Table des Matières

1 Elementary logic-Some types of reasoning 5

1.1 Elementary logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Concept of proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Negation of a proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Logical connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Overview of connectors and their truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.5 Tautology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.6 Antinomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.7 The negation of connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.8 Properties of connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.9 Logical quanti…ers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.10 The negation of quanti…ers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2 Some types of reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.1 Direct reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.2 Reasoning by contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.3 Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.4 Counter-Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.5 Proof by induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Sets and Applications 21

2.1 set theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.1 Vocabulary and ratings (notations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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 2.1.2 Inclusion - subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.3 Equality of two sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.4 Power set (Sets of parts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.5 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.6 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.7 Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.8 Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.9 Cartesian product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.10 Sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.11 Di¤erence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.12 Symmetric di¤erence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.13 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.1 Concept of application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Restriction of an application-Extention of an application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Equality of two applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5 Composition of applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6 Image of a subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7 Injective applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.8 Surjective applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.9 Bijectivite application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.10 Inverse application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.11 Inverse Image of a Subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.12 application properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.13 Involution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3 Equivalence and Order Relations 42

3.1 Notion of the binary relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.1 Properties of binary relations in a set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 Equivalence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.1 De…nition of an equivalence relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

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 3.2.2 The equivalence class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.3 Quotient set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Order relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3.1 De…nition of an order relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3.2 Total Orders and Partial Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.3 Upper bound - Lower bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.4 Supremum (least upper bound)- In…mum(greatest lower bound) . . . . . 49
3.3.5 Maximum - minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

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 .

Hello students, I am MESSIRDI in charge of the algebra module, before starting I have just
given you some instructions. Knowing that before in your high school career you never studied
algebra and the big problem that arises in a general way in mathematics is the understanding
of notions and not preservation. Before most teachers tell the students if you have this question
you answer like that and even the student if he asks the question how? the teacher says take
the technique without going further. that’s the problem. So for the algebra subject we will give
you the tools to better understand especially the reasoning aspect. Let’s start by giving you
an idea of the program for the …rst semester.
Preface
This book was the result of teaching experience in the …eld of algebra for years in the
common trunks of various technical and mathematical disciplines (SETI – MI – ST- SM- 1st
year preparatory school), through which I identi…ed the weaknesses and di¢ culties encountered
by the student, and tried to simplify and overcome these di¢ culties by giving a simpli…ed
explanation of the lesson followed by targeted exercises with a sequence of ideas and a global
concept.
I saw that students have gaps to learn mathematics especially in the reasoning aspect that
is to say understanding things but how do I start writing the answer? Hence the great problem
for the student is the writing of ideas.
For this I tried to guide the student by a style quite simple to understand whose object is to
give a complete and formal explanation. Each chapter is structured around a mini course that
simpli…es the information followed by examples of applications and a variety of exercises that
serve to illustrate the theory and to simplify the concepts and make them free of complexity
and di¢ culty.
I have divided the book into seven chapters, each of which consists of a complete summary
of the lesson followed by various exercises that include most of the questions used to illustrate
the theory. In the …rst chapter, I gave a comprehensive overview on the modes of reasoning, the
notions of logic and the theory of sets, in the second chapter I gave a summary on relationships,
in the third I touched on applications and everything related to them, for the fourth I recalled

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and added notions about complex numbers, the …fth is a formal chapter that gives a general
idea about algebraic structures that are useful especially in the chapter of vector spaces, in
the penultimate chapter I have touched on most of the questions on arithmetic in Z, the last
chapter and in the last chapter I have presented polynomials and rational fractions which are
very useful especially in the courses of integration methods.
In the end, I hope I have managed to present the ideas in a simpli…ed form, as I can only
thank all those who contributed directly or indirectly to this work, including my colleagues at
Tlemcen University.

5
Chapitre 1

Elementary logic-Some types of

reasoning

1.1 Elementary logic

You know from experience that a mathematics course consists of a series of statements, called
de…nitions or propositions. De…nitions are laid down a priori and propositions must be demon-
strated with the help of de…nitions or other already established propositions. In any problem
we …nd hypotheses and questions and to answer these questions we use the given hypotheses
or well known theorems. It is this approach, which consists in moving logically through the
various stages of mathematical reasoning. However, we thought it useful to identify some rules
of universal logic.

1.1.1 Concept of proposition

Dé…nition 1 A proposition is an assertion (a statement) that can be made unambiguously

(undoubtedly) if it is true or false. for example 2 > 1 is a true proposition;2 5 is a natural
integer, is a false proposition; but A B is not a proposition if we do not have data on the two
sets A and B.

The propositions are noted in the letters: P; Q; R; :::or by indexed letters: P1 ; P2 ; P3 ; :::.
Subsequently we associate to a true proposition the letter " V " or the number " 1 ", and a

6
false proposition by " F " or " 0 ".

1.1.2 Negation of a proposition

If P is a proposition, we note the negation of P by (not P ) or P , which is true if P is false and

the contrary.

1.1.3 Logical connectors

To two propositions P and Q, we can associate a third, which is de…ned by a logical connector
or connectors between these two propositions.

Conjunction

Dé…nition 2 We call conjunction of two propositions P and Q, the proposition noted P ^ Q

(that reads P and Q), knowing that it is true, if P and Q are true, and false in other cases.
Two propositions are said to be incompatible, if their conjunction is false.

Exemple 3 If two pieces of information are given to an individual, then the total information
is only true if both pieces of information are true.

disjunction

Dé…nition 4 A disjunction of two propositions P and Q is a proposition rated P _ Q (that

reads P or Q), knowing that it is true if either is true.

Exemple 5 If a teacher has given us two questions, but he will take the best score of both, then
the student has the full score if he answers just one of the two questions.

Remarque 6 Saying P _ Q does not mean that the two propositions P and Q are mutually
exclusive, in other words, the "or" here allows us to give any of the following three cases:
i) We have P but not Q:
ii) We have Q but not P:
iii) We have P and we have Q:
Here, for example, we …nd that a parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose sides are parallel and
equal two to two or if their diagonals are median (its diagonals cut in the middle).

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Implication

Dé…nition 7 The implication of two propositions P and Q, is the proposition noted P ) Q

(which reads P implies Q), which is false in the only case where P is true and Q is false. In
the implication P ) Q, P plays the role of hypotheses and Q plays the role of conclusion.

