NCERT NOTES

FOR POLITY
6th Standard
CONTENTS
Understanding the diversity ........................................................................................................ 1 - 2

Diversity and Discrimination ....................................................................................................... 3 - 6

What is Government? ................................................................................................................... 7 - 8

Key Elements of a Democratic Government ........................................................................ 9 - 10

Panchayati Raj ............................................................................................................................ 11 - 12

Rural Administration ................................................................................................................. 13 - 13

Urban Administration ............................................................................................................... 14 - 14

Rural Livelihoods ....................................................................................................................... 15 - 15

Urban Livelihoods ...................................................................................................................... 16 - 17

 UNDERSTANDING THE DIVERSITY
1
People are different from each other in terms of their appearance, regional, cultural and religious terms. The
differences include different languages, different rituals etc. This diversity enriches the lives of people of
India.
Difference between diversity and inequality:

Diversity Inequality

It means people belonging to different It arises when a person doesn't have the resources and
classes, regions, religions etc. opportunities that are available to other persons.

Example- India is a diverse country where Example- Division of society on basis of caste system.
people from different religions lives E.g.A potter son is forced to remain a potter.
peacefully.

Diversity in India:
· India is a country of much diversity due to presence of different languages, various types of food,
different festivals, different religions etc.
POPULATION: DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY, GROWTH AND COMPOSITION

· Often, people went in search of new lands, or new places to settle in, or for people to trade with. So
their languages, food, music, religions became a mix of the old and the new, and out of this intermixing
of cultures, came something new and different.
· Thus regions became very diverse because of their unique histories.
· Similarly diversity also comes about when people adapt their lives to the geographical area in which
they live. For example living near the sea is quite different from living in a mountainous area etc

Historical and Geographical factors influencing the diversity of a Region

Case study:
Ladakh:
· Geography:
Ø Ladakh is a desert in the mountains in the east of Jammu and Kashmir. The agriculture is very
little as this region does not receive any rain and is covered in snow for a large part of the year.
Ø People here keep sheep and goats. The goats in this region are special because they produce
pashmina wool.
Ø The people in Ladakh carefully collect the wool of the goats and sell this to traders from Kashmir.
Pashmina shawls are chiefly woven in Kashmir.
Ø It was considered a good trade route as it had many passes through which caravans travelled to
Tibet. These caravans carried textiles and spices, raw silk and carpets.
· Religion:
Ø Buddhism reached Tibet via Ladakh. Ladakh is also known as “Little Tibet.”
Ø Islam was introduced in this region more than four hundred years ago.

1
 · Ladakh has a very rich oral tradition of songs and poems. Local versions of the Tibetan national epic
the Kesar Saga are performed and sung by both Muslims and Buddhists.
Kerala:
· Geography: It is a state in the southwest corner of India. It is surrounded by the sea on one side and hills
on the other.
· Economy: A number of spices like pepper, cloves and cardamoms are grown on the hills. It is spices that
made this region an attractive place for traders. Jewish and Arab traders were the first to come here.
· Religion:
Ø The Apostle of Christ, St. Thomas is believed to have come here nearly2000 years ago and he is
credited with bringing Christianity to India.
Ø Ibn Battuta, who travelled here a little less than seven hundred years ago, wrote a travelogue in
which he describes the lives of Muslims and says that they were a highly respected community.
Ø The Portuguese discovered the sea route to India from Europe when Vasco da Gama landed
with his ship here.
Ø People in Kerala practice different religions such as Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism and
Buddhism due to such historical influences.
· Chinese influence: The fishing nets used here look exactly like the Chinese fishing nets and are called
cheena-vala. Even the utensil used for frying is called the cheenachatti and it is believed that the word

POPULATION: DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY, GROWTH AND COMPOSITION

cheen could have come from China.
While Kerala and Ladakh are quite different in terms of their geographical features but the history of both
regions has seen similar cultural influences. Both regions were influenced by Chinese and Arab traders.
Thus, history and geography are often tied in the cultural life of a region.
Examples of unity in diversity in India:
· Participation of women and men from different cultural, religious and regional backgrounds during
India's freedom movement.
· Songs and symbols that emerged during the freedom struggle serve as a constant reminder of our
country's rich tradition of respect for diversity.
· Use of the Indian flag as a symbol of protest against the British by people everywhere.
· Jawaharlal Nehru in his book the Discovery of Indiasaid that Indian unity is not something imposed
from the outside but rather, "it was something deeper and within its fold, the widest tolerance of belief
and custom was practised and every variety acknowledged and even encouraged."

Interesting points

· Nehru coined the phrase, "Unity in Diversity" to describe the country.

· India's national anthem,composed by Rabindranath Tagore is another expression of the unity of India.
· “Jana Gana Mana” was translated by Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore from Bengali to English in
February 1919 at Madanapalle in the district of Chittoor.

2
 DIVERSITY AND DISCRIMINATION
2
Sometimes people who are 'different' from others are teased, laughed at or not included in a certain activity
or group. Here, we will try and explore how such experiences are related to the society we live in.
Difference and Prejudice
· There are many things that create differences in people such as the languages, food, clothes etc. All of
these are influenced both by the geography and history of the places.
· Scale of Diversity of India:
Ø There are eight major religions in the world and every single one of them is practiced in India.
Ø India has more than 1600 languages and more than a hundred dance forms.
This diversity is not always celebrated because people feel safe and secure with people who look, talk,
dress and think like them. Sometimes when people meet those who are very different from them may
found them strange and unfamiliar. People also form certain attitudes and opinions about others who are
not like them.

Difference Prejudice

People are different from each It means to judge other people negatively or see them as inferior.
other in terms of languages, This means thinking that only one particular way is the best and right
caste, religions etc. way to do things. It led to disrespecting others who may prefer to do
things differently.

Example:India is a country of Example: If someone thinks that English is the best language and
people with different other languages are not important. This means judging the other
religions having different languages negatively.
ways of life. Prejudices can be related to different things such aspeople's religious
beliefs, the colour of their skin, the region they come from, the accent
they speak in, the clothes they wear etc.

Examples of Stereotypes:
· Gender differences:
DIVERSITY ANDDISCRIMINATION

For example;''Boys don't cry". This is a quality that is generally associated with males. It is one such
stereotype associated with males and females are fitted into an image that society creates around them.
· 'Disabled persons':
This term has been changed and now the term used is 'children with special needs'. Certain common
stereotypes about them are if their legs are wobbly then their minds also wobbly.
· Religious:
Ø A common stereotype about some Muslims is that they are not interested in educating girls and
therefore do not send girls to school. However, studies have now shown that poverty amongst
Muslims is an important reason why Muslim girls do not attend school or drop out from school after

