Structure and Function of RNA

RNA Structure

Structurally speaking, ribonucleic acid (RNA), is quite similar to DNA. However, whereas DNA
molecules are typically long and double stranded, RNA molecules are much shorter and are
typically single stranded. RNA molecules perform a variety of roles in the cell but are mainly
involved in the process of protein synthesis (translation) and its regulation. RNA is typically
single stranded and is made of ribonucleotides that are linked by phosphodiester bonds. A
ribonucleotide in the RNA chain contains ribose (the pentose sugar), one of the four nitrogenous
bases (A, U, G, and C), and a phosphate group. The subtle structural difference between the sugars
gives DNA added stability, making DNA more suitable for storage of genetic information, whereas
the relative instability of RNA makes it more suitable for its more short-term functions. The RNA-
specific pyrimidine uracil forms a complementary base pair with adenine and is used instead of the
thymine used in DNA. Even though RNA is single stranded, most types of RNA molecules show
extensive intramolecular base pairing between complementary sequences within the RNA strand,
creating a predictable three-dimensional structure essential for their function (Figure 1 and
Figure 2).

Figure 1. (a) Ribonucleotides contain the pentose sugar ribose instead of the deoxyribose found in
deoxyribonucleotides. (b) RNA contains the pyrimidine uracil in place of thymine found in DNA.

Figure 2. (a) DNA is typically double stranded, whereas RNA is typically single stranded. (b)
Although it is single stranded, RNA can fold upon itself, with the folds stabilized by short areas of
complementary base pairing within the molecule, forming a three-dimensional structure.
Functions of RNA in Protein Synthesis

Cells access the information stored in DNA by creating RNA to direct the synthesis of proteins
through the process of translation. Proteins within a cell have many functions, including building
cellular structures and serving as enzyme catalysts for cellular chemical reactions that give cells
their specific characteristics. The three main types of RNA directly involved in protein synthesis
are messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).

In 1961, French scientists François Jacob and Jacques Monod hypothesized the existence of an
intermediary between DNA and its protein products, which they called messenger RNA. [1] Evidence
supporting their hypothesis was gathered soon afterwards showing that information from DNA is
transmitted to the ribosome for protein synthesis using mRNA. If DNA serves as the complete
library of cellular information, mRNA serves as a photocopy of specific information needed at a
particular point in time that serves as the instructions to make a protein.

The mRNA carries the message from the DNA, which controls all of the cellular activities in a cell.
If a cell requires a certain protein to be synthesized, the gene for this product is “turned on” and the
mRNA is synthesized through the process of transcription. The mRNA then interacts
with ribosomes and other cellular machinery (Figure 3) to direct the synthesis of the protein it
encodes during the process of translation. mRNA is relatively unstable and short-lived in the cell,
especially in prokaryotic cells, ensuring that proteins are only made when needed.

Figure 3. A generalized illustration of how mRNA and tRNA are used in protein synthesis within a
cell.

rRNA and tRNA are stable types of RNA. In prokaryotes and eukaryotes, tRNA and rRNA are
encoded in the DNA, then copied into long RNA molecules that are cut to release smaller fragments
containing the individual mature RNA species. In eukaryotes, synthesis, cutting, and assembly of
rRNA into ribosomes takes place in the nucleolus region of the nucleus, but these activities occur in
the cytoplasm of prokaryotes. Neither of these types of RNA carries instructions to direct the
synthesis of a polypeptide, but they play other important roles in protein synthesis.

Ribosomes are composed of rRNA and protein. As its name suggests, rRNA is a major constituent
of ribosomes, composing up to about 60% of the ribosome by mass and providing the location
where the mRNA binds. The rRNA ensures the proper alignment of the mRNA, tRNA, and the
ribosomes; the rRNA of the ribosome also has an enzymatic activity (peptidyl transferase) and
catalyzes the formation of the peptide bonds between two aligned amino acids during protein
synthesis. Although rRNA had long been thought to serve primarily a structural role, its catalytic
role within the ribosome was proven in 2000. Scientists in the laboratories of
Thomas Steitz (1940–) and Peter Moore (1939–) at Yale University were able to crystallize the
ribosome structure from Haloarcula marismortui, a halophilic archaeon isolated from the Dead Sea.
Because of the importance of this work, Steitz shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with other
scientists who made significant contributions to the understanding of ribosome structure.

Transfer RNA is the third main type of RNA and one of the smallest, usually only 70–90
nucleotides long. It carries the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis in the ribosome. It
is the base pairing between the tRNA and mRNA that allows for the correct amino acid to be
inserted in the polypeptide chain being synthesized (Figure 4). Any mutations in the tRNA or rRNA
can result in global problems for the cell because both are necessary for proper protein synthesis
(Table 1).

Figure 4. A tRNA molecule is a single-stranded molecule that exhibits significant intracellular base
pairing, giving it its characteristic three-dimensional shape.

Table 1. Structure and Function of RNA

mRNA rRNA tRNA

Short (70-90 nucleotides), stable

Short, unstable, single-
Longer, stable RNA RNA with extensive
stranded RNA corresponding
Structure molecules composing 60% intramolecular base pairing;
to a gene encoded within
of ribosome’s mass contains an amino acid binding
DNA
site and an mRNA binding site

Ensures the proper

Serves as intermediary
alignment of mRNA, tRNA,
between DNA and protein; Carries the correct amino acid to
and ribosome during protein
Function used by ribosome to direct the site of protein synthesis in
synthesis; catalyzes peptide
synthesis of protein it the ribosome
bond formation between
encodes
amino acids