Exemple 8 In an exam the teacher gives an exercise consisting of hypotheses and questions. In
nature he makes true assumptions and he wants true answers so that the grade will be complete,
then the student will have the full grade in three cases:
1- In the normal state, that is, the hypotheses are true and the answers also.
2- The teacher has made a mistake in the assumptions and the student fails to …nd the solution
(statements of an exercise are false).
3- The teacher made a mistake in the assumptions and the student found the solution because
he is brilliant or he used something other than the assumptions.
It is in the latter case where the implication is false.
4- In this case the student did not receive the grade because: The assumptions are true and the
answers are false.

Remarque 9 Implication is used if the following expression is used in a question:

Prove that if you have P then you have Q.

That is, mathematically we write:

P
|{z} ) Q :
|{z}
Hypotheses Problems

Equivalence

Dé…nition 10 Two propositions are said to be equivalent, which is P () Q (reads P is

equivalent to Q) if the two propositions have the same truth value, that is, the equivalence is
true only if both are simultaneously true, or both are simultaneously false. We must always see

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equivalence as two senses of implication, that is, P () Q is exactly:

P ) Q and Q ) P:

Exemple 11

(1 = 2) , (3 = 4) is a true proposition because both are false.

| {z } | {z }
False False

Remarque 12 Equivalency is used if the expression is found in a question:

Prove that you have P if and only if you have Q. This means:

P , Q:

1.1.4 Overview of connectors and their truth

These formulae are given in the following table (The truth table):

_
P Q P P ^Q P _Q P )Q P () Q
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 1

To show that a proposal is true or false we can use the truth table. If the total proposition is
combinations between two propositions or their negations then in the combinations of truths
between these two propositions we have 4 lines, but if we have three then we have 8 lines. In
the general case, the number of rows is 2n , where n is the number of propositions used (see the
letters used in the total proposal). On the other hand for columns it is necessary to lay down
all the sub-propositions which constructed the total proposal. To tell if the proposal is true or
false just see the last column of the table (total proposal), if all the results are true then the
proposal is true and if one of the results is false then the proposal is false.

Remarque 13 In the …lling of the table that uses three propositions, we start with the 1st

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column we divide it by two above we have 1 and below we have 0, then the 2nd column we divide
it by 4 in the …lling it is two by two (of 1 and 0) and in the 3rd is one by one (1 then a 0) to
have all the combinations of truth between three propositions.

Exemple 14 Is the following proposition true or false?

[H1 ] : (P ) Q) , Q ) P :

Indeed:
P Q Q P P )Q Q)P [H1 ]
1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1

So the [H1 ] proposition is true.

Exemple 15 Is the following proposition true or false?

[H2 ] : P _ Q ) R , P ^ R:

P Q R Q P _Q P ^R P ^R P _Q )R [H2 ]
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0

which implies that proposition [H2 ] is false.

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1.1.5 Tautology

Dé…nition 16 A tautology is a proposition that is true in all cases.

Exemple 17 Verify if the proposition:

(P ) Q) _ (Q ) P ) ;

is a tautology?
P Q P )Q Q)P (P ) Q) _ (Q ) P )
1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1

So it’s a tautology.

Exemple 18 The proposition P _ P is a tautology because:

P P P _P
1 0 1
0 1 1

This proposition is called the law of excluded third parties (either the …rst or the second and not
a third).

1.1.6 Antinomy

Dé…nition 19 An antinomy is a proposition that is false in all cases.

Exemple 20 The proposition P ^ P is an antinomy because:

P P P ^P
1 0 0
0 1 0

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This proposition is called the law of contradiction.

1.1.7 The negation of connectors

The negations of the connectors are given by the following formulas:

(1) P ^ Q is P _ Q and we write: P ^ Q () P _ Q:

(2) P _ Q is P ^ Q and we write: P _ Q () P ^ Q:

(3) P ) Q is P ^ Q and we write: P ) Q () P ^ Q:

(4) P , Q is P ^ Q or Q ^ P and we write:

P , Q , P ^ Q or Q ^ P :

(5) P , P .
Caution: Do not write = instead of ,.

(6) From (3) and (5):

(P ) Q) , P ) Q , P ^ Q , P _ Q:

Remarque 1.1 The …rst two forms (1) and (2) are known as the laws of Morgan.

Explanation of these results

(1) For the negation of the conjunction: the negation of two true information is one of the
two false.

(2) For the negation of the disjunction: The negation of one is true is the both are false.

(3) For the negation of the implication, we give the following example:

If you say to me, "If you give me a key, then I open this door," then the denial of that
sentence for me to contradict you is, "I give you a key and you can’t open the door," that key is
no longer the right key to the door. Another example if one of the students has hypotheses and
will answer the questions then the negation is that he has the hypotheses and fails to answer
the questions.

12
 (4) For the equivalence it is enough to write it in the form of two meanings of implications
and one negates the conjunction of the two implications.

1.1.8 Properties of connectors

Let P , Q and R three propositions.

(1) (P _ P ) ) P .

(2) P ) (P _ Q).

(3) (P ^ Q) , (Q ^ P ) and (P _ Q) , (Q _ P ) (The commutativity):

(4) (P ^ Q) ^ R , P ^ (Q ^ R) and (P _ Q) _ R , P _ (Q _ R) (Associativity).

(5) (P ^ Q) _ R , (P _ R) ^ (Q _ R) and (P _ Q) ^ R , (P ^ R) _ (Q ^ R) (Distributivity

from one to the other):

(6) [(P ) Q) ^ (Q ) R)] ) (P ) R) (Transitivity).

(7) (P ) Q) ) [(R _ P ) ) (R _ Q)].

1.1.9 Logical quanti…ers

Either a set E and a speci…ed property P . The following two questions can be asked:
a)Are there elements of E that is veri…ng this property?
b)If yes, is the property true for all elements or for a single element?
To formulate the answers to these two questions we introduce symbols called quanti…ers,
these are:

Existential quanti…er

It is written 9 and means: that there is at least one element of E having the property P , for
example:
9x 2 R; x2 + x 2 = 0:

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Means that there is at least a real number such as:

x2 + x 2 = 0, for example x = 2:

In addition if the property P (x) is checked for a single element x 2 E we write:

9!x 2 E; P (x); (Here we have existence and uniqueness)

For example:
x2 2x + 1 = 0 , (x 1)2 = 0;

so the only solution to this equation is x = 1.