3
 a few years.
Ø For example;in the state of Kerala, the distance between the school and the home is not much.
There is a good government bus service that helps teachers reach schools in rural areas and over
sixty per cent of the teachers are women. These factors have helped children from poorer families,
including Muslim girls, attend school in much larger numbers.
Negatives of Prejudice:
· Sometimes prejudices about others are so strong that it hurt others.
· Fixing people into one image create a stereotype. Stereotypes stop people from looking at each
person as a unique individual with his or her own special qualities and skills that are different from
others.
· Stereotypes affect all of us as they prevent us from doing certain things that we might otherwise be
good at.
Inequality and Discrimination
Reasons for Discrimination:
· Discrimination happens when people act on their prejudices or stereotypes.
· Inferiority complex: Groups of people, who may speak a certain language, follow a particular religion,
live in specific regions etc., may be discriminated against as their customs or practices may be seen as
inferior.
· Different economic backgrounds: This difference is not a form of diversity but of inequality. People
who are poor do not have the resources or the money to meet their basic needs of food, clothing and
shelter. They experience discrimination in offices, in hospitals, schools etc., where they are treated
badly because they are poor.
On being discriminated against:
· Different value of work: Activities like cleaning, washing, cutting hair, picking garbage are seen as
tasks that are of less value and people who do this work are seen as dirty or impure.
· Caste system:
Ø In the caste system, communities/groups of people were placed in a sort of ladder where each

DIVERSITY ANDDISCRIMINATION
caste was either above or below the other.
Ø Those who placed themselves at the top of this ladder called themselves uppercaste and saw
themselves as superior.
Ø The groups who were placed at the bottom of the ladder were seen as unworthy and called
"untouchables".
Ø Inequality: Caste rules were set which did not allow the so-called "untouchables" to take on
work, other than what they were meant to do. For example, some groups were forced to pick
garbage and remove dead animals from the village. But they were not allowed to enter the
homes of the upper castes or take water from the village well.

4
 Case study:Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar experience of caste-based discrimination:
· It took place in 1901 when he had gone with his brothers and cousins to meet his father in
Koregaon which is now in Maharashtra.
· There were many bullock-carts plying for hire but because of their identity no one of them was
ready to take them as they feel that they will be polluted as they considered them untouchables.
· Caste based discrimination is not only limited to preventing Dalits from undertaking certain
economic activities but it also denies them the respect and dignity given to others.

Striving for Equality

· During freedom struggle:
Ø The struggle for freedom from British rule also included within it the struggle of large groups of
people who not only fought against the British but also fought to be treated more equally such as
Dalits, women, tribals and peasants etc.
Ø For example;many Dalits organised themselves to gain entry into temples, women demanded
right to education etc.
· After independence:
When India became a nation in 1947 our leaders too were concerned about the different kinds of
inequalities. So, they tried different ways to promote equality such as

Ø Our Constitution makers set out a vision and goals in the Constitution to ensure that all the
people of India were considered equal.
Ø Everyone has equal rights and opportunities.
Ø Untouchability is seen as a crime and has been legally abolished by law.
Ø People are free to choose the kind of work they wish to do.
Ø Government jobs are open to all people.
Ø In addition, the Constitution also placed responsibility on the government to take specific steps
to realize this right to equality for poor and other such marginal communities.
DIVERSITY ANDDISCRIMINATION

Ø Respecting diversity:The writers of the Constitution felt that people must have the freedom to
follow their religion, speak their language, celebrate their festivals and express themselves
freely.
Ø No one language, religion or festival should become compulsory for all to follow.
Ø Government must treat all religions equally. Therefore, India became a secular country where
people of different religions and faiths have the freedom to practice and follow their religion
without any fear of discrimination.

5
 Interesting points

· A book “Why are you afraid to hold my hand” is written bySheila Dhir.
· Dalit: It means those who have been 'broken'. The government refers to this group of people as
Scheduled Castes (SC).
· Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar (1891-1956):
Ø He was born into the Mahar caste, which was considered untouchable.
Ø He encouraged Dalits to send their children to school and college.
Ø He fought for the rights of the Dalit community.
Ø He is considered as the father of the Indian Constitution.
Ø Later in life, he converted to Buddhism in his search for a religion that treated all members
equally.

DIVERSITY ANDDISCRIMINATION

6
 WHAT IS GOVERNMENT?
3
Government is an organization that takes decisions and makes laws for the citizens of a country.
Need of government:
· To optimally utilize the resources for the welfare of its citizens.
· To make rules that will be applicable to everyone.
Functions of government:
· To make decisions and get things done: These can be decisions such as building roads and schools, or
ways to increase the supply of electricity etc. The government also takes action on many social issues
such as it has several programmes to help the poor.
· Protecting country: The government has the job of protecting the boundaries of the country and
maintaining peaceful relations with other countries.
· Emergency role: When there are natural disasters like the tsunami or an earthquake, it is the
government that mainly organises aid and assistance for the affected people.
· Settling disputes: People reach courts to settle disputes. Courts are also part of the government.
Levels of Government:
· Three levels: The government works at three levels:
Ø The national levelcovers the entire country.
Ø The state levelcovers an entire state like Haryana or Assam.
Ø The local levelmeans in village, town or locality.
Laws and the Government:
· Government function: The government makes laws and everyone who lives in the country has to
follow these.
· Enforcing decisions: The government has the power to enforce its decisions. For example, there is a
law that says that all persons driving a motor vehicle must have a licence. Any person caught driving a
vehicle without a licence can either be jailed or fined a large sum of money.
· Remedy for people: There are steps that people can take if they feel that a particular law is not being
followed. For example- If a person feels that they were not hired for a job because of their religion or
caste, he or she may approach the court and claim that the law is not being followed.
Types of Government:

Democracy Monarchy

Definition In a democracy, people give the In monarchy, the monarch (king or queen) has
government the power to take the power to make decisions and run the
WHAT IS GOVERNMENT?

decisions on their behalf through government. The monarch has the final
elections in which they vote for decision-making power.
particular persons and elect them.

Accountability The government has to explain The monarch doesn't have to explain their
its actions and defend its actions or defend their decisions.
decisions to the people.

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Democratic Governments:
· Rule by people: The people have the power to elect their leaders.
· Basic idea:People rule themselves by participating in the making of these rules.
· Representative democracies: In representative democracies, people do not participate directly
instead choose their representatives through an election process. These representatives meet and
make decisions for the entire population.
· Universal adult franchise:All adults in the country are allowed to vote.
(There was a time when governments did not allow women and the poor to participate in elections. Before
independence in India, only a small minority was allowed to vote).

Interesting points

· Gandhiji published the Journal“Young India”.

· Institutions such as the Supreme Court, the Indian Railways and Bharat Petroleum are part of the
government.
· Women rights:
Ø Women's struggle to vote got strengthened during the First World War. This movement is
called the women's suffrage movement as the term suffrage usually means right to vote.
Ø American women got the right to vote in 1920.
Ø In 1928, women in the UK got to vote on the same terms as men.

WHAT IS GOVERNMENT?

8
 KEY ELEMENTS OF A
4 DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT
There are certain key elements that influence the working of a democratic government such as people's
participation, the resolution of conflict and equality and justice.
Key elements of democratic government
· Participation:
Through voting in elections, people elect leaders to represent them which take decisions on behalf of the
people. In doing so it is assumed that they will keep in mind the voices and interests of the people.
Other ways of participating in democracy:
Ø The ways include dharnas, rallies, strikes, signature campaigns etc.
Ø Things that are unfair and unjust are brought forward. Newspapers, magazines and TV play a
role in discussing government issues and responsibilities.
Ø Example- In August 2005, people expressed their disapproval when a particular government
increased rate of electricity. They took out rallies and also organised a signature campaign. The
government finally listened to the people's opinion and withdrew the increase.
Ø Social movements: As not all sections of people are actually able to participate, they participate
by organising themselves into social movements that seek to challenge the government and its
functioning. Members of the minority community, dalits, adivasis, women and others are often
participate in this manner.

