors can be considered as opportunities for improvement and
increasing the quality of understanding.

b.Source of Errors

Sources of errors in language learning can vary, and according to Richards

(2019), errors can be classified into intralingual and interlingual interference. Errors
caused by interference, translation and interference between languages are known as
interlanguage errors. This type of error arises due to linguistic differences between
the student's first language (L1) and the target language being studied. (Corder, 1971)
also said that this error occurs due to the influence of the first language, where
students' first language habits can influence the use of the target language. Mistakes
made by students in writing have various causes, as has been reported by Sermsook,
Liamnimitr, & Pochakorn (2017), they identified four factors driving students'
mistakes in writing, namely interlingual, intralingual, lack of knowledge of grammar
and vocabulary in English, and student carelessness. Other research conducted by
Tauhid & Fatoni (2019) added that among all the sources of errors, students' lack of
knowledge regarding grammar and vocabulary in the target language is considered
the main cause of errors in writing.

According to James (1998), there are three main categories of causes of errors
in language learning.

1. Interlanguage errors, which are influenced by the influence of the mother tongue.
In this case, learners tend to use their first language knowledge literally, translating
idioms, expressions, vocabulary and grammatical rules from the first language into
the target language.

2. Intralingual errors are caused by the target language itself. This type of error can
arise as a result of learning strategy-based errors and communication strategy-based
errors in language learning.

3. Third, induced errors occur as a result of classroom situations, including errors

resulting from learning materials, teacher talk, practice, pedagogical priorities, and
searching. This error is basically triggered by the wrong strategy used in the learning
context.
 From the opinion of several experts, in other words, when students experience
a lack of knowledge about grammar in the target language, they tend to switch
automatically to their first language (L1), which in the end can result in errors in the
writing process. Therefore, poor understanding of grammar and vocabulary in the
language being studied is an important factor that can affect the quality of students'
writing. Interlanguage errors occur when the structures or rules of a student's first
language influence the target language being studied. This can occur at various levels,
such as when grammar or vocabulary from a student's first language is accidentally
applied in the target language. Thus, students' use of their first language can have a
significant impact on the second or foreign language learning process. This
explanation reflects the importance of understanding the sources of student errors,
because understanding interlanguage interference can help teachers design more
effective learning strategies and pay special attention to areas that are often the source
of errors.

c.Types of Errors

According to Corder (1973) and Haryono (2011), there are four main types of errors
based on the surface taxonomy. They are omission, addition, misformation and
misordering

 Omission Errors: Omission Errors refer to the non-inclusion of the required

structure, where there is an absence of elements or items that should appear in
a correctly constructed sentence.

Examples:

1) She's a singer

2) It is orange.

In the above sentences, the learner omitted the verb to be (is) in sentence 1 and the
indefinite article (an) in sentence 2. The correct form of these sentences are:

1) She is a singer.

2) It's an orange.

 Addition Errors : Addition Errors refer to the addition of unnecessary or

incorrect elements, which should not appear in a properly structured sentence.
 That is, the learner includes an item that should not be present in a properly
formed sentence.

Examples:

1) There are three women in the car.

2) He did not play football yesterdaty.

In the first sentence, the learner added the letter (s) to irregular plural noun (women)
and added the marker (ed) to the verb (play) that referred to the past in the negative
sentence 2. The correct form of these sentences are:

1) There are three women in the car.

2) He didn't play football yesterday

 Misformation Errors: Misformation errors occur when incorrect morphemes

are added, namely the use of the wrong form of grammatical element.

Examples:

1) These pens are mine.

2) I play games everyday.

In the first sentence, the learner uses the wrong form of plural demonstrative (these)
before a singular noun (pen) and uses the object pronoun (me) as the subject in the
second sentence. The correct form of these sentences are:

1) This pen is mine.

2) I play games everyday.

 Misordering Errors: Sequencing errors refer to the wrong position of

morphemes in a sentence, meaning that the words in the sentence are arranged
in the wrong order.

Examples:

1) read them a story.

2) I bought a black car.

In the above sentences, the learner puts the words in the wrong order, for example, in
the first sentence, the learner puts the verb (read) before the subject (they) and the
second sentence, the learner also puts the adjective (black) after the noun (car). The
correct order of these sentences is:

1) They read a story.