Universal quanti…er

Which is written 8 (reads: For all) and means that any element of E checks P , for example:

8x 2 R; x2 + 2x + 1 0;

means that each actual number veri…es the written inequality because:

x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2 0:

1.1.10 The negation of quanti…ers

(1) The negation of (8x 2 E; P (x) is true) is:

9x 2 E; P (x) is false.

(2) The negation of (9x 2 E; P (x) is true) is:

8x 2 E; P (x) is false.

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 (3) The negation of (9!x 2 E; P (x) is true) is:

(8x 2 E; P (x) is false) or (9x1 6= x2 2 E; P (x1 ) and P (x2 ) are true):

| {z } | {z }
Negation of the existence Negation of uniqueness

Properties 1.1 Let E a set and P (x)a proposition whose values of truths are based on elements
x of E.
(1) (8x 2 E; P (x) ^ Q(x)) , ((8x 2 E; P (x)) ^ (8x 2 E; Q(x))).
(2) (8x 2 E; P (x) _ Q(x)) ( ((8x 2 E; P (x)) _ (8x 2 E; Q(x))).
(3) (9x 2 E; P (x) ^ Q(x)) ) ((9x 2 E; P (x)) ^ (9x 2 E; Q(x))):
(4) (9x 2 E; P (x) _ Q(x)) , ((9x 2 E; P (x)) _ (9x 2 E; Q(x))):
This means that you can distribute 8 on « ^ » and 9 on « _ » , but you can’t distribute 8 on
« _ » and 9 on « ^ » .
Now if the proposition P (x; y) depends on two variables x and y:
(5) ((8x 2 E); (8y 2 E); P (x; y)) , ((8y 2 E); (8x 2 E); P (x; y)):
(6) ((9x 2 E); (9y 2 E); P (x; y)) , ((9y 2 E); (9x 2 E); P (x; y)):
This means that we can swap quanti…ers of the same nature.
(7) ((9x 2 E)=(8y 2 E; P (x; y))) ) (8y 2 E; 9x 2 E=P (x; y)):
(8) (8y 2 E; 9x 2 E=P (x; y)) 6) ((9x 2 E)=(8y 2 E; P (x; y))):
In the last formula, the x is not the same for all y. This means that we cannot swap quanti…ers
of di¤ erent natures in all cases.

Exemple 21 Either the results table for Ali and Sara, knowing that the proposition:

P (x; y) : The student has an average of greater than or equal to 10.

Algebra1 Analysis1 PHYSIQUE1 INFO1

Ali 08 13 12 15
Sara 14 10 16 07

We let the sets E = fAli, Sarag and F = fAlgebra1, Analysis1, PHYSIQUE1, INFO1g :
(1) 8x 2 E; 8y 2 F : P (x; y) is false because:
For x =Ali and y = Algebra1 the rating is strictly lower than 10.

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(2) 8x 2 E; 9y 2 F : P (x; y) is true because:
Each student has at least one grade above or equal to 10.
(3) 9x 2 E; 8y 2 F : P (x; y) is false because:
Both students do not have all grades above or equal to 10.
(4) 9x 2 E; 9y 2 F : P (x; y) is true because:
Both students have at least a grade greater than or equal to 10.

1.2 Some types of reasoning

It is important to …nd a way or a method to answer a certain problem, for this we are inspired
by some techniques called reasoning.

1.2.1 Direct reasoning

Direct reasoning is used to show a type of implication:

P ) Q;

where P is the hypotheses (assumptions) and Q is the problems or conclusions. For this we
apply techniques from given hypotheses and known theorems to …nd our problems.

Exemple 1.1 Let’s show that if n 2 N is even then n2 is even.

n is even ) 9k1 2 N such as: n = 2k1 ;

) n2 = (2k1 )2 = 4k12 = 2 2k12 = 2k2 with k2 = 2k12 2 N

) n2 is even.

1.2.2 Reasoning by contradiction

Generally, the search for an answer to a problem is based on the given hypotheses or known
theorems, but sometimes one can …nd a reasoning other than the direct path. One draws on
the reasoning by the absurd, which supposes that the negation of the problem is true, and then
one comes to a contradiction with the given hypotheses, either one of the known theorems, or

16
one of the axioms, that is, what was proposed is false, which implies that the problem is true.
In other words:
(P ) Q) () Q ) contradiction :

Exemple 1.2 Let’s show that:

8n 2 N; n2 is even ) n is even.

By contradiction assumes that n is not even, therefore:

n is odd ) 9k 2 N such as: n = 2k + 1;

) n2 = 2 2k 2 + 2k + 1

) n2 = 2k 0 + 1 with k 0 = 2k 2 + 2k

) n2 is odd, contradicts the hypothesis,

where n is even.

ln 2 ln 2
Exemple 1.3 Prove that ln 3 is an irrational number ln 3 2
=Q .
Reminder: x is a rational number (x 2 Q) if it checks:

p
x = ; p; q 2 Z; q 6= 0 such as: (p ^ q) = 1;
q

(p ^ q) = 1 means that p and q are relatively prime (…rst among them) (the only common divisor
between them is 1).
ln 2
To show that ln 3 2
= Q, by contradiction, assumes that:

ln 2 ln 2 p
2 Q ) 9p; q 2 N such as (p ^ q) = 1 and = ;
ln 3 ln 3 q
) ln 2q = ln 3p ) 2q = 3p (contradiction),

ln 2
because 2q is even and 3p is odd, hence ln 3 is an irrational number.

17
1.2.3 Contrapositive

One calls contraposed of an implication P ) Q , the implication (not Q ) not P ). As remark

the contraposed is a particular case of reasoning by contradiction for that the reasoning by con-
tradiction is usually used (because not P is exactly a contradiction with one of the hypotheses).
Finally the contraposed is:
(P ) Q) , Q ) P :

Exemple 1.4 Let’s show that:

n = p2 ; p 2 N ) 2n 6= q 2 ; 8q 2 N :

Indeed:

q2
9q 2 N; 2n = q 2 ) n =
2
2
) n 6= p ; (this is the contraposed)

because if:

q2 q2
n p2 )
= = p2 ) 2 = 2
2 p
p p
) 2 = 2 Q, which is false.
q

1.2.4 Counter-Example

It is used to prove that the proposition or a property is not always true by giving
an example where it is false.