· Need to resolve conflict:

Conflicts occur when people of different cultures, religions, regions or economic backgrounds do not get
along with each other, or when some among them feel they are being discriminated against.
Responsibility of government in resolving conflicts:
KEY ELEMENTS OF A DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT

Ø Religious processions and celebrations can sometimes lead to conflicts. The governments,
particularly the police, play an important role in getting representatives of concerned
communities to meet and try and arrive at a solution.
Ø Rivers too can become a source of conflict between states such as Cauvery water dispute
between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu etc. In such scenario, the central government has to step in
and see that a fair distribution is worked out for both states.
· Equality and Justice:
Ø Equality and justice are inseparable.
Ø Justice can only be achieved when people are treated equally e.g. abolition of untouchability etc.
Ø The government makes special provisions for groups within society that are unequal.
Ø For example; in our society there is a general tendency to value and care for the boy child more
than the girl child.In this context the government steps in to promote justice by providing special
provisions that can enable girls to overcome the injustice through fees waiver programs for girls
in government schools or colleges.

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 Interesting points

· Apartheid: It means separation on the basis of race. For example;South African people were
divided into white, black, Indian and coloured races.
· Nelson Mandela of the African National Congress led the struggle against apartheid and in 1994;
South Africa became a democratic country.

KEY ELEMENTS OF A DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT

10
 PANCHAYATI RAJ
5
Panchayati Raj system is responsible for making decisions in rural areas and brings democracy to people
where they directly participate and seek answers from their elected representatives.
Panchayat:
· Every village Panchayat is divided into wards, i.e. smaller areas.
· Each ward elects a representative who is known as the Ward Member (Panch).
· All the members of the Gram Sabha elect a Sarpanch who is the Panchayat President.
· The Ward Panchs and the Sarpanchforms the Gram Panchayat.
· The Gram Panchayat is elected for five years.
· The Gram Panchayat has a Secretary who is also the Secretary of the Gram Sabha. This person is not
an elected person but is appointed by the government.
· The Secretary is responsible for calling the meeting of the Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat and
keeping a record of the proceedings.
Gram Sabha:
· It is a meeting of all adults who live in the area covered by a Panchayat.
· This could be only one village or a few villages.
· In some states, a village meeting is held for each village.
· Anyone who is 18 years old or more and who has the right to vote is a member of the Gram Sabha.
Role of Gram Sabha:
· The Gram Sabha discusses the local issues of importance such asroad repairing plans or discussions
on water shortages etc.
· Ensure accountability of Gram Panchayat:It is the place where all plans for the work of the Gram
Panchayat are placed before the people.
· The Gram Sabha prevents the Panchayat from doing wrong things like misusing money or favoring
certain people.
· It plays an important role in keeping an eye on the elected representatives and in making them
responsible to the persons who elected them.
The Gram Panchayat
Functions of a Gram Panchayat:
· Construction and maintenance of water sources, roads, drainage, school buildings and other common
property resources.
· Levying and collecting local taxes.
· Executing government schemes related to generating employment in the village.
Sources of funds for the Panchayat:
· Collection of taxes on houses, market places etc.
PANCHAYATI RAJ

· Government scheme funds received through various departments of the government – through the
Janpad and Zila Panchayats.
· Donations for community works etc.
Role of Gram Panchayat:
· The Gram Panchayat meets regularly and one of its main tasks is to implement development

11
 programmesfor all villages that come under it.
· The work of the Gram Panchayat has to be approved by the Gram Sabha.
· In some states, Gram Sabhas form committees like construction and development committees. These
committees include some members of the Gram Sabha and some from the Gram Panchayat who work
together to carry out specific tasks.

Three Levels of Panchayat:

· The Gram Panchayat: It is the first tier or level of democratic government.
· The Janpad Panchayat or the Panchayat Samiti: It is the Block level. It has many Gram Panchayats
under it.
· District Panchayat or the Zila Parishad: It is above the Panchayat Samiti. It actually makes
developmental plans at the district level. With the help of Panchayat Samitis, it also regulates the
money distribution among all the Gram Panchayats.
As per guidelines given in the Constitution, each state in the country has its own laws with regard to
Panchayats. The idea is to provide more and more space for people to participate and raise their voices.

PANCHAYATI RAJ

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 RURAL ADMINISTRATION
6
A large population of India lives in villages. Thus, the government has to take care of their needs for water,
electricity, road connections, land records etc.
Maintaining Law and Order through Police Force
Area of Police Station:
· Every police station has an area that comes under its control.
· All persons in that area can report cases or inform the police about any theft, accident, injury, fight, etc.
· It is the responsibility of the police of that station to enquire, to investigate and take action on the
cases within its area.
Maintenance of Land Records
Role of Patwari:
· Measuring land and keeping land records is the main work of the Patwari.
· Each Patwari is responsible for a group of villages.
· The Patwari maintains and updates the records of the village.
· The Patwari usually has ways of measuring agricultural fields.
· The Patwari is also responsible for organizing the collection of land revenue from the farmers and
providing information to the government about the crops grown in this area. It is important as farmers
may change the crops grown on their fields or someone may dig a well somewhere.
· Revenue department supervises the Patwari's work.
Management of land records:
· All states in India are divided into districts.
· For managing matters relating to land, these districts are further sub-divided which are known by
different names such as tehsil, taluka, etc.
· It is headed by the District Collector and under his/her are the revenue officers known as tehsildars.
· They have to hear disputes. They also supervise the work of the Patwaris and ensure that records are
properly kept and land revenue is collected.
· They make sure that the farmers can easily obtain a copy of their record, students can obtain their caste
certificates etc.
· Land disputes are also heard at the Tehsildar's office.

Interesting points
RURAL ADMINISTRATION

· There are more than six lakh villages in India.

· The Patwari is known by different names in different states - Lekhpal, Kanungo or Karamchari or
Village Officer.
· Hindu Succession Amendment Act, 2005:
Ø With this new law, sons, daughters and their mothers in Hindu families can get an equal share
in the land.
Ø The same law will apply to all states and union territories of the country.

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 URBAN ADMINISTRATION
7
A city is much bigger than a village and more spread out. A city has crowded markets, many buses and cars,
water and electricity facilities, traffic control and hospitals.
Municipal Corporation
Functions of Municipal Corporations:
· It is a big organisation that takes care of street lights, garbage collection, water supply, keeping the
streets and the market clean.
· It is also responsible for ensuring that diseases do not break out in the city.
· It also runs schools, hospitals and dispensaries, makes gardens and maintains them.
· In big citiessuch organization are called Municipal Corporation but in smaller towns, it is called a
Municipal Council.
The Ward Councillor and Administrative Staff:
· The city is divided into different wards and ward councillors get elected.
· The complicated decisions that affect the entire city are taken by groups of councillors who form
committees to decide and debate issues.
· For example, if bus stands need to be improved, or a crowded market-place needs to have its garbage
cleared more regularly etc. It is these committees for water, garbage collection, street lighting etc. that
decide on the work to be done.
· When the problems are within a ward then the people who live in the ward can contact their
councillors. For example, if there are dangerous electrical wires hanging down then the local Councillor
can help them get in touch with the electricity authority.
· Though the Councillor's Committees and the councillors decide on issues, the decisions are
implemented by the Commissioner and the administrative staff. The Commissioner and the
administrative staff are appointed.
· All of the Ward Councillors meet and they make a budget and the money is spent according to this.
· The work in the city is divided into different departments like the water department, the garbage
collection department, etc.
· Sub-Contracting: In recent times, in order to save money the Commissioners of several municipalities
across the country had hired private contractors to collect and process garbage. This is called Sub-
Contracting.
Ways of generating funds by the Municipal Corporation:
· People who own homes have to pay a property tax as well as taxes for water and other services.
URBANADMINISTRATION

· There are also taxes for education and other amenities.