2) I bought a black car

2.1.2 Sentences

a. Definition of Sentence

Based on the book "English Sentence Analysis" works by Verspoor & Sauter
(2000), a sentence can be defined as a group of words contained in written text,
starting with a capital letter, and ending with punctuation in the form of a period,
question mark or exclamation mark. Thus, a complete sentence consists of at least
two or more words. However, according to the author, a complete sentence must at
least have a subject and a predicate to be considered grammatically correct.
Furthermore, this book explains that the simplest sentence must have a basic
structure, namely a subject and a predicate. The subject is the element that carries out
the action or receives the impact of the action, while the predicate includes a verb that
describes the action or situation that occurs. The author also emphasizes that
sentences that meet these requirements can include clauses. A clause is an
arrangement of words consisting of a subject and a predicate that states a complete
episode or situation. Thus, a complete sentence may consist of more than one clause,
indicating complexity and depth of meaning. So, this book provides the view that a
complete sentence, apart from meeting the minimum requirements of two words and
a subject-predicate structure, can include clauses to convey the episode or situation in
more detail.

According to Greenbaum (2002:13), the concept of a sentence involves two

dimensions, namely the meaning aspect and the function aspect. In terms of meaning,
a sentence is defined as a representation of a complete thought or complete idea. This
means that the sentence carries information or ideas that can be accepted or
understood as a whole. Meanwhile, in terms of function, a sentence is defined as an
arrangement of words consisting of a subject and a predicate. The subject is the
element that carries out the action or receives the impact of the action, while the
predicate includes finite verbs. Finite verbs are verb forms that include tense
information, indicating the time or circumstances in which the action occurs.
Furthermore, predicates that include finite verbs must begin with a capital letter and
end with punctuation in the form of a period (.), question mark (?), or exclamation
mark (!). The use of punctuation marks helps in understanding the structure and
meaning of sentences more clearly. Thus, the concept of a sentence according to
Greenbaum not only includes the meaning dimension as a representation of a
complete thought, but also the function dimension which involves word structure
with subjects, predicates, finite verbs, and punctuation to form complete and
structured sentences.

According to another view expressed by Brown et al. (1984), the definition of

a sentence is a collection of words that express a complete thought. In this context, a
sentence is considered as a manifestation of the author's ideas, reflecting the ideas or
thoughts that the author wants to convey. Furthermore, this concept highlights that a
sentence is a means of communication in which the creator of the sentence, or writer,
tries to convey his ideas to other people. This definition also emphasizes that a
sentence has the ability to communicate ideas from the first person (the sentence
creator) to other parties. This creates a communicative relationship between the writer
and the reader or listener. Brown et al. also highlights that there are various reasons
why people communicate with other parties. Therefore, the definition of a sentence
does not only include grammatical structure or grammar alone, but also highlights the
communicative aspect and purpose behind the use of a sentence. Thus, this view
describes the sentence as a linguistic entity that not only arranges words in the correct
structure, but also as a communication medium that is capable of expressing the
thoughts and ideas of its creator to other parties.

b. Types of Sentences

Experts have various classifications regarding sentences. Brown et al. (1984),

for example, classifies sentences based on their purpose. This classification divides
sentences into four main categories, namely declarative sentences, interrogative
sentences, imperative sentences, and exclamatory sentences. Each category has its
own special function.

1. Declarative Sentences:

- The main function of declarative sentences is to convey statements or information.

This sentence is used to express facts, views, or thoughts.
2. Interrogative Sentences:

- Interrogative sentences are used to ask questions. The main function is to obtain
information or answers from the party being spoken to.

3. Imperative Sentences:

- Imperative sentences have the function of giving commands or instructions. This

sentence is used when the speaker wants to direct or request action from the listener.

4. Exclamation Sentence:

- The function of an exclamation sentence is to convey a call or invitation to another

party. This sentence is used to express emotion, admiration, or encouragement to the
listener.

Thus, this classification helps in understanding that sentences can have different
purposes and functions depending on the context and intention of their use. Sentences
are not only a form of grammar, but also a communication tool that can fulfill various
needs in speaking or writing.

Ali (2007) also stated that sentence types can be classified based on the
predicate pattern into two main types, namely verbal sentences and nonverbal
sentences.

1. Verbal Sentences:

A verbal sentence is a sentence that has a predicate in the form of a verb. This
predicate states the action or state carried out by the subject. Examples of verbal
sentences:

- Ali reads a book in the library.

- They play football on the field.

In these sentences, the verb (read, play) becomes the core of the predicate and
describes the action or state performed by the subject.

