Plant

Asexual and sexual reproduction

Feature Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Number of parents One Two

Are haploid gametes produced? No. No. Yes, Yes

Does fertilisation take place?

Makeup of offspring Genetically identical Genetically varied

(clones)

Cell division processes Mitosis to produce new Meiosis to produce gametes followed
offspring by fertilisation, and then mitosis for
growth

Advantages Faster, happens in Genetically varied, population more

favorable conditions able to survive change in
environment/diseases

Disadvantages Genetically identical, Requires energy finding a mate, slower

susceptible to disease

Specialised gametes involved ? No Yes

Fertilization No Yes

Genetic variation in offspring No Yes

Most suitable environment Stable environment - Can Changing environment (better chance
populate/ colonise a new of being able to adapt to new
area very quickly conditions by variation and natural
(assuming conditions are selection)
right and nutrients are
plentiful.

Organisms that can asexually reproduce Examples/ Key Information

Bacteria Binary fission, any bacteria

Animals Starfish, sea anemones

Plants Natural Storage organs e.g. potato tubers and

daffodil bulbs

Plantlets e.g. spider plant

 Runners e.g. strawberry plant

Corms, rhizomes

Artificially Artificially Induced - cuttings

Sexual Reproduction Type of gametes Where produced

Plant Male Pollen Anthers

Female Ovule/ egg Ovaries

Human Male Sperm Testes

Female Egg/Ovum Ovaries

Fertilization
1. What does plant fertilisation involve?
In plants the nucleus of the pollen grain fuses with nucleus of the ovum,
which is inside an ovule in the ovary. This forms a zygote.

2. What is pollination?
the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a plant.

3. What is cross-pollination and self-pollination?

Self-pollination occurs when the pollen from the anther is deposited on the
stigma of the same flower, or another flower on the same plant.
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to
the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species.
Fertilisation

What stimulates the pollen tube to grow?

Landing on the stigma (coming into contact with certain biomolecules found on stigma)

Why do pollen grains only produce tubes in flowers of their own species?
The female plant must recognize the pollen stuck to the stigma. Often, only pollen of
the same species can successfully grow. The interaction with the style and pollen detects
compatibility and influences growth rate of the pollen tube

Explain how the pollen tube grows down through the style:
Uses enzymes to digest the style

How does the male gamete in flowers differ to the animal male gamete?
Sperm has flagellum, is produced in testes, swims
Pollen is a sphere, is produced in anther
 Both produce many, both have ½ DNA

When does fertilisation occur?

When male nucleus enters the ovule and fuses with the female egg

What type of division occurs to produce an embryo plant from the diploid zygote formed
after fertilisation?
mitosis

Flower Part function

Male Part - Stamen consisting of a filament and an anther (where

pollen is produced and stored).

Female Part - carpel/pistil consisting of the stigma (sticky), style, and

ovary (where an ovule is located).
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a plant

Type/Defination Wind pollination is the transfer of pollen (by Insect pollination is the transfer of pollen (by means
means of being blown in the wind) from the anther of sticking to an insect) from the anther to the
to the stigma of a plant. stigma of a plant.

Pollen grain  small and light so they can be carried easily by Pollen often sticky or has spikes to attach to insects
the wind.
 Pollen produced in very large numbers – to
maximise chances of landing on a stigma.

Petals small and green as there is no need to attract Large brightly coloured petals to attract insects
insects

Anthers exposed to the wind so that pollen can easily be Anthers are firm and positioned inside the flower;
blown away ideal location to rub pollen onto insects

Stigma hang outside the flower and are feathery to catch Sticky stigma to collect pollen
pollen carried on wind Stigma located inside flower; ideal location for
insect to deposit pollen onto.
No scent or nectary as there is no need to attract Nectar and a scent present to attract insects
insects
 1. Pollination occurs either by
wind or insects.
2. The pollen landed on
stigma and grows a pollen
tube down the style using
digestive enzymes.