Interesting points

· A tax is a sum of money that people pay to the government for the services the government provides.
· Property taxes form only 25-30 per cent of the money that a Municipal Corporation earns.
· The city of Surat had a plague scare in 1994 due to inadequate garbage disposal.

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 RURAL LIVELIHOODS
8
A livelihood is a means of making a living. It encompasses people's capabilities, assets, income and
activities required to secure the necessities of life.The livelihoods of people are dependent on different farm
and non-farm activities.
Issues in Rural livelihoods:
· Crop failure: It can be due to bad quality seeds, pests attack, and lack of rain in monsoon etc.
· Debt Trap: Very often farmers need to borrow money to purchase basic things like seeds, fertilizers
and pesticides. They borrow this money from moneylenders and falls in debt trap.
· Failure in loan repayment: When crop fails, farmers sometimes are unable to pay back their loans and
for survival may even have to borrow more money.
· Farmer suicides: In recent years,failure of loan repayment has become a major cause of distress
among farmers and resulted in many farmers committing suicide.
· Seasonal occupation: Farming depend on nature for the growth of different crops. Hence, life revolves
around certain seasons. People are busy during sowing and harvesting and less so at other times.
Agricultural labourers and farmers in India:
· In India, nearly two out of every five rural families are agricultural labourer families.
· All of them depend on the work they do on other people's fields to earn a living.
· Many of them are landless and others may own very small plots of land.
· In the case of small farmers, their land is barely enough to meet their needs. In India, 80 per cent of
farmers belong to this group.
Rural livelihoods:
· Farm Activities:The main occupation is farming. Working on farms involves operations such as
preparing the land, sowing, weeding and harvesting of crops.
· Non-Farm Activities:
Ø Many people in rural areas depend upon collection from the forest, animal husbandry, dairy
produce, fishing etc. For example, in some villages in central India, both farming and collection from
the forest are important sources of livelihood.
Ø Collecting mahua, tendu leaves, honeyis an important source of additional income.
Ø In the coastal areas, we find fishing villages.

Interesting points

· Nearly two-fifth of all rural families are agricultural labourers in our country.
RURAL LIVELIHOODS

· Terrace Farming in Nagaland: In a village called Chizami in Phek district in Nagaland, people
CRAFTS

belonging to the Chakhesang community do 'terrace' cultivation.

· Terrace Cultivation: Land on a hill slope is made into flat plots and carved out in steps. The sides
of each plot are raised in order to retain water. This allows water to stand in the field. This allows
THEATRE

water to stand in the field, which is best for rice cultivation.

15
 URBAN LIVELIHOODS
9
There are more than five thousand towns and twenty-seven big cities in India. Some big cities like Chennai,
Mumbai have more than a million people living and working there.
Urban Livelihoods:
Street workers:
· A large number of people in the city work on the streets. They generally sell things or repair them or
provide a service.
· They are self-employed and have to organise their own work.
· Their shops are usually temporary structures: sometimes just some boards or papers spread over
discarded boxes etc.
· Issues with the Street Workers:
Ø They can be asked to dismantle their shops at any time by the police.
Ø They have no security.
Ø There are certain parts of the city where these hawkers are not allowed to enter.
Ø Street vending was looked upon only as an obstruction to traffic and to people walking.
Ways to improve their conditions:
· With the efforts of many organisations, the street vendoring is now recognised as a general benefit
and as a right of people to earn their livelihood.
· The government can modify the law that banned street vendors and they can have a place to work.
· Hawking zones have been suggested for towns and cities.
· It has also been suggested that mobile vendors should be allowed to move around freely.
· Hawkers need to be part of committees that are set up to take these and other decisions relating to
them.
Business persons:
· There are many people who own shopswhich may be small or large and sell different things.
· Most businesspersons manage their own shops or business.
· They employ a number of other workers as supervisors and helpers.
· These are permanent shops that are given a licence to do business by the municipal corporation.
Daily Wage Labourers:
· They work as helpers to masons and dig at construction sites, lift loads, dig pipelines etc.
Casual basis: Workers are required to come as and when the employer needs them.
Reasons for Small workshops and factories employing casual workers:
· They are employed when the employer gets large orders or during certain seasons.
· At other times of the year, they have to find some other work.
URBANLIVELIHOODS

Working conditions of Casual workers:

· They are not permanent.
· No Job security:If workers complain about their pay or working conditions they are asked to leave.
· There is no job protection if there is ill treatment.
· They are also expected to work for very long hours. For example in the cloth mill units the workers
work on day and night shifts, with each shift lasting 12 hours.

16
 Benefits of Permanent workers:
· Job security: They can expect their job to continue for a long period of time.
· Savings for old age: A part of their salary is kept in a fund with the government which gives them
interest on these savings which can be used after their retirement.
· Holidays:They get regular off in a week, national holidaysand also gets some days as annual leave.
· Medical facilities for family: Company pays the medical expenses up to a certain amount for their
workers families.

Interesting points

· There are almost one crore 'street vendors' in the country working in urban areas.
· In a survey of Ahmedabad city, it was found that 12 per cent of all the workers in the city were
people working on the street.
URBANLIVELIHOODS

17
NCERT NOTES
FOR POLITY
7th Standard
CONTENTS
On Equality ....................................................................................................................................... 1 - 3

Role of the Government in Health ............................................................................................. 4 - 6

How the State Government Works ........................................................................................... 7 - 8

Women Change the World ....................................................................................................... 9 - 11

 ON EQUALITY
1
Equality is a key feature of democracy and influences all aspects of its functioning. Voting in elections is one
aspect of equality. There are many areas where inequality still persists.
Inequalities existing in the Society

Caste Inequality:
· Caste system is one of the most common forms of inequality in India.

Case study:Caste based inequality with Omprakash Valmiki (A Dalit Writer):

· When he was in Class IV, the headmaster asked Omprakash to sweep the school and the playground
all alone. The other children in his class were studying and he was sweeping. He was also asked to sit
away from the others in the class and that too on the floor.

Religious Inequality:
· There are religion-based inequalities in societies when people from one religion don't allow others to
use their rights.

Case Study:
· Mr and Mrs Ansari were looking to rent an apartment in the city. They visited an apartment and liked it
very much and decided to take it. However, when the landlady found out their names, she started
making excuses and then finally refused to rent her apartment.

Recognizing Dignity:
· Unequal treatment: When persons are treated unequally, their dignity is violated.There are certain
things like the caste, the religion, the class background, gender which determine the treatment given to
them.
· All people deserve the same respect and dignity.

Equality in Indian Democracy

According to the Indian Constitution, every individual in the country, including male and female persons
from all castes, religions, tribes, educational and economic backgrounds are recognised as equal.