2. Nonverbal Sentences:

Nonverbal sentences are sentences that do not have a predicate in the form of a verb.
The predicate in this sentence is represented by a noun or adjective that provides
information about the subject without stating an action or state. Examples of
nonverbal sentences:

- Ali is a famous writer.

- The flowers in the garden are very beautiful.

In examples of nonverbal sentences, nouns (writer, flower) or adjectives (famous,

beautiful) function as the core of the predicate and provide additional information
about the subject without including the action or circumstances. Thus, this
classification based on predicate patterns helps understand the difference between
verbal sentences, which focus on actions or circumstances, and nonverbal sentences,
which emphasize descriptions or additional information about the subject.

According to Verspoor and Sauter (2000), sentence complexity can be

classified into four main categories, namely simple sentences, compound sentences,
complex sentences, and compound-compound sentences.

1. Simple Sentence: A simple sentence is a sentence that consists of one clause,

namely one group of words that has a subject and a predicate. Example of a simple
sentence:

- The cat is sleeping. (The cat is sleeping.)

- She reads a book. (He reads a book.)

2. Compound Sentence: A compound sentence is a sentence consisting of two or

more clauses connected by a conjunction. Clauses in compound sentences can have
independent meanings. Examples of compound sentences:

- I went to the store, and I bought some groceries. (I went to the store, and I bought
some shopping items.)

- He studied hard, but he didn't pass the exam. (He studied hard, but he didn't pass the
exam.)

3. Complex Sentence: A complex sentence is a sentence that consists of one main

clause and one or more exception clauses or additional clauses contained therein.
Exclusion clauses can stand alone or depend on the main clause. Examples of
complex sentences:
- While I was studying, my friend was watching TV. (While I was studying, my
friend was watching TV.)

- The book that he borrowed from the library was very interesting. (The book he
borrowed from the library was very interesting.)

4. Compound-Compound Sentences:

- Compound sentences are sentences that combine two or more compound sentences
in one series. Examples of compound sentences:

- I ate dinner, and then I went for a walk, but it started raining, so I had to go back
home. (I had dinner, then I went for a walk, but it started to rain, so I had to go back
home.)

With this classification, we can understand how sentences can be arranged with
different levels of complexity, ranging from simple sentences to more complex
compound sentences with more varied structures.

c. Sentence Errors

Oshima and Hogue (1991, p. 179; 1999, p. 176), argue that the main problem
sentences, namely fragmented sentences, run-on or comma-connected sentences,
choppy sentences, and chained sentences often appear in students' writing. Also,
Feigenbaum (1985, p. 206) says that comma splices and run-on sentences commonly
occur in his own writing. To clarify this, the author will use definitions and examples
of types of sentence errors according to Oshima and Hogue (1991, p. 179; 1999, p.
176) in the following sub-sections. However, for further examples of errors and their
corrections, see Oshima and Hogue (1991, p. 179; 1999, p. 176).

 Fragmented sentences
Fragmented sentences are a type of sentence or part of a sentence that is
structurally incomplete. This means that the sentence lacks the elements
needed to form a complete and clear sentence. This was conveyed by Oshima
& Hogue (1991, p. 179; 1999, p. 176) in a linguistic context.
 Run On- or Comma Splice Sentences
A run-on sentence is a sentence consisting of two independent clauses which
should not be able to stand alone, but are connected without separating
punctuation such as a semicolon (;) or by using coordinating conjunctions
 (such as and, as, but, and so on) (Oshima & Hogue, 1991, p. 179; 1999, p.
176).
 Choppy Sentences
Oshima and Hogue (1991, p. 179) reveal that choppy sentences occur when
sentences are too short, and this is caused by excessive use of simple
sentences. Simple sentences have a basic structure, consisting of one
independent clause that conveys one idea or ideas.
 Stringy Sentences
Excessive use of clauses in one sentence, which is often accompanied by the
use of connecting words such as "and," "so," "or," "because," "since,"
"temporary," and so on, can cause the emergence of a grammatical problem
known as stringy sentences. As a result, the sentences can seem endless and
difficult to understand.