Exemple 22 Prove that for all x 2 R; f (x) = x2 3x 4 0 is false, because if we give for
exemple x = 0, we have f (0) < 0:

1.2.5 Proof by induction

We use the reasoning by induction in the case of a relation or a formula dependent on an index
n 2 N (on a natural integer and no other). So to show that a property is true for any

18
natural integer n greater than or equal to an integer n0 , we check that it is heriditary (i.e.: if
it is true for any integer, then it is true for the next integer). It su¢ ces then that it is true for
the …rst integer n0 to deduce that it is true for any integer n greater than or equal to n0 .
Recap: To show that a relationship (Rn ) ; is true for all integer n n0 by induction, the
following two steps are followed:
1st step: It is shown to be true for the …rst index, i.e.: (Rn0 ) is true.
2nd Step: We assume that (Rn ) is true for a …xed integer n 2 N (is called the inductive
hypothesis) and show that (Rn+1 ) is true.

Exemple 23 Knowing that a natural integer m is divisible by 7 is equivalent to:

9k 2 N such as: m = 7k:

We prove by induction that:

8n 2 N; 32n 2n is divisible by 7:

Note this property by (Rn ) :

By induction, we prove that (Rn ) is true for all n 2 N:
1st step: For n = 0 :
30 20 = 0 = 0 7;

which implies that 30 20 is divisible by 7, therefore (R0 ) is true.

2nd Step: We assume that (Rn ) is true, that is 32n 2n is divisible by 7 9k1 2 N; 32n 2n = 7k1
and show that (Rn+1 ) is also, that is:

32(n+1) 2n+1 is divisible by 7 ?

19
Indeed:

32(n+1) 2n+1 = 32 32n 2 2n = 9 32n 2 2n = 2 32n 2n + 7 32n ;

= 2 7k1 + 7 32n (based on the inductive hypothesis);

= 7 2k1 + 32n = 7k2 with k2 = 2k1 + 32n ;

Hence:
32(n+1) 2n+1 is divisible by 7:

Conclusion:
8n 2 N; 32n 2n is divisible by 7.

Exemple 24 We prove by induction that:

8n 2 N; 4n + 6n 1 is a multiple of 9: (Pn )

1st step: For n = 0 :

40 (6 0) 1=0=0 9;
) 40 (6 0) 1 is a multiple of 9;

that means that (P0 ) is true.

2nd Step: We assume that (Pn ) is true for a …xed integer n (4n + 6n 1 = 9k1 ; k1 2 N) and
show that (Pn+1 ) is also, that is:

4n+1 + 6 (n + 1) 1 is a multiple of 9:

20
Indeed:
4n+1 + 6 (n + 1) 1=4 4n + 6n 1+6
=1 4n + 6n 1+3 4n + 6
= 9k + 3 4n + 6 (based on the inductive hypothesis)
= 9k + 3 (9k1 6n + 1) + 6 (4n + 6n 1 = 9k1 )
= 9 (k1 + 3k1 2n + 1) = 9k2 with k2 = 4k1 2n + 1;
) 4n+1 + 6 (n + 1) 1 is a multiple of 9;

so (Rn+1 ) is true.
Conclusion:
8n 2 N; 4n + 6n 1 is a multiple of 9.

21
Chapitre 2

Sets and Applications

2.1 set theory

A set is made up of material objects, or phenomena, or signs, or abstract identities, brought

together by virtue of a common property.
A set is an entity of a di¤erent nature from the elements that make it up. A point set is
not a point, even if it contains only one point.
Some particularly important sets are designated by speci…c letters, Note:

N = f0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; :::g (set of natural integers).

Z = f:::; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; :::g (set of relative integers).
Q : Rational numbers.
Q : Irrational numbers.
R : The set of real numbers.
C : The set of complex numbers.

Alternatively, a set or a part can be designated by specifying their particular properties P

veri…ed by an element x of this part, for example:

E = fx=x 2 Q and 1 x 5g :

22
2.1.1 Vocabulary and ratings (notations)

If a is an element of Set E, write a 2 E, state a "a is an element of E" or "a belongs to E".
The negation of the previous statement is noted a 2
= E ( a is not an element of E or say a does
not belong to E). It is noted that a set that does not contain any elements is said to be the
empty set, noted: ;.

2.1.2 Inclusion - subset

Let E and F be two sets. If all the elements of the set E belong to the set F we say that E is
included in F , or else E is a subset of F and we write E F . To show in the general case that
E F , it is enough to take any element x of E and we show that this element belongs to F .

(E F ) , (x 2 E ) x 2 F ) : (2.1)

Exemple 25 N R:

Exemple 26 ; E, with E is any set.

Preuve: We have: 2 3
4 a 2 ;} ) a 2 E5 ;
| {z
False proposition

this implication is true because the …rst proposition is false, which asserts that the implication
is true, then by (2.1) we have ; E:

2.1.3 Equality of two sets

Let E and F be two sets. To proof that E = F , just show that E F and F E.

2.1.4 Power set (Sets of parts)

Dé…nition 27 The power set of a set E, noted } (E) is the set whose elements are the subsets
of E, such that ; 2 } (E) and E 2 } (E), in addition the number of elements of the power set
} (E) is 2n where n is the number of elements of E.

23
Remarque 28 Despite that the elements are sets we write A 2 } (E) if A E:

Exemple 29 If E = f1; 2; 3g, then:

} (E) = f;; f1g ; f2g ; f3g ; f1; 2g ; f1; 3g ; f2; 3g ; Eg :

Exemple 30 If F = f5; 6; 7; 8g, so:

8 9
< ;; f5g ; f6g ; f7g ; f8g ; f5; 6g ; f5; 7g ; f5; 8g =
} (F ) = :
: f6; 7g ; f6; 8g ; f7; 8g ; f5; 6; 7g ; f5; 6; 8g ; f6; 7; 8g ; f5; 7; 8g ; F ;

Exemple 31 If G = f2g, then the power set is:

} (G) = f;; f2gg :

On the other hand for } (} (G)) we have:

} (} (G)) = f;; f;g ; ff2gg ; f;; f2ggg :

Remarque 32 We can note the power set by P (E) instead of } (E) :

2.1.5 Intersection

Dé…nition 33 The intersection of two parts, A and B, is the subset formed by the elements
belonging to each of the parts considered. This intersection is designated by the notation A \ B
(We pronounce "A and B" or "A intersected with B"), for that:

(x 2 A \ B) , (x 2 A and x 2 B) :

The intersection can be reduced to the empty part, in this case we say that the sets are disjunct.