3. The pollen tube grows towards

the ovary and enters the ovule via
micropyle

4. The pollen nucleus slides down

the tube into the ovule and fuse
with egg nucleus

5. The fertilised egg develops into

an embryo

6. Ovule becomes a seed and ovary

becomes the fruit

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R8_ScKzLAfE – 2:31 minutes

Draw a cycle diagram to summarise

fertilisation in plants.

Seed Germination
Germination: is the process by
which an embryo (in a seed)
begins to develop into a young
plant.
 Water softens the testa to allow it to split.

1. Condition required for Germination

Seeds need WOW to germinate:

Water
to enter through the micropyle and
activate enzymes which digest
stored food. It also softens the
testa to allow it to split
Oxygen
Needed for the release of energy
(through respiration) for
germination
Warmth (temperature)
Needed for the enzymes to work at their optimum

2. What factors affect rate of germination ?

 Spacing / number of seeds
 Humidity / water volume
 Type of seeds
 Size of seeds
 Type of soil / mass
 Temperature
 Depth of planting
 Gases / oxygen levels

Measure by % germination after set time

Human
Puberty changes

● Explain the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in developing secondary sexual characteristics and give
some examples?

Puberty changes in the male Puberty changes in the female Puberty changes in both
(testosterone – testes) (oestrogen - ovary) sexes

Penis becomes larger Breasts develop Pubic hair and armpit hair
growth
Facial and chest hair Menstrual cycle begins
Height growth (growth spurt)
Shoulders and chest broaden Hips widen
Sexual organs grow and
Bodies become more muscular Ovaries start to release egg
develop
cells
Sperm production begins

Breaking of voice
Male reproductive organs and function

Female reproductive organs and function

Organ Function
Fallopian tubes Produces female hormones, and stores and releases the ovum
Ovulation Neck or opening to the uterus
Uterus When an egg is released from the ovary and moves down the fallopian tube
Ovaries A hollow, muscular organ that protects and nourishes the foetus
Vagina Empty passageway leading from the vaginal opening to the uterus
Vulva Two tubes which connect the ovaries to the uterus and carry the egg to
the uterus
Cervix The general term for all external female sex organs
Key things that happen in each place too!

● Intercourse - vagina & penis

● Hormone production - oestrogen and progesterone released from ovaries, testosterone released from testes

● Development of gametes - ovary (egg) and testes (sperm)

● Sperm carried - through sperm duct from testes

● Sperm mixed with semen (from seminal vesicle) for ejaculation (out of urethra)
 ●

Menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle in women is a recurring process in which the lining of the uterus (womb) is
prepared for pregnancy, and if pregnancy does not happen, the lining is shed at menstruation
(period).

Hormone Produced Role

FSH (follicle Pituitary Causes an egg to mature in an ovary. Stimulates the ovaries
stimulating hormone) gland to release oestrogen
Stops FSH being produced (so that only one egg matures in
Oestrogen Ovaries a cycle). Repairs, thickens and maintains the uterus lining.
Stimulates the pituitary gland to release LH.
LH (luteinising Pituitary
Triggers ovulation (the release of a mature egg)
hormone) gland
Progesterone Ovaries Maintains the lining of the uterus during the middle part of the
 Hormone Produced Role
menstrual cycle and during pregnancy.
FOLP – ORDER OF HORMONES

 Day 0
The cycle begins. The old ovum is shed along with the lining of the uterus (endometrium). This is
called a period
 Day 5
The period stops
FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) starts to be released by the pituitary gland in the brain and
travel through the bloodstream to the ovaries. Stimulates a few ova to mature and develop.
 Day 7
The ova signal to the ovaries as they develop
The ovaries start to produce the hormone oestrogen
This thickens the uterus lining
 Day 14

The ovaries are now producing so much oestrogen that it is detected by the brain.