Provisions of the Constitution recognizing Equality:

· Every person is equal before the law: Every person has to obey the same laws.
· No discrimination: No person can be discriminated against on the basis of their religion, race, caste,
place of birth or gender.
ON EQUALITY

· Equal access to all public places such as playgrounds, hotels, shops and markets, publicly available
wells, roads and bathing ghats.
· Abolition of untouchability.

1
Excerpt from Article 15 of the Indian Constitution: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion,
race, caste, sex or place of birth.
· Article 15 (1):The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion,
race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them.
· Article 15 (2):No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any
of them, be subject to any disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to –
(a) access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment; or
(b)the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained wholly
or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public.

Implementation of such laws: The government has tried to implement the equality that is guaranteed in
the Constitution through two ways:
· Through laws.
· Through government programs or schemes to help disadvantaged communities.

For example;mid-day meal scheme which refers to the programme introduced in all government
elementary schools to provide children with cooked lunch.
This programme had many positive effects:
· Increase the enrolment and attendance of poor children in school.
· Reduced caste prejudice: Children of all castes in the school eat this meal together and at some places,
Dalit women have been employed to cook the meal.

Reasons for existence of Inequality:

· Slow change of attitude: People refuse to think of them as equal.
· Establishing equality in a democratic society is a continuous struggle. For example; in the USA, the
African–Americans whose ancestors were the slaves who were brought over from Africa, continue to
describe their lives today as largely unequal.

Case study:
· Rosa Parks (1913–2005) was an African–American woman. She refused to give up her seat on a bus
to a white man on 1 December 1955.
· Her refusal that day started a huge agitation against the unequal ways in which African–Americans
were treated and which came to be known as the Civil Rights Movement.
ON EQUALITY

· The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, religion or national origin.

2
 Interesting points

· Ragas are traditionally envisioned in divine or human form in romantic or devotional contexts by
musicians and poets.
· Each raga is associated with a specific mood, time of the day and season.
· The six main ragas are Bhairava, Malkos, Hindol, Dipak, Megha and Shri.
· Joothanis the autobiography of Omprakash Valmiki- a famous Dalit writer.
· Universal Adult Franchise: It is based on the idea of equality because it states that every adult in a
country, irrespective of their wealth and the communities she/he belongs to, has one vote.
· Mid-Day Meal Scheme:
Ø Tamil Nadu was the first stateto introduce Mid-day meal scheme.
Ø In 2001, the Supreme Court asked all state governments to begin this programme in their
schools within six months.
· “Nothing is more disgraceful for a brave man than to live life devoid of self-respect.” – B.R.
Ambedkar
ON EQUALITY

3
 ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT
2 IN HEALTH
In a democracy, people expect the government to work for their welfare through the provision of education,
health, employment, housing or the development of roads, electricity etc.
What is Health?
· Health means our ability to remain free of illness and injuries.
· Health isn't only about disease but there are other factors also that affect our health. For example,
clean drinking water or a pollution free environment helps people to remain healthy.
Healthcare in India
Paradox of healthcare in India:

Positive aspects Negative aspects

India has the largest number of medical More doctors settling in urban areas: People in rural
colleges in the world and is among the largest areas have to travel long distances to reach a doctor.
producers of doctors. Approximately more than The number of doctors with respect to the population
30,000 new doctors qualify every year. is much less in rural areas.

Healthcare facilities have grown substantially Low reduction in patients: Every year about five lakh
over the years. In 1950 there were only 2,717 people die from tuberculosis and this number is
government hospitals in India. In 2017, the almost unchanged since Independence. Almost two
number grew to 23,583. million cases of malaria are reported every year and
this number isn't decreasing.

Scope of huge Medical tourism. Low availability of clean drinking water:21per cent
of all communicable diseases are water borne. For
example, diarrhea, worms, hepatitis, etc.

India is the third largest producer of medicines Half of all children in India do not get adequate food to
in the world and is also a large exporter of eat and are undernourished.

ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT IN HEALTH

medicines.

Requirements to prevent and treat illnesses:

· Appropriate healthcare facilities to provide required care and services to patients. For example-
health centres, hospitals, laboratories for testing, ambulance services, blood banks, etc.
· Adequate healthcare workers: In order to run healthcare facilities, we need health workers, nurses,
qualified doctors and other health professionals who can advice, diagnose and treat illnesses.
· Need of medicines and equipments for treating patients.
Division of healthcare facilities:
· Public health services and
· Private health facilities.

4
 Public Health Services:
· It is a chain of health centres and hospitals run by the government which are linked together so that
they cover both rural and urban areas and can also provide treatment to all kinds of problems – from
common illnesses to special services.
· At the village level, there are health centres where there is usually a nurse and a village health worker.
They are trained in dealing with common illnesses and work under the supervision of doctors at the
Primary Health Centre (PHC). Such a centre covers many villages in a rural area.
· At the district level, there is the District Hospital that supervises all the health centres in the district.
Need of Public Health Service:
· Constitutional mandate: It is the primary duty of the government to ensure the welfare of the people
and provide health care facilities to all.The government must safeguard the Right to Life of every
person.
· Common service: The resources needed to run these services are obtained from the money that the
public pay to the government as taxes.
· Access to treatment for poor: It is meant to provide quality health care services either free or at a low
cost.
Private Health Facilities:
They are not owned or controlled by the government. There is wide range of private health facilities such
as Registered Medical Practitioners (RMPs) in rural areas, private clinics run by large number of doctors
etc. Urban areas also have a large number of doctors, privately owned hospitals and nursing homes,
private laboratories etc.

Healthcare and Equality: Is adequate healthcare available to all?

Issues in Healthcare facilities in India:
· Expensive Private sector: If public services are not increasing as per requirement then there will be a
situation where there is only one option of private services to poor.
· Encouragement of incorrect practices in private sector: At times inexpensive alternatives though
ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT IN HEALTH

available, may not be used. For example, some medical practitioners are found to prescribe
superfluous medicines, injections when simple medication may suffice.
· In fact, barely 20 per cent of the population can afford all the medicines that they require during an
illness.
· It was reported in a study that 40 per cent of people who are admitted to a hospital for some illness or
injury have to borrow money or sell some of their possessions to pay for the expenses.
· Patriarchal concerns: Women's health concerns are considered to be less important than the health of
men in the family.
· Inadequate Health Centres:Many tribal areas have few health centres and they do not run properly.

Way Forward:
It is the responsibility of the government to provide quality healthcare services to all its citizens, especially

5
 the poor and the disadvantaged. Health is as much dependent on basic amenities and social conditions of
the people, as it is on healthcare services. It is important to work on both in order to improve the health
situation of our people. And this can be done. For example:
· The Kerala experience:
Ø In 1996, the Kerala government made some major changes in the state.
Ø Forty per cent of the entire state budget was given to panchayats.
Ø This helped village to make sure that proper planning was done for water, food, women's
development and education.
Ø Improved Situation: This meant that water supply schemes were checked, the working of
schools and anganwadis was ensured and specific problems of the village were taken up. Health
centres were also improved. As basic amenities improved, health conditions also improved.
· The Costa Rican approach:
Ø Costa Rica is considered to be one of the healthiest countries in Central America.
Ø Several years ago, Costa Rica took a very important decision and decided not to have an army.
This helped to spend that money on health, education and other basic needs of the people. The
Costa Rican government provides basic services and amenities to all Costa Ricans.

Interesting points

· The Medical Council of India's Code of Medical Ethics states: “Every physician should, as far as
possible, prescribe drugs with generic names and he/she shall ensure that there is a rational
prescription and use of drugs.”

ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT IN HEALTH

6
 HOW THE STATE
3 GOVERNMENT WORKS
State government plays an important role in Indian democracy.People express their views or demand action
from government to fulfill their needs.
Constitutional Head:
· The Head of the State is the Governor.
· She/He is appointed by the Central Government to ensure that the State Government works within
the rules and regulations of the Constitution.
Executive Part of Government
Legislative assembly:
· It is a place where all the MLAs, whether from the ruling party or from the opposition meet to discuss
various things.
· Every state in India has a Legislative Assembly.
· Each state is divided into different areas or constituencies.
Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA):
· From each constituency, the people elect one representative who then becomes an MLA.
· In Indian democracy, people stand for elections in the name of different parties. These MLAs, therefore,
belong to different political parties.
Government:
· It refers to government departments and various ministers who head them.
· The overall head is theChief Minister.
· MLAs become members of the legislative assembly and form the government. Hence, some MLAs
have dual responsibilities:
Ø One as an MLA.
Ø Other as a Minister.
Formation of Government:
· A political party whose MLAs have won more than half the number of constituencies in a state can be
said to be in a majority.
HOW THE STATE GOVERNMENT WORKS

· The political party that has the majority is called the ruling party.
· All other members are called the opposition.
· After the elections, the MLAs belonging to the ruling party will elect their leader who will become the
Chief Minister.
· The Chief Minister then selects other people as ministers.
· After the elections, it is the Governor of the state who appoints the Chief Minister and other ministers.
· The Chief Minister and other ministers have the responsibility of running various government
departments or ministries. They have separate offices.
· The government takes action for people through various departments like the Public Works
Department, the Agriculture Department, the Health Department, etc.
Accountability of Government through Legislative Assembly:
· Through debates: During debates, MLAs can express their opinions and ask questions related to the
issue or give suggestions about what should be done by the government.

7
· The Chief Minister and other ministers have to take decisions and run the government. But that
decisions are being taken have to be approved by the members of the legislative assembly.

Interesting points

· Coalition: At times, the ruling party may not be a single party but a group of parties working
together. This is called a coalition.

HOW THE STATE GOVERNMENT WORKS

8
 WOMEN CHANGE THE WORLD
4
Women's work in the home is not recognized as work though doing household work and taking care of
family members is a full-time job. They also struggle at work outside the home and suffer in some
occupations which are seen to be more suitable for men.
Fewer Opportunities and Rigid expectations for Women
Stereotypes:
· Some jobs like nurses, teachers are associated with women while jobs like army officers are associated
with men. The reason is because there is a general perception that women are good at only certain
jobs outside the home.
· For example, many people believe that women make better nurses because they are morepatient and
gentle.
· Lack of support: Many girls do not get the same support likeboys to study and train to become doctors
and engineers.
· In most families, once girls finish school, they are encouraged by their families to see marriage as their
main aim in life.
Case study: Breaking stereotypes
· Generally, engine drivers are men. But 27-year-old Laxmi Lakra, from a poor tribal family in Jharkhand
has begun to change things. She is the first woman engine driver for Northern Railways.
Pressure from the World:
· In a society, all children face pressures from the world around them which sometimes come in the form
of demands from adults. For example- Boys are pressurized to think about getting a job that will pay a
good salary.
Transition in the lives of women through education:
· Historical injustice:There was a time when school and learning were seen as not appropriate for some
children and the condition of women was worst in communities that taught sons to read and write but
ignored women.
· Changes in nineteenth century:Many new ideas about education emerged. Despite opposition many
women got the education after facing lot of hardships.
Ø Rashsundari Devi (1800–1890): She was born in West Bengal and wrote her autobiography in
Bangla titled Amar Jiban. It is the first known autobiography written by an Indian woman.
WOMEN CHANGE THE WORLD

Ø Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain (1880 –1932): Though she knew how to read and write Urdu, she
was stopped from learning Bangla and English. In those days, English was seen as a language
that would expose girls to new ideas and not correct for them.She wrote a remarkable story
titled Sultana's Dream in 1905 to practice her English skills. This story imagined a woman called
Sultana who reaches a place called Ladyland- a place where women had the freedom to study,
work, and create inventions like controlling rain from the clouds and flying air cars. In 1910, she
started a school for girls in Kolkata.
Ø Ramabai (1858–1922): She was given the title 'Pandita' because she could read and write
Sanskrit. She went on to set up a Mission in Khedgaon near Pune in 1898, where widows and
poor women were encouraged not only to become literate but to be independent.

9
Schooling and Education today:
· Differences between the education of boys and girls:
Ø According to the 1961 census, about 40 per cent of all boys and men (7 years old and above)
were literate (that is, they could at least write their names) compared to just 15 per cent of all girls
and women.
Ø Increase in mount of schooling: In the most recent census of 2011, these figures have grown to
82 per cent for boys and men, and 65 per cent for girls and women.
· Percentage of the male group is still higher than the female group. Here is a table that shows the
percentage of girls and boys who leave schools from different social groups including Scheduled Caste
(SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST).

· The SC and ST girls leaving school is higher than the category 'All Girls'. This means that girls who are
from Dalit (SC) and Adivasi (ST) backgrounds are less likely to remain in school.
· The 2011 census also found that Muslim girls are less likely, than SC and ST girls, to complete primary
school. While a Muslim girl is likely to stay in school for around three years, girls from other

WOMEN CHANGE THE WORLD

communities spend around four years in school.
Reasons for children leaving school:
· Lack of infrastructure:In many parts of the country, especially in rural and poor areas, there may not
even be proper schools or teachers on a regular basis.
· Lack of transport facilities: Parents may not send girls to school if a school is not close to people's
homes or there is no transport like buses or vans.
· Economic background: Many families are too poor and unable to bear the cost of educating all their
children. Boys may get preference in this situation.
· Discrimination in school:Many children also leave school because they are discriminated against by
their teacher and classmates.

10
 Women's Movement
· Improved situation of women: Women now have the right to study and go to school. There are other
spheres – like legal reform, violence and health – where the situation of women and girls has improved.
· Women individually and collectively have struggled to bring about these changes. This struggle is
known as the Women's Movement.
· Individual women and women's organizations from different parts of the country are part of the
movement. Many men support the women's movement as well.
· Different strategies have been used to spread awareness, fight discrimination and seek justice. Here
are some glimpses of this struggle.
Ø Campaigns to fight discrimination and violence against women:
o Campaigns have led to new laws being passed. For example- A law was made in 2006 to give
women who face domestic violence, some legal protection.
o In the 1980s, women's groups across the country spoke out against 'dowry deaths' — cases
of young brides being murdered by their in-laws or husbands, greedy for more dowry.
Women's groups spoke out against the failure to bring these cases to justice by coming on to
the streets, approaching the courts, and by sharing information.
Ø Raising Awareness on Women's rights issues: Their message has been spread through street
plays, songs and public meetings.
Ø Protesting:The women's movement raises its voice when violations against women take place
or for example, when a law or policy acts against their interests. Public rallies and
demonstrations are a very powerful way of drawing attention to injustices.
Ø Showing Solidarity: The women's movement is also about showing solidarity with other
women and causes.