2.1.3 Grammar

a. Definition of Grammar

According to Francis (1970: 8), grammar can be explained as knowledge or

rules that explain how words are arranged into sentences. The use of the term "way"
here refers to an explanation which is sometimes referred to as a rule or law in
language. In this context, grammar provides a framework of rules or patterns that
direct how words are arranged correctly to form appropriate sentences. Grammar in
this case becomes a normative system that provides guidance regarding word order,
grammar and sentence structure. These grammar rules cover various aspects, such as
tenses, word forms, and syntactic rules which play an important role in forming clear
and precise sentences. So, Francis describes grammar as an explanation of the rules or
laws that guide the pattern of arranging words into sentences. This forms the basis for
the understanding and production of correct and meaningful sentences in a language
context.

On the other hand, as explained by Harmer (2001:12), grammar is an

explanation of the ways in which words can change form and can be arranged into
sentences in language. In this concept, grammar not only includes rules or
conventions related to the arrangement of words, but also involves understanding the
transformation of word forms and how to combine them to form grammatical and
meaningful sentence structures. In other words, Harmer emphasizes the dynamic
aspect of grammar, where understanding how words can change form and combine
into sentences is an integral part of grammatical knowledge. It includes the concept of
form changes such as conjugation and joining of words that allows the formation of
sentences that conform to language norms.

Leech (1982:3) defines grammar as elements contained in the structure of

language that function when used to communicate with other people. Furthermore,
grammar is considered as a mechanism or system that allows the arrangement of
words and phrases into sentences that have meaning and are in accordance with
language norms accepted by society. In the context of Leech's definition, grammar
becomes an essential aspect in the communication mechanism that allows individuals
to convey thoughts, ideas, or information to others effectively. Leech highlights the
role of grammar as an instrument that helps speakers or writers organize and convey
their messages clearly and precisely. In other words, grammar in Leech's view is not
only a formal structure of language, but also as a tool that facilitates effective
communication in society. In its use, grammar forms the basis for understanding,
producing, and analyzing sentences used in everyday communicative interactions.

b.Grammatical Errors

In Nordquist's (2015) perspective, the term "grammatical error" refers to a

concept used within the framework of prescriptive grammar. This term is used to
describe examples of language use that involve errors, misuse of rules, or
controversial usage. These errors may include inappropriate word placement,
inappropriate use of modifications, or verb choices that do not conform to applicable
grammatical norms. Meanwhile, James' perspective, as explained in Novita's study
(2014:3), defines "grammatical errors" as errors that occur at the morphological and
syntactic levels. In this context, grammatical errors involve structural aspects of
language, including word form and sentence structure. Therefore, the definition of a
grammatical error includes non-compliance with the morphological (word form) and
syntactic (sentence structure) norms that apply in the language. From the expert
opinion above, it can be concluded that grammar is the organization of language
components and systematic rules that regulate the structure and framework of
sentences. Composing well-structured writing through the application of appropriate
grammar is a difficult task and is still an important part of the language teaching and
learning process. Here are some grammatical errors that often occur in writing.
1). A verb is a type of word in language that describes an action, state or event. Verbs
are an important part of a sentence because they provide information about what the
subject does or the state of the subject.

2). Adjective is a type of word in language that is used to provide a description or

characteristic of an object, person, place, or concept.

3). A pronoun is a type of word in a language that is used as a substitute for a noun or
other pronoun in a sentence. Pronouns are used to avoid repeating the same words or
phrases in the same context, thereby helping make sentences more concise and easy
to understand.

4). Adverbs are a type of word in language that is used to provide additional
information or provide information about the manner, time, place, level, or reason for
an action or situation in a sentence. Adverbs can provide more specific and contextual
details on verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.

5). Preposition A preposition is a type of word in a language that is used to show a

spatial (space), temporal (time) or logical relationship between two elements in a
sentence. Prepositions are usually followed by nouns, pronouns, or clauses, and help
determine the position, direction, or relationship between objects and other elements
in the sentence.

6). Nouns are a type of word in language that is used to refer to people, places, things,
ideas or concepts. Nouns are an important part of language that helps us identify and
refer to objects or subjects in conversation or writing. Nouns can be grouped into two
main categories: proper nouns (special nouns) and common nouns (general nouns).

7). Article An article is a word used before a noun to determine or provide further
information about the noun. There are two types of articles in English: definite
articles (indefinite articles) and indefinite articles (definite articles).