The brain stops producing FSH and starts producing luteinising hormone (LH)

LH triggers ovulation – the release of the egg. It starts travelling down the fallopian tube to the
uterus.
 Day 20
The new egg reaches the uterus
Release of progesterone from the ovary maintains the thick uterus lining. This will provide
protection and food for the developing embryo.
Hormone (in order Produced by Role Peak in this hormone
of peaking) which gland? switches off which
hormone
PSH Pituitary gland mature egg

Ovaries Maintains female sex FSH and LH

oestrogen hormone
LH Pituitary gland causes Ovary to Oestrogen
release mature egg
cell
Progesterone Ovaries Maintains uterus lining LH and FSH
for pregnancy
Summary of the key events of a menstrual cycle

Key events
Day 1 = 1 day of _mensturation_
st

Uterine lining builds up days _5_ to _28_

Day 14 = __ovulation__
Uterine lining remains thick for about _14_ days in case of _implantation_ of an embryo.
If no implantation occurs the cycle begins again at day 1, with __mensturation_
 If implantation occurs progesterone levels remain _high_
1. What does positive feedback mean? And how is the menstrual cycle an example of positive
feedback?
Movement in a particular direction results in amplification of …..
As FSH is produced, FSH then stimulates oestrogen to be produced. When
oestrogen increases it stimulates LH to be released, and more FSH to be released.
2. What does negative feedback mean? And how is the menstrual cycle an example of
negative feedback?
As oestrogen levels begin to rise (but still low) this inhibits FSH production. As
oestrogen levels peak this inhibits FSH and LH.
3. If pregnancy were to occur, which hormone needs to remain high? And how would this
happen?
Progesterone, placenta releases hormone
4. Challenge: What other biological examples of positive and negative feedback exist?
Explain.
birth - effect of oxytocin on contractions - positive feedback
thermoregulation - negative feedback

The menstrual cycle is approximately 28 days long, with day 1 being the start of menstruation or the
‘period’.

The first hormone to peak is FSH and this is produced in the pituitary gland . This acts to develop/mature
an ovum within the ovaries.

The second hormone to peak is oestrogen which is produced in the ovary , which acts to thicken the
uterus lining to prepare for implantation of a fertilised egg cell (also known as a zygote) if fertilisation
occurs.

The third hormone to peak on day 14 is LH,which is produced in the pituitary gland , this peak causes
ovulation, the release of an egg cell into the fallopian tube.

The fourth hormone to peak is progesterone, which is produced in the ovary , this maintains the uterine
lining.

If fertilisation occurs the level of progesterone stays high, this prevents the rise in FSH and stops the
menstrual cycle from continuing.
Fetus and etc

L4 Placenta and amniotic sac Q

What is the primary site of NUTRIENT and GAS

The Placenta
exchange between the mother and the foetus?
The placenta is an organ shared between mother and
Blood
foetus – what never crosses from one to the other?
A link between mother and foetus – allows for
What is the role of the Umbilical Cord?
the passing of substances between the two
What does the mother give her foetus? Oxygen, Nutrients
What does the Foetus give to the mother? Carbon Dioxide, Water, Waste
What mechanism does the placenta use to exchange
Diffusion
gases?
Why is the baby in a sac of fluid? For protection
What precious proteins does the mother give to her
Antibodies
baby?

What vital function does the placenta perform that

Hormones
stops the mother miscarrying her foetus?

What is Amniotic fluid made from? Foetal Urine

What does it mean when a pregnant women’s The Amniotic Sac has been pierced or has
‘waters break’? burst in preparation for birth
There are several different stages during the process of human reproduction :-

Adult/new born vs fetus heart

https://www.slideshare.net/mrivard8/the-fetal-and-newborn-heart-ppp-8888104
Mitosis and Meiosis
 Mitosis Meiosis
2 daugther cells 4 daugther cells
On round of cell division 2 round of cell division
Diploid daughter cells Haploid daughter cells
Plant Tip, stem, root, buds, leaf, Anther, ovule, ovary
embryo