Interesting points

· According to NSS 61st Round (2004-05), 83.6 per cent of working women in India are
engaged in agricultural work which includes planting, weeding, harvesting and threshing.
· Driving Her Train was written by Neeta Lal, Women's Features Service.
WOMEN CHANGE THE WORLD

· Census: India has a census every 10 years which counts the whole population of the country. It
also gathers detailed information about the people living in India – their age, schooling, what work
they do, etc.
· On 8 March, International Women's Dayis celebrated.
· Chaitanya Bhagabat is a hagiography of Caitanya Mahāprabhu written by Vrindavana Dasa
Thakura.

11
NCERT NOTES
FOR POLITY
8th Standard
CONTENTS
The Indian Constitution ................................................................................................................. 1 - 3

Understanding Secularism ........................................................................................................... 4 - 5

Why do we need a Parliament? ................................................................................................. 6 - 8

Understanding Laws ................................................................................................................... 9 - 10

Judiciary ........................................................................................................................................ 11 - 14

Understanding Our Criminal Justice System .................................................................... 15 - 16

Understanding Marginalisation ............................................................................................. 17 - 20

Confronting Marginalisation ................................................................................................... 21 - 24

Public Facilities ........................................................................................................................... 25 - 28

Law and Social Justice ............................................................................................................. 29 - 32

 THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION
1
Every society has some constitutive rules that make it what it is and differentiate it from other kinds of
societies. In large societies having different communities, these rules are formulated through consensus and
in modern countries this consensus is usually available in written form. A written document which
incorporates such rules is called a Constitution.

Need of a Constitution:
The Constitution plays a very important role in democratic societies such as:
● To define Fundamental nature of Society: It lays down ideals that define the kind of country that
people want to live in.
● To define the nature of a country's political system: Political system of a country may be Monarchy or
Democracy. In Monarchy, supreme authority is vested in the monarch (an individual ruler) while in a
Democracy, people choose their leaders and these leaders exercise power responsibly on people's
behalf.
● To safeguard from misuse of authority: The Constitution lays down rules that guard against this
misuse of authority by political leaders. The Indian Constitution guarantees the Right to Equality to all
persons.
● To prevent tyranny of majority: A majority can enforce decisions that exclude minorities and go
against their interests. The Constitution contains rules that ensure that minorities are not excluded
from anything that is routinely available to the majority.
● To save us from ourselves: The Constitution helps to protect us against certain decisions that could
have an adverse effect on the larger principles that the country believes in. A good Constitution also
does not allow any whims to change its basic structure. It does not allow for the easy overthrow of
provisions that guarantee rights of citizens and protect their freedom.

Key Features of the Indian Constitution

● Federalism:
⮚ It refers to the existence of more than one level of government in the country.
⮚ In India, there are governments at the Centre and State level. 'Local Bodies' forms the third tier
of government.
⮚ The states are not merely agents of the federal government but draw their authority from the
Constitution.
THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

⮚ Each State in India enjoys autonomy in exercising powers on certain issues, but the subjects of
national concern require all these states to follow the laws of the central government.
⮚ The Constitution contains lists that specify issues on which each tier of government can make
laws.
⮚ The Constitution also specifies from where each tier of government can get the money.

● Parliamentary form of Government:

⮚ This form of Government consists of representatives who are elected by the people and are
accountable to them.

1
 ⮚ The Constitution of India guarantees Universal Adult Suffrage for all citizens. This means that
every citizen of the country, irrespective of his/her social background, can participate in elections.

● Separation of Powers:
⮚ According to the Constitution, there are three organs of government:
o Legislature: Elected representatives responsible for formulating laws.
o Executive: Responsible for implementing laws and running the government.
o Judiciary: It refers to the system of courts in the country.
⮚ To prevent the misuse of power by any one branch of government, the Constitution says that
each of these organs should exercise different powers.
⮚ Moreover, each organ acts as a check on the other organs of government and this ensures the
balance of power between all three.

● Secularism:
A secular state is one in which the state does not officially promote any one religion as the state religion.
● Fundamental Rights:
⮚ The section on Fundamental Rights has often been referred to as the 'conscience' of the Indian
Constitution.
⮚ It guarantees the rights of individuals against the State as well as against other individuals.
⮚ It guarantees the rights of minorities against the majority.

Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution

Right to Equality:
All persons are equal before the law. This means that all persons shall be equally protected by the
laws of the country.
It also states that no citizen can be discriminated against on the basis of their religion, caste or sex.
Every person has access to all public places including playgrounds, hotels, shops etc.
The State cannot discriminate against anyone in matters of employment.
The practice of untouchability has also been abolished.
Right to Freedom: This includes the right to freedom of speech and expression, the right to form
associations, the right to move freely and reside in any part of the country, and the right to
practice any profession, occupation, or business.
THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION
Right against Exploitation: The Constitution prohibits human trafficking, forced labour, and
employment of children under 14 years of age.
Right to Freedom of Religion: Religious freedom is provided to allcitizens. Every person has the
right to practice, profess and propagate the religion of their choice.
Cultural and Educational Rights: The Constitution states that all minorities, religious or linguistic,
can set up their own educational institutions in order to preserve and develop their own culture.
Right to Constitutional Remedies: This allows citizens to move the court if they believe that any of
their Fundamental Rights have been violated by the State.

2
 As per Dr Ambedkar, these Fundamental Rights has a two-fold objective:
● Every citizen must be in a position to claim those rights.
● These rights must be binding upon every authority that has got the power to make laws.

Interesting points

· Baba Saheb Dr Ambedkar is known as the Father of the Indian Constitution.

● Granville Austin wrote the book: “The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation”.
● The Constitution has a section called Directive Principles of State Policy to ensure greater social
and economic reforms.
● The Constitution also mentions Fundamental Duties. It is important for citizens in a democracy to
observe these.
● All democratic countries are likely to have a Constitution, but it is not necessary that all countries
that have a Constitution are democratic.
● Constituent Assembly:
⮚ In 1934, the Indian National Congress made the demand for a Constituent Assembly.
⮚ During the Second World War, this assertion for an independent Constituent Assembly
formed only of Indians gained momentum and it was convened in December 1946.
⮚ Between December 1946 and November 1949, the Constituent Assembly drafted the
Constitution for independent India.
⮚ Constitution was signed at its final session on 24 January 1950.
● Difference between a State and the Government:

State Government

It refers to a political institution that represents a It is responsible for administering and

sovereign people who occupy a definite territory. enforcing laws.

It refers to more than just the government and The government (or the executive) is one part of
THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

cannot be used interchangeably with the State. It can change with elections.
government.

3
 UNDERSTANDING SECULARISM
2
'No one should be discriminated against on grounds of their religious practices and beliefs' - it is the
essence of secularism. In practice, Secularism is the principle of separating the power of religion and the
power of the State.

Evolution of Secularism:
History provides several examples of discrimination, exclusion, and persecution on the grounds of religion
such as:
● Jews were persecuted in Hitler's Germany.
● Non-Muslims are not allowed to build a temple, church etc. in Saudi Arabia.
This shows that members of one religious community either persecute or discriminate against members
of other religious communities. These acts of discrimination can take place more easily when one religion
is given official recognition by the State at the expense of other religions. Thus, it is necessary to adopt
Secularism particularly in diversified societies.