2.1.4 Writing

a.Definition of Writing

Writing is a creative and complex process in which individuals express their

thoughts, ideas and emotions in the form of written symbols. It involves using
language to structure words and sentences effectively so that they are accessible and
understandable to readers. More than just a technical activity, writing involves word
selection, sentence structure, and organization of ideas that blends technical skills
with personal expression. In the context of communication, writing is not only a
means of conveying information but also a tool for building narratives, photographing
experiences, or stimulating critical thinking. As a medium of communication, writing
can take many forms, from analytical essays and works of fiction to technical reports
and scientific journal articles. The writing process includes not only the writing phase
itself but also planning, revising, and editing to achieve the desired level of accuracy
and perfection. Therefore, writing is not just an academic task, but an essential skill
that supports communication and self-expression in various contexts and situations.

According to Ramelan (1992:14), writing plays a very significant role as an

important tool for communicating thoughts and ideas through written or printed
symbols. The writing process allows a person to transform his thoughts and concepts
into a form that can be accessed by others through various media such as books,
newspapers, magazines and official letters. In Ramelan's view, writing is not just a
technical activity, but is a creative process that allows writers to express their
thoughts in more depth and structure. By using words and sentences, writers can
build narratives, describe complex ideas, and share knowledge and information with
readers. Furthermore, Ramelan emphasized that written media such as books,
newspapers and magazines are a means of conveying messages that can reach wider
audience. Therefore, writing ability is not only a technical skill, but also a very
effective tool in conveying thoughts and communicating in society.

2.4.2 The Criteria of good Writing

Boardman (2008:18-25) states that good writing has three main

characteristics, namely coherence, cohesion and unity.

 Coherence: Coherence refers to the ability to arrange ideas logically and relate
to each other. In coherent writing, each sentence and paragraph supports each
other, forming a structured flow of thought. Readers can easily follow the
chain of ideas and understand the relationships between parts of the text.
 Cohesion: Cohesion refers to the clarity of the relationship between sentences
and paragraphs in writing. Appropriate use of linking words, keyword
repetition, or referencing techniques can increase cohesion. This helps
establish a continuity or continuity in the text, so the reader can see how each
part is connected.
  Unity: Unity reflects the presence of an integrated focus or theme in the
writing. Each sentence or paragraph should contribute to the development of a
main idea or specific purpose. Unity helps keep writing from becoming
fragmented and ensures that readers can follow the message or argument that
is clearly presented.

By maintaining coherence, cohesion and unity in writing, a writer can create text that
is not only easy to understand but also effective in conveying messages or
information to readers. This skill is key in producing quality writing that fulfills its
communicative purpose.

2.1.5 Recount Text

a.Definition of Recount Text

Coogan (2006) states that recount text is used to detail an event with the
intention of providing information or entertainment to the audience or readers, or
even both. It is hoped that students will be able to convey their ideas regarding past
experiences or events with the aim of providing information to readers. Meanwhile,
Anderson is of the opinion as quoted by Dwi (2010: 16), retelling refers to the act of
speaking or writing about past events or a text that re-presents past events
sequentially, according to the time sequence of events. According to Knapp et al.
(2005), recount text is a type of text that describes a series of events sequentially.
Thus, it can be concluded that recount text is a type of text that functions to detail an
event with the aim of providing information or entertainment, presented sequentially
and chronologically. Students are expected to be able to express their ideas regarding
past experiences or events through recount text in a clear and structured manner.

Recount text has the main aim of providing a detailed description of an event
or series of events that have occurred at a certain time. In this text, the author tries to
convey information chronologically, following the sequence of time or events that
occurred. The importance of continuity and regularity in conveying information is a
characteristic of recount text. This allows readers to follow the storyline well and
understand the chronology of the events being told. Recount texts usually include
detailed descriptions of the place, time, people involved, as well as the feelings or
reactions that emerged during the event. By using recount text, readers can be brought
to re-experience the event through an in-depth narrative. Therefore, clarity in
presenting chronology and details of events is an important aspect in understanding
and absorbing the contents of recount text.
 b. Types of Recount Text

According to Barwick (1999: 4-5), there are various types of recount which
have different levels of language and content depending on the audience and purpose.
The following is an explanation of several types of recount:

1. Personal Recounts This type of recount focuses on someone's personal experiences

or events. The language used is more informal and subjective, with the aim of sharing
personal experiences. Examples of personal recounts include personal journals,
diaries, or personal narratives about an event.

2. Factual Recounts This type of recount is more objective and uses more formal
language. The goal is to convey factual information clearly and in detail. Examples of
factual recounts include reports of news events, historical notes, or descriptions of
certain events

3. Imaginative Recounts Imaginative recounts focus on developing imaginative

stories or events. The language used tends to be creative and invites readers into the
world of imagination. This type is often used in fiction or fable stories.