24
2.1.6 Union

Dé…nition 34 The whole of all the elements belonging to at least one of the parts A and B, is
said the union of these parts, noted: A[ B (We pronounce "A union B"). We have:

(x 2 A [ B) , (x 2 A or x 2 B) :

Properties 2.1 Let A; B and C be tree subsets of a set E, then we have the following proper-
ties:
(1) A \ B A:
(2) A A [ B:
(3) A \ A = A [ A = A:
(4) A \ ? = ?:
(5) A [ ? = A:
(6) A \ B = B \ A and A [ B = B [ A:
(7) (A \ B) \ C = A \ (B \ C) and (A [ B) [ C = A [ (B [ C) :
(8) A \ (B [ C) = (A \ B) [ (A \ C) :
(9) A [ (B \ C) = (A [ B) \ (A [ C) :
(10) A \ B = B if and only if B A:
(11) A [ B = B if and only if A B:

2.1.7 Partitions

Dé…nition 35 A partition of a set E is made by classifying the elements of E into separate

non-empty subsets two to two E1 ; E2 ; :::; En ; n 2 N , such that any element of E is classi…ed.
It is rated by P (E), and in particular:

E= [ Ei and Ei \ Ej = ;; 8i 6= j:
1 i n

Remarque 36 A partition of a set is not unique.

25
Exemple 37 Let E = f1; 2; 3g, we have the di¤ erent partitions:

P (E) = ff1g ; f2g ; f3gg P (E) = ff1; 2g ; f3gg P (E) = ff1; 3g ; f2gg
P (E) = ff2; 3g ; f1gg P (E) = ff1; 2; 3gg .

2.1.8 Complement

Dé…nition 38 Let E F , the complement of the set E in the set F , is the set in the union
with E equals F , and the intersection with E equals the empty set. We note it by: CFE or E,
so we have:
E [ CFE = F and E \ CFE = ;:

Exemple 39 For:
E = f1; 2; 3g and F = f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g ;

we have: CFE = f4; 5; 6g :

2.1.9 Cartesian product

Dé…nition 40 Cartesian product of two sets E and F is the set of ordered pairs of type (x; y)
with x 2 E and y 2 F , noted E F , that is:

E F = f(x; y) =x 2 E and y 2 F g :

Exemple 41 E = f1; 2; 3g and F = f4; 5g, then:

E F = f(1; 4) ; (1; 5) ; (2; 4) ; (2; 5) ; (3; 4) ; (3; 5)g :

Remarque 42 For all two di¤ erents sets E and F :

E F 6= F E.

26
2.1.10 Sum

Dé…nition 43 The sum of two sets E and F is the rated set E + F de…ned by:

E + F = f = x + y; x 2 E and y 2 F g .

Exemple 44 E = f1; 2; 3g and F = f1; 4; 5g then:

E + F = f2; 5; 3; 6; 7; 4; 8g :

2.1.11 Di¤erence

Dé…nition 45 The di¤ erence between two sets E and F is the set noted E r F or E F
de…ned by:
E F = fx 2 E with x 2
= Fg.

Exemple 46 E = f1; 2; 3g and F = f1; 4; 5g then:

E F = f2; 3g :

2.1.12 Symmetric di¤erence

Dé…nition 47 The symmetric di¤ erence between two sets E and F is the set:

E4F = (E F ) [ (F E) ;

= (E [ F ) (E \ F ) ;

= f(x 2 E and x 2
= F ) or (x 2 F and x 2
= E)g :

Exemple 48 E = f1; 2; 3g and F = f1; 4; 5g then:

E4F = (E F ) [ (F E) = f2; 3g [ f4; 5g = f2; 3; 4; 5g :

27
2.1.13 Example

Lets E and F two subsets of G, we show that:

(1)E [ F = E \ F :

" ) " It shows that:

E[F E \ F?

x 2 E [ F ) x 2 E or x 2 F ;

) (x 2 G and x 2
= E) or (x 2 G and x 2
= F );

) x 2 G and (x 2
= E or x 2
= F );

) x 2 G and x 2
= E \ F;

) x 2 E \ F:

" ( " It shows that:

E\F E [ F?

x 2 E \ F ) x 2 G and x 2
= E \ F;

) x 2 G and (x 2
= E or x 2
= F );

) (x 2 G and x 2
= E) or (x 2 G and x 2
= F );

) x 2 E or x 2 F ;

) x 2 E [ F:

Similarly we can prove that:

(2)E \ F = E [ F ;

28
but we use the equivalence directly:

x 2 E \ F , x 2 E and x 2 F ;

, (x 2 G and x 2
= E) and (x 2 G and x 2
= F );

, x 2 G and (x 2
= E and x 2
= F );

, x 2 G and x 2
= E [ F;

, x 2 E [ F:

2.2 Applications

2.2.1 Concept of application

Dé…nition 49 Given two sets E and F , we de…ne an application f of E in F by giving our-

selves a rule allowing to match to any element of E a determining element of F . Otherwise,
we say that f is an application of E in F if for each x 2 E there is a unique y 2 F associated
to it. We often note the applications by: f; g; h; :::. Moreover if x 2 E; f (x) denotes the image
of x ander f , and writes:

f : E!F

x 7 ! f (x) = y:

It is said that x is the antecedent (pre-image) of y ander f , E is the starting set and F is the
arrival set or codomain of f . Formally, using predicate logic:

f : E ! F;

is an application if:
8x 2 E; 9!y 2 F such as f (x) = y:

In addition, we have what we call the application graph noted Gf given by:

Gf = f(x; y) 2 E F=y = f (x)g :

29
Exemple 50

f : R!R

x 7 ! f (x) = 6x + 3, is an application.

Remarque 51 An application f is a function of E in F whose domain de…nition Df is equal

to E.

2.3 Restriction of an application-Extention of an application

Dé…nition 52 (Restriction-Extention) Let f : E ! F be an application and A and B two

subsets of E and F respecively. In this case it is said that g : A ! B is the restriction of f to
A and f is the extention of g to E:

2.4 Equality of two applications

Dé…nition 53 To show that two applications f and g are equal, we show that they have the
same starting set E and the same arrival set F , in addition:

8x 2 E; f (x) = g (x) :

2.5 Composition of applications

Dé…nition 54 Let f : E1 ! F1 and g : E2 ! F2 be two applications. So the composite

application f followed by g noted g f exists if we have the condition f (E1 ) E2 with:

g f : E 1 ! F2
x 7! (g f ) (x) = g (f (x)) :

30
Exemple 55 Let:

f : N!N

x 7! f (x) = 2x;

and

g : N!N
8
< x
if x is even,
2
x 7! g (x) =
: x+1
if x is odd.
2

f g and g f existe and we have:

f g:N!N
8
< f x if x is even,
2
x 7! f (g (x)) =
: f x+1 if x is odd.
8 2
< x if x is even,
=
: x + 1 if x is odd.

