Analog to Digital Conversion

8/10/2023
Analogue to Digital Converter

Analogue to Digital Converter, or ADC, is a data converter which allows digital

circuits to interface with the real world by encoding an analogue signal into a binary
code

The Analogue-to-Digital Converter, (ADCs) allow micro-processor controlled

circuits, Arduinos, Raspberry Pi, and other such digital logic circuits to communicate
with the real world. In the real world, analogue signals have continuously changing
values which come from various sources and sensors which can measure sound, light,
temperature or movement, and many digital systems interact with their environment
by measuring the analogue signals from such transducers.[1]
While analogue signals can be continuous and provide an infinite number different
voltage values, digital circuits on the other hand work with binary signal which have
only two discrete states, a logic “1” (HIGH) or a logic “0” (LOW). So it is necessary
to have an electronic circuit which can convert between the two different domains of
continuously changing analogue signals and discrete digital signals, and this is
where Analogue-to-Digital Converters (A/D) come in.
Basically an analogue to digital converter takes a snapshot of an analogue voltage at
one instant in time and produces a digital output code which represents this analogue
voltage. The number of binary digits, or bits used to represent this analogue voltage
value depends on the resolution of an A/D converter.
For example a 4-bit ADC will have a resolution of one part in 15, (24 – 1) whereas an
8-bit ADC will have a resolution of one part in 255, (28 – 1). Thus an analogue to
digital converter takes an unknown continuous analogue signal and converts it into an
“n”- bit binary number of 2n bits.[1]

The following techniques can be used for Analog to Digital Conversion:

• Pulse code modulation (sample and hold)

• Delta modulation
• Adaptive delta modulation

Pulse code modulation (sample and hold):

The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data is called pulse code
modulation (PCM). A PCM encoder has the following three processes:

1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding
 1. Sampling:

The first step in PCM is sampling. Sampling is a

process of measuring the amplitude of a continuous-
time signal at discrete instants, converting the
continuous signal into a discrete signal. There are
three sampling methods: (i) Ideal Sampling: In ideal
Sampling also known as Instantaneous sampling
pulses from the analog signal are sampled. This is an
ideal sampling method and cannot be easily
implemented.(ii) Natural Sampling: Natural
Sampling is a practical method of sampling in which pulse have finite width equal to T.The
result is a sequence of samples that retain the shape of the analog signal. (iii) Flat top sampling:
In comparison to natural sampling flat top sampling can be easily obtained. In this sampling
technique, the top of the samples remains constant by using a circuit. This is the most common
sampling method used.[2]

Nyquist Theorem: One important consideration is the sampling rate or frequency. According
to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal. It is also known as the minimum sampling rate and given by: Fs =2*fh.

2. Quantization:

The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between the maximum and
minimum amplitudes of the signal. The set of amplitudes can be infinite with non-integral
values between two limits. The following are the steps in Quantization:

1. We assume that the signal has amplitudes between Vmax and Vmin
2. We divide it into L zones each of height d where, d= (Vmax- Vmin)/ L
3. The value at the top of each sample in the graph shows the actual amplitude.
4. The normalized pulse amplitude modulation(PAM) value is calculated using the
formula amplitude/d.
5. After this we calculate the quantized value which the process selects from the middle
of each zone.
6. The Quantized error is given by the difference between quantized value and normalised
PAM value.
7. The Quantization code for each sample based on quantization levels at the left of the
graph.[2]
 3. Encoding:

The digitization of the analog signal is done by the encoder. After each sample is quantized
and the number of bits per sample is decided, each sample can be changed to an n bit code.
Encoding also minimizes the bandwidth used. Note that the number of bits for each sample is
determined from the number of quantization levels. If the number of quantization levels is L,
the number of bits is n bit = log 2 L.

DELTA MODULATION:

Since PCM is a very complex

technique, other techniques have been
developed to reduce the complexity of
PCM. The simplest is delta
Modulation. Delta Modulation finds
the change from the previous value.
Modulator – The modulator is used at
the sender site to create a stream of bits
from an analog signal. The process
records a small positive change called
delta. If the delta is positive, the
process records a 1 else the process records a 0. The modulator builds a second signal that
resembles a staircase. The input signal is then compared with this gradually made staircase
signal.[3]

We have the following rules for output: If the input analog signal is higher than the last value
of the staircase signal, increase delta by 1, and the bit in the digital data is 1. If the input analog
signal is lower than the last value of the staircase signal, decrease delta by 1, and the bit in the
digital data is 0. Demodulator – The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the staircase
maker and the delay unit, creates the analog signal. The created analog signal, however, needs
to pass through a low-pass filter for smoothing.
ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION:

The performance of a delta modulator can

be improved significantly by making the
step size of the modulator assume a time-
varying form. A larger step-size is needed
where the message has a steep slope of
modulating signal and a smaller step-size
is needed where the message has a small
slope. The size is adapted according to the
level of the input signal. This method is
known as adaptive delta modulation
(ADM).[3]

Types:
These are several common ways of implementing an electronic ADC.
• RC charge time
• Measuring analog resistance or capacitance
• Direct-conversion
• Successive approximation
• Ramp-compare
• Integrating
• Delta-encoded
• Pipelined
• Delta-sigma
• Time-interleaved
• Intermediate FM stage
• Time-stretch

References

1. Allen, Phillip E.; Holberg, Douglas R. (2002). CMOS Analog Circuit Design

2. Fraden, Jacob (2010). Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and

Applications. Springer.
3. Application Note AN-202, An IC Amplifier User’s Guide to Decoupling,
Grounding, and Making Things Go Right for a Change. Analog Devices.