4. Interactive Recounts This type of recount involves interaction between the writer
and the reader. Usually, there is an element of dialogue or exchange of information
between the characters involved. The language used may vary depending on the
communication context.

5. Evaluative Recounts Evaluative recounts add an assessment or evaluation

dimension to an event. The author not only conveys facts, but also provides opinions
or evaluations related to the experience.

c. The Generic Structure of Recount Text

According to Anderson & Anderson (2003), recount texts generally have a

general structure consisting of three parts, namely:

1. Orientation: The first part of the recount text is orientation. In this section, the
author provides the initial setup by introducing the participants or explaining who is
involved, what happened, where the event occurred, and when the event occurred.
Onboarding provides basic context for readers to understand the content better.

2. Event: The second part of the recount text is the event. In this section, the author
explains in detail what happened, by arranging the events or activities
chronologically. The emphasis on time order provides a clear structure so that readers
can follow the story line well.

3. Reorientation: The last part is reorientation. Although optional, this section

provides closure or an end to the event. Reorientation can include the author's
reflection on the event, conclusion, or final message to be conveyed. This section can
provide additional value to the recount text, providing a greater impact on the reader.

With this general structure, recount text becomes more organized and easier for
readers to understand. Orientation opens the door to understanding the context, events
provide the essence of the story, and reorientation provides a sense of ending that
rounds out the story as a whole.

d. The Language features of Recount Text

Cavanagh of the Country Areas Program (1998: 11) identifies several

language features commonly found in recount texts, including:

 Descriptive Words: In recount texts, descriptive words are used with the aim
of building a picture or depiction of the world in which the event takes place.
This aims to provide richer details and nuances to readers, so that they can
imagine the event more vividly.
 Past Tense: In general, recount text uses the past tense to describe events that
have occurred. Using the past tense helps convey the chronology and
sequence of events clearly, indicating that the event took place in the past.
 Relationships with Time References: The events in the recount text are linked
together using time references. For example, words like "next," "that day,"
"once," or "after" used to indicate the sequence or chronological relationship
between events. Time references help form an orderly narrative structure.

Derived from Derewianka (1990) as cited in Western Australian Minister

(2013: 118), the language features commonly found in texts used for retelling
typically encompass:
  Nouns and Pronouns Referring to Specific Participants : The text used for
retelling commonly incorporates nouns and pronouns that specifically identify
participants involved in the events being recounted. This aids in providing
clarity regarding the individuals or entities central to the narrative.
 Past Tense Simple Sentences : Retelling texts frequently employ past tense
simple sentences, considering a narrative structure that conveys events that
have already occurred. This use of past tense contributes to the chronological
and historical aspects of the recounted information.
 Action Verbs, Especially : Action verbs play a significant role in these texts,
particularly those that vividly describe the unfolding events. The inclusion of
action verbs adds dynamism and liveliness to the narrative, enabling readers
to visualize the sequence of actions.
 Link Words Related to Time or Order: Retelling texts include link words
associated with time or order, such as "then," "next," or other temporal
connectors. These words serve to establish a coherent and sequential flow of
events, guiding the reader through the chronological unfolding of the
narrative.
 Adverbs Indicating Time and Place : Adverbs are incorporated to indicate
both the temporal and spatial aspects of the recounted events. This addition
helps in providing a more detailed and contextual understanding of when and
where the events took place.
 Reported and Direct Speech : The inclusion of reported and direct speech
further enriches retelling texts. These speech elements contribute to the
authenticity and vividness of the narrative, allowing the words and
expressions of participants to be directly conveyed to the reader.

The conclusion that can be drawn from the opinions of these two experts is to
emphasize the importance of an organized structure, the use of appropriate language,
and choosing the right type of recount according to the context and communicative
purpose. As a narrative form, recount text provides a detailed description of past
events by using certain language features to ensure the message is conveyed
effectively to the reader.

2.2 Previous Related Studies

In this context, researchers found a number of previous studies related to the

topic being investigated. These references are available in thesis and journal article
formats. The existence of previous research provides an indication that the theme or
problem being investigated in this research has been the focus of attention in previous
academic literature. This means that the research conducted by researchers has a good
foundation and relevance to existing knowledge.