On the other hand:

g f :N!N
x 7! g (f (x)) = g (2x) = x because 2x is even.

Remarque 56 In the general case: g f 6= f g (see example). Knowing that in cases one
sense of the composite exists and the other does not exist.

Exemple 57

f : N!N
p
x 7! f (x) = x;

31
and

g : Z!Z

x 7! 2x:

(1) For f g exists because N Z and we have:

f g : N!Z
p
x 7! (f g) (x) = f (g (x)) = f (2x) = 2x: (x 2 N)

(2) g f does n’t exist because for x 2 Z ; g (f (x)) does n’t exist.

2.6 Image of a subset

Dé…nition 58 Let f : E ! F be an application and A a subset of E. Then the image of A by

f is de…ned by:
f (A) = ff (x) ; x 2 Ag ;

hence:
y 2 f (A) , 9x 2 A; y = f (x):

Exemple 59

f : R ! R+

x 7! f (x) = jxj ;

and
A = f 1; 1; 2; 2; 3; 3g :

Therefore:
f (A) = f1; 2; 3g :

32
2.7 Injective applications

Dé…nition 60 Let f : E ! F be an application:

f is injective , 8x1 ; x2 2 E; x1 6= x2 ) f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) :

Or,
8x1 ; x2 2 E; f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ) x1 = x2 (The contraposed).

This means that each y 2 F admits at most one antecedent x 2 E:

Exemple 61

f : R!R

x 7! f (x) = 2x;

and

g : R ! R+

x 7! g (x) = jxj :

(1) f is injective because:

8x1 ; x2 2 R; x1 6= x2 ) 2x1 6= 2x2 ) f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) :

(2) g is n’t injective because for example:

2 6= 2 but f (2) = f ( 2) = 2:

2.8 Surjective applications

Dé…nition 62 Let f : E ! F be an application. Then:

f is surjective , 8y 2 F; 9x 2 E such as: f (x) = y:

33
That is to say each element of the set of arrival admits at least one antecedent.

Remarque 63 To show that an application is surjective it is enough to …nd the x according to

the y, and see if x exists in the set E for all y 2 F .

Exemple 64

f : R!R

x 7! f (x) = jxj :

f is n’t surjective because for:

y 2 R ; 8x 2 R : f (x) = jxj =
6 y:

Exemple 65

g : N!N
8
< x
if x is even,
2
x 7! g (x) =
: x+1
if x is odd.
2

g is surjective because:

2y
8y 2 N; 9x = 2y 2 N avec f (x) = f (2y) = = y:
2

Remarque 66 There are other techniques to show injectivity and surjectivity, which uses the
notion of derivative and the table of variations.

Proposition 2.1 Letf : E ! F be an application. If f is a strictly monotonous function

(strictly increasing or strictly decreasing), then f is injective. On the other hand if f (E) = F ,
then f is surjective.

34
Exemple 2.1 Let f be an application de…ned by:

f :
[ 1; +1[ ! R
1
x !
7 f (x) = p ;
x2 + 2x + 2

which is well de…ned on [ 1; +1[ ; because:

x2 + 2x + 2 = (x + 1)2 + 1 > 0:

f is continuous on[ 1; +1[ (even on R) because it is the quotient of two continuous functions.
Moreover, it is derivable with:

p 2x+2
0 2 x2 +2x+2 2x + 2
f (x) = = p
(x2 + 2x + 2) 2 (x2 + 2x + 2) x2 + 2x + 2
x+1
= p 0;
(x2 + 2x + 2) x2 + 2x + 2

hence the table of variations:

x 1 +1
f 0 (x)
1
f (x) &
0

So we notice that f is strictly decreasing so it is injective. On the other hand:

f ([ 1; +1[) = ]0; 1] ;

but in the example, the arrival set is R so f is not surjective.

35
2.9 Bijectivite application

Dé…nition 67 Let f an application of a set E in a set F . f is bijective if and only if f is both

injective and surjective, or say:

8y 2 F; 9!x 2 E such as: f (x) = y.

Exemple 68

f : R+ ! R+

x 7! f (x) = x2 :

f is bijective, because:

p
8y 2 R+ ; 9!x = y 2 R+ because: y = x2 = f (x) :

2.10 Inverse application

Dé…nition 69 Let f be an application of a set E in a set F . The necessary and su¢ cient
condition for the reverse to exist is that the application f is bijective. In this case the inverse
application noted f 1 is de…ned by F in E, which has for each element y, we associate a unique
element x.

Exemple 70

f : R!R

x 7! f (x) = 3x + 5:

It’s very simple to check that f is bijective, so we have:

y 5
y = 3x + 5 ) x = ;
3

36
then:

1
f :
R!R
y 5
y !
7 :
3

or write:

1
f :
R!R
x 5
x !
7 ;
3

(changing variable roles is not important).

2.11 Inverse Image of a Subset

Dé…nition 71 Let f be an application of a set E in a set F and B a part of F . Then the

inverse image of B by f is de…ned by:

1
f (B) = fx 2 E = f (x) 2 Bg :

Exemple 72

f : R ! R+

x 7! f (x) = jxj and B = f1; 2; 3g :

Therefore:
1
f (B) = f 1; 2; 3; 1; 2; 3g :

Remarque 73 The inverse image of an element exists unless the application is bijective, but
the inverse image of a set exists in all cases.