The first previous research was research conducted by Aulia Mitha Alfiyah,
2021 with the title "An Analysis of Student's Error in Writing Recount Text". This
research aims to identify various types of errors that often occur among students at
SMPN 19 South Konawe in the process of writing recount texts. The subjects of this
research were selected from class VIII A students at SMPN 19 South Konawe. The
research design applied was descriptive qualitative in nature involving quantitative
aspects to provide completeness to the data collected. The data collection process was
carried out through a written test which focused on students' ability to compose
recount text. Through qualitative descriptive methods, this research aims to provide
an in-depth description of the errors that arise during the writing process. The
application of quantitative elements is expected to provide additional dimensions
related to the frequency or level of identified errors. From the results of this research,
it is illustrated that eighth grade students make errors with a distribution of certain
types, namely 47% of these errors fall into the linguistic category taxonomy, 32% fall
into the surface strategy taxonomy, 20% fall into the communicative taxonomy, and
only 1% fall into the comparative taxonomy.

The second previous research was research conducted by Nur Intan, 2019
with the title "Error Analysis in Writing of the Tent Grade Student of MAN 1 Palu".
This research aims to describe the types of grammatical errors faced by students in
writing. The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative. This research was
carried out by using descriptive written text as an instrument to identify various types
of errors that appear in the writing of class X students at MAN 1 Palu. Apart from
that, this research also aims to find out the causes of students' mistakes in writing.
The research results showed that class X students at MAN 1 Palu were still recorded
as making 41 mistakes in their writing. These errors can be classified into three
categories based on the surface strategy taxonomy. The errors recorded were in the
form of selection (63.41%), followed by omissions (26.82%), while the lowest
frequency of errors occurred in addition (9.75%). In terms of causes, carelessness
accounted for the highest proportion (75.6%) of total errors, followed by first
language influence (17.07%). Meanwhile, the least causes of errors were related to
translation, which reached 7.31%.
 The third previous research was conducted byWahyuni Kencanawati, 2023
researchers took the title "Errors Analysis of Students' Sentence Structure in
Paragraph Writing at the Eleventh Grade of SMK PGRI Pekanbaru". This research
uses quantitative descriptive methods. Researchers selected samples using purposive
sampling techniques, involving 32 students as research subjects. The instruments
used focus on sentence structure errors related to the use of nouns, adverbs and
simple past tense. Researchers classify errors based on Surface Strategy Taxonomy.
Researchers found that the total number of errors in using nouns in paragraph writing
reached 26 errors. Types of errors included omission of 12 errors (3.23%), addition of
12 errors (3.23%), no errors in misformation (0%), and 2 errors (0.54%) in
misordering. Then, the total number of errors in using adverbs in paragraph writing
was 3 errors. Omission errors reached 1 error (0.27%), no errors in addition (0%),
misformation there were 2 errors (0.54%), and no errors in misordering (0%). Finally,
the total number of errors in using the simple past tense in paragraph writing was 342
errors. There were 32 omission errors (8.63%), 9 addition errors (2.43%), 301
misformation errors (81.13%), and no misordering errors (0%). Overall, students
made 371 sentence structure errors in paragraph writing, with types of errors
including 45 omission errors (12.13%), 21 addition errors (5.66%), 303 misformation
errors (81.67%), and 2 errors. misordering (0.54%).

2.3 Theoretical Framework

According to Sugiyono (2013), a framework of thought is an outline of

thinking or an arrangement of thoughts that becomes a pattern or basis for thinking
for researchers in carrying out research on the object that is the focus of the research.

Writing is a way to convey thoughts in clear and firm words. Students need to
develop the ability to organize ideas from words into a coherent and easy to
understand text. It is also important to use correct grammar so that the message can
be conveyed well to the reader. The purpose of writing involves expression,
conveying knowledge, persuasion, and entertainment. Writing recount text involves a
number of tasks to describe the history of an event or tell a story or experience
through writing. Writing activities in English are considered to be complex activities,
where this skill is considered more difficult to master than other skills. They consider
that developing ideas into sentences is a difficult task because it requires a high level
of creativity and imagination. Apart from that, another difficulty faced is the
application of grammar in writing in English. As a result, many students often make
grammatical errors in writing. They may feel inferior and pay less attention to errors
that may arise, so that their writing loses its original meaning and becomes
ambiguous. However, errors can be identified, evaluated, and grouped to provide
information of the systems operating within the student, encouraging an
understanding of the student's errors, known as error analysis. In this study, error
analysis focused on sentence errors and grammatical errors in their writing.