37
Exemple 74

f : R ! R+

x 7! f (x) = x2 and A = f4g :

We have:
f (2) = f ( 2) = 4 with 2 6= 2;

so f is not injective so is not bijective then: f 1 (4) doesn’t exist, but f 1 (f4g) = f 2; 2g :

2.12 application properties

Let f : E ! F; 8A; B 2 P (E) and C; D 2 P (F ), we have the following properties:

(1) A B ) f (A) f (B) :

Preuve:
y 2 f (A) ) 9x 2 A such as, f (x) = y;

then:

9x 2 B such as, f (x) = y because: A B

) y 2 f (B) ;

therefore:
f (A) f (B) :

(2) f (A [ B) = f (A) [ f (B) :

38
Preuve: (a) Prove that: f (A [ B) f (A) [ f (B) :
Let y 2 f (A [ B), then:

9x 2 A [ B such as: f (x) = y;

) 9x 2 A or 9x 2 B such as: f (x) = y;
) (9x 2 A such as: f (x) = y) or (9x 2 B such as: f (x) = y);
) y 2 f (A) or y 2 f (B)
) y 2 f (A) [ f (B) :

(b) Prove that: f (A) [ f (B) f (A [ B) :

Let y 2 f (A) [ f (B) ) y 2 f (A) or y 2 f (B),

) (9x 2 A such as: f (x) = y) or (9x 2 B such as: f (x) = y);
) (9x 2 A or 9x 2 B) such as: f (x) = y,
) 9x 2 A [ B such as: f (x) = y;
) y 2 f (A [ B) :

(3) a) f (A \ B) f (A) \ f (B) Equality only takes place if f is injective.

Preuve: Let y 2 f (A \ B), then:

9x 2 A \ B such as: f (x) = y

) (9x 2 A and 9x 2 B) such as: f (x) = y,
) (9x 2 A such as: f (x) = y) and (9x 2 B such as: f (x) = y);
) y 2 f (A) and y 2 f (B) ;
) y 2 f (A) \ f (B) :

b) Prove that if f is injective than:

f (A \ B) = f (A) \ f (B) :

39
Preuve: Just show that: f (A) \ f (B) f (A \ B) ?
Let y 2 f (A) \ f (B), then:
y 2 f (A) and y 2 f (B) ;

so,
(9x1 2 A such as: f (x1 ) = y) and (9x2 2 B such as: f (x2 ) = y);

but f is injective then:

x1 = x2 = x;
) 9x 2 A and 9x 2 B such as: f (x) = y,
) 9x 2 A \ B such as: f (x) = y
) y 2 f (A \ B) :

Conclusion: If f is injective then: f (A \ B) = f (A) \ f (B).

Remarque 75 The equality only takes place if f is injective.

Exemple 76 A = f0; g ; B = f0; 3 g and f (x) = cos x (f is n’t injective). We have:

f (A) = f1; 1g and f (B) = f1; 1g ;

then:
f (A \ B) = f1g and f (A) \ f (B) = f1; 1g ;

which implies that:

f (A) \ f (B) * f (A \ B) :

(4) C D)f 1 (C) f 1 (D) :

Preuve:
1
If x 2 f (C) ) 9y 2 C such as, f (x) = y;

40
then:

9x 2 D such as, f (x) = y because: C D

1
) x2f (D) ;

so,
1 1
f (C) f (D) :

(5) f 1 (C [ D) = f 1 (C) [f 1 (D) :

Preuve: Let x 2 f 1 (C [ D), therefore:

9y 2 C [ D such as, f (x) = y

, 9y 2 C or y 2 D such as, f (x) = y;
, (9y 2 C such as, f (x) = y) or (9y 2 D such as, f (x) = y);
,x2f 1 (C) or x 2 f 1 (D)

,x2f 1 (C) [f 1 (D) :

Conclusion:
1 1 1
8C; D F; f (C [ D) = f (C) [ f (D) :

(6) f 1 (C \ D) = f 1 (C) \f 1 (D) :

Preuve: Let x 2 f 1 (C \ D), therefore:

9y 2 C \ D such as, f (x) = y

, 9y 2 C and y 2 D such as, f (x) = y;
, (9y 2 C such as, f (x) = y) and (9y 2 D such as, f (x) = y);
,x2f 1 (C) and x 2 f 1 (D) ;

,x2f 1 (C) \f 1 (D) :

41
Conclusion:
1 1 1
8C; D F; f (C \ D) = f (C) \ f (D) :

2.13 Involution

Dé…nition 77 An involution is a bijection of a set E on itself, which is equal to its inverse,

that is:
1
8x 2 E; f (x) = f (x) :

Hence:
f [f (x)] = x or else: f f = I;

where I is the identity application given by:

8x 2 E; I (x) = x:

Exemple 78

f : R!R

x 7! f (x) = x;

is an involution.

42
Chapitre 3

Equivalence and Order Relations

3.1 Notion of the binary relationship

We call relationship of E to F any process combining elements of E elements of F; generally

noted by <; S; ; ; ::: .
Let < a relationship from E to F . If u 2 E is related to v 2 F , note it by: u<v:
All couples (u; v) 2 E F verifying a relationship < is called the graph of <.
If E = F , a relationship of E to E is called binary relation on E. For example equality is
a binary relationship on any set E.

Remarque 79 The elements of E noted u; v and w are generally:

(1) Numbers in (N; Z; R; :::) so they can be replaced by: x; y and z.
(2) Couples i.e.: (x; y) of which the indices may be used, namely: (x1 ; y1 ) ; (x2 ; y2 ) and (x3 ; y3 ) :
(3) Sets can therefore be replaced by: X; Y and Z:

3.1.1 Properties of binary relations in a set

Let < be a binary relation in a set E and u; v; w are elements of E.

Re‡exivity

Dé…nition 80 <is re‡exive if and only if:

8u 2 E; u<u:

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Exemple 81 Let < be a relationship de…ned on Z by:

x<y , 3 divide (x y) :

Reminder: a divide b , 9k 2 Z : b = ka.

Then we have:
8 x 2 Z; x x=0=0 3;

hence 3 divides (x x), so x<x, and consequently < is re‡exive.

Symmetry

Dé…nition 82 < is symmetric if and only if:

8u; v 2 E; u<v ) v<u:

Exemple 83 Let < be the relationship de…ned on R by:

x<y , (x y) is a multiple of 2:

So we have:
8x; y 2 R; x<y , (x y) is a multiple of 2:

wich implies that:

(y x) is a multiple of 2 ) y<x;

and as a result < is symmetric.

Antisymmetry

Dé…nition 84 < is antisymmetric if and only if:

8u; v 2 E; (u<v and v<u) ) u = v:

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Exemple 85 Let < be the relationship de…ned on N by:

a<b , a divide b:

Let a; b 2 N , we have:
a<b , a divide b ) 9k1 2 N ; b = k1 a;

on the other hand we have:

b<a , b divide a ) 9k2 2 N ; a = k2 b;

Thus,
a = k2 k1 a ) k2 k1 = 1 ) k2 = k1 = 1 ) a = b;

wich implies that < is antisymmetric.

Transitivity

Dé…nition 86 < is transitive if and only if:

8u; v; w 2 E; (u<v and v<w) ) u<w:

Exemple 87 Let < be the relationship de…ned on N N by:

8 (x; x0 ) ; (y; y 0 ) 2 N N:
x; x0 < y; y 0 , x + x0 = y + y 0 :

Then we have: for all (x; x0 ) ; (y; y 0 ) and (z; z 0 ) 2 N N,

x; x0 < y; y 0 , x + x0 = y + y 0 ;

and
y; y 0 < z; z 0 , y + y 0 = z + z 0 ;

which implies that:

x + x0 = z + z 0 ;

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hence (x; x0 ) < (z; z 0 ), and therefore < is transitive.

3.2 Equivalence Relations

3.2.1 De…nition of an equivalence relation

Dé…nition 88 A relation de…ned in a set E is called an equivalence relation if and only if it is:
Re‡exive, symmetric and transitive. Moreover, if u<v, with < is an equivalence relationship,
then u is said to be equivalent to v modulo <.

Exemple 89 The relation < de…ned on Z by:

x<y , 3 divide (x y) is an equivalence relation on Z.

3.2.2 The equivalence class

Dé…nition 90 The equivalence class of a given element u for an equivalence relation < de…ned
on E is the set of elements v equivalent to that element. It is noted as: u_ or cl(u), with:

u_ = fv 2 E=u<vg (we can write v<u because < is symmetric).

Exemple 91 Let the equivalence relationship de…ned on Z by:

x<y , 3 divide (x y) :

Then for example:

cl(2) = fx 2 Z=x<2g ;

x<2 , 3 divide (x 2)

, 9k 2 Z : x 2 = 3k;

, x = 3k + 2;

, cl(2) = f3k + 2; k 2 Zg ;

, cl(2) = f:::; 7; 4; 1; 2; 5; 8; :::g :

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Properties 3.1 If a 2 x,
_ then a_ = x:
_

Preuve: (1) If v 2 a_ ) v<a but a 2 x_ then a<x, by transitivity v<x, which implies that:
v 2 x,i.e.:
_ a_ x:
_
(2) If v 2 x_ ) v<x but a 2 x_ then x<a, par transitivity v<a, which implies that: v 2 a;i.e.:
_
x_ a:
_

3.2.3 Quotient set

Dé…nition 92 Let E be a set and let < an equivalence relation.The quotient set of E by < is
the set of equivalence classes with respect to < and is denoted E=<. So we have:

E=< = fcl(u); u 2 Eg :

Proposition 3.1 The quotient set form a partition of E.

Preuve: (1) Since < is re‡exive, we have:

8u 2 E; u<u;

then u 2 u,
_ which implies that:
8u 2 E; u_ 6= ;:

(2) we have:
[ u_ = E:
u2E

Because the u_ are subsets of E, so [u_ E and each element u 2 E veri…es u<u (re‡exivity)
so u 2 u_ [u,
_ which implies that: E [u:
_
(3) Finally if u_ 6= v_ then u_ \ v_ = ; because if there is an element a 2 u_ \ v_ we will have a<u
and v<a hence v<u because the relation is transitive. Thus u_ = v_ (contradiction).

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3.3 Order relation

3.3.1 De…nition of an order relation

Dé…nition 93 A binary relation de…ned in a set E is called an order relation if it is:

Re‡exive, antisymmetric and transitive.

Exemple 94 Let < be a relation de…ned in N by:

p<q , (9n 2 N such as pn = q) :

(1) The re‡exivity, we have:

8p 2 N ; p1 = p ) p<p ) < est re‡exive.

(2) Antisymmetry:
8p; q 2 N ; p<q and q<p;

which implies that:

9n1 ; n2 2 N ; pn1 = q and q n2 = p;

) q n1 n2 = q ) n1 n2 = 1 ) n1 = n2 = 1;

) p = q ) < est antisymmetric.

(3) Transitivity:
8p; q; r 2 N ; p<q and q<r;

which implies that:

9n1 ; n2 2 N ; pn1 = q and q n2 = r;

) pn1 n2 = r;

) (9m = n1 n2 2 N such as pm = r) ;

) p<r ) < est transitive.

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Conclusion:
< is an order relation because it is re‡exive, antisymmetric and transitive.

3.3.2 Total Orders and Partial Orders

Dé…nition 95 A total order is an order relation in which every pair of elements is comparable.
That means,
8u; v 2 E; u<v or v<u:

On the other hand if:

9u; v 2 E as we have neither u<v nor v<u:

Then < is a partial order.

Exemple 96 Let < be a relation de…ned in N by:

p<q , (p divide q) :

< a partial order because:

For p = 2 and q = 3 we have neither 2<3 nor 3<2:

Exemple 97 Let S be a relation de…ned in R by:

pSq , p q:

S a total order because:

8p; q 2 R; p q or q p, so pSq or qSp:

3.3.3 Upper bound - Lower bound

Dé…nition 98 Let E be a set with an order relation <, then:

(1) M is an upper bound of E, if: 8u 2 E; u<M .

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(2) m is a lower bound of E, if: 8u 2 E; m<u.

3.3.4 Supremum (least upper bound)- In…mum(greatest lower bound)

Dé…nition 99 Let E be a set with an order relation <, then supremum of a set E is the
smallest of the upper bound of E (we use <), noted sup E . On the other hand the in…mum is
the largest of the lower bound of E (we use <), noted inf E. Otherwise one has:
(1) 8M an upper bound of E, (sup E) <M:
(2) 8m a lower bound of E, m< (inf E) :

3.3.5 Maximum - minimum

Dé…nition 100 Let E be a set with an order relation <, then if the supremum of a set E belongs
to E, then the maximum exists and it is equal to the supremum of E, if not the maximum does
not exist.
On the other hand if the in…mum of a set E belongs to E, then the minimum exists and it is
equal to the in…mum of E, if not the minimum does not exist.
The maximum is noted by: max E and the minimum by: min E:

Exemple 101 In I = [2; 5[ provided with an order relation < de…ned by:

x<y , x y:

(1) < is a total order and we have:

] 1; 2] is the set of the upper bound of I.

[5; +1[ is the set of the lower bound of I:

(2) We have: sup I = 5 and inf I = 2.

(3) sup I = 5 2
= I ) max I doesn’t exist.
(4) inf I = 2 2 I ) min I = 2:

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