Importance of Secularism:
● It keeps a check on the tyranny of the majority.
⮚ The tyranny of the majority could result in the discrimination, coercion and at times even the
killing of religious minorities.
⮚ Any form of domination based on religion is in violation of the Fundamental rights that a
democratic society guarantees to every citizen.
● It protects the freedom of individuals.
⮚ Secularism empowers person to exit from their religion, embrace another religion, or have the
freedom to interpret religious teachings differently.

Indian Secularism:
The Indian Constitution mandates the Indian State to be secular one. It is to realize the following
objectives:
● One religious community does not dominate another.
● Some members do not dominate other members of the same religious community.

UNDERSTANDING SECULARISM
● State to neither enforce any particular religion nor take away the religious freedom of individuals.
To prevent this domination, the Indian State follows various strategies such as:
● Strategy of distancing itself from Religion:
⮚ The Indian State is neither ruled by a religious group nor does it support any one religion.
⮚ In India, government spaces like law courts, police stations, government schools and offices are
not supposed to display or promote any one religion.
● Strategy of Non-interference:
⮚ It aims to respect the sentiments of all religions and not to interfere with religious practices.
⮚ State can make certain exceptions for particular religious communities. For example, the Sikhs
need not have to wear a helmet as Indian State recognizes that wearing a Pugri (Turban) is

4
 central to their religious practice.
● Strategy of Intervention:
State can intervene in religion to end a social practice that it believes discriminates and excludes, and
that violates the Fundamental Rights such as:
⮚ Untouchability and caste system.
⮚ Unequal inheritance rights in some religion-based 'personal laws'.
● Strategy of Support:
⮚ The Constitution grants the right to religious communities to set up their own schools and
colleges.
⮚ It also gives them financial aid on a non-preferential basis.

Difference between Indian Secularism from that of United States of America (USA):
Some of the Secularism objectives are similar in both countries. For example, the First Amendment of the
U.S. Constitution also prohibits the legislature to declare any religion as the official religion. Nor can they give
preference to one religion.
The major difference in the understanding of secularism can be represented

S. No. Particular India USA

1. State intervention in religious affairs Yes No

2. Principled distance vis-à-vis religion Yes No, Strict separation exists.

'Principled distance vis-à-vis religion' means that any interference in religion by the State must be based
on the ideals laid out in the Constitution.

Interesting points
UNDERSTANDING SECULARISM

· In February 2004, France passed a law banning students from wearing any conspicuous religious
or political signs or symbols such as the Islamic headscarf, the Jewish skullcap, etc.
● In the USA, Government school students are not required to recite the morning Pledge if it
conflicts with their religious beliefs.
● In India, Government schools cannot promote any one religion either in their morning prayers or
through religious celebrations. This rule does not apply to private schools.

5
 WHY DO WE NEED A PARLIAMENT?
3
The Parliament is most important symbol of Indian democracy and a key feature of the Constitution. It
enable citizens of India to participate in decision making and control the government.

Need of people in decision making:

● The take-off point for a democracy is the idea of consent, i.e., the desire, approval, and participation of
people.
● It is the decision of people that creates a democratic government and decides about its functioning.
● The basic idea of democracy is that the individual or the citizen is the most important person and the
government as well as other public institutions need to have the trust of these citizens.

Evolution of the idea of people participation in India:

Under Colonial rule, people had lived in fear of the British government and did not agree with many of the
decisions that they took. This led the people of India to join the freedom struggle.
● The nationalists began to openly criticize the British government and make demands.
● In 1885, the Indian National Congress put demands for elected members in the legislature with a right
to discuss the budget and ask questions.
● The Government of India Act 1909 allowed for some elected representation, but it did not allow for all
adults to vote nor could people participate in decision making.
The dreams and aspirations of the freedom struggle inculcated the ideas of:
● Freedom, Equality, and participation in Decision-making.
● A Government sensitive to people's needs and demands.
Finally, the Constitution of Free India laid down the principle of universal adult franchise, i.e., that all adult
citizens of the country have the right to vote.

People and their Representatives:

● Individuals give approval to the government by way of elections.
⮚ People elect their representatives to the Parliament which is made up of all representatives

WHY DO WE NEED A PARLIAMENT?

together.
⮚ One group from among these elected representatives forms the government.
⮚ The Parliament controls and guides the government.
● In this way, people through their chosen representatives form the government and control it.

Our Parliament:
● The Parliament of India (Sansad) is the supreme law-making institution.
● The Parliament of India consists of the President, and the two Houses: the Rajya Sabha and the Lok
Sabha.

6
 ● Once elected, these candidates become Members of Parliament (MPs).

S. No. Particular Rajya Sabha Lok Sabha

1. Also known as Council of States House of the People

2. Chaired / Presided by Vice-President of India Speaker

3. Total Strength 245 545

:233 elected members :543 elected members
:12 nominated by the President :2 nominated by the President *

4. Representation Represents the States of India Represent the Constituency

5. Election Elected by the elected members Directly elected by the people of the
of the Legislative Assemblies of constituency. Election usually
various states. occurs once in every 5 years.

*This provision has been removed by 104th Constitutional Amendment w.e.f. 25th Jan 2020.

Functions of the Parliament

● To select the National Government:
⮚ After the Lok Sabha elections, a party-wise list showing number of MPs is prepared.
⮚ For a political party to form the government, they must have a majority of elected MPs.
⮚ Since there are 543 elected members in Lok Sabha, to have a majority a party should have at least
half the number, i.e., 272 members or more.
⮚ If it is difficult for a single political party to get then different political parties join to form government
and is called coalition government.
⮚ The Opposition in Parliament is formed by all the political parties that oppose the majority
party/coalition formed. The largest amongst these parties is called the Opposition Party.
WHY DO WE NEED A PARLIAMENT?

⮚ One of the most important functions of the Lok Sabha is to select the Executive which is a group of
persons who work together to implement the laws made by the Parliament. This Executive is often
termed as Government.
⮚ The Prime Minister of India is the leader of the Ruling party in the Lok Sabha.
⮚ From the MPs who belong to his/her party, the Prime Minister selects Ministers to work with
him/her to implement decisions. These ministers then take charge of different areas of government
functioning like health, education, finance etc.
● To control, guide and inform the Government:
⮚ MPs can elicit information about the working of the government.

7
 ⮚ By asking questions, the government is alerted to its shortcomings, and comes to know the opinion
of the people through their representatives. Question Hour is one such mechanism and the
Parliament, while in session, begins with it.
⮚ Opposition parties highlight drawbacks in various policies and programmes of the government
and mobilize popular support for their own policies.
⮚ The Parliament's approval is crucial for the government in all matters dealing with finances.
⮚ A bill is required to pass through the Rajya Sabha in order to become a law. It, therefore, has an
important role of reviewing and altering the laws initiated by the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha can
also initiate legislation.
● Law-making: It is a significant function of the Parliament.

Parliament composition as a reflection of Society:

Parliament now has more and more people from different backgrounds as:
● There are more members coming from the rural background and from the regional parties.
● There has been an increase in political participation from the Dalits and Backward classes. Some
seats are reserved in Parliament for SCs and STs.
● Similarly, it is suggested to have a reservation of seats for women. Sixty years ago, only four per cent of
MPs were women and today it is just above 14 per cent (2019 Lok Sabha).

Interesting points

· EVMs (Electronic Voting Machine) were used throughout the country for the first time in the 2004
general elections.
● The use of EVMs in 2004 saved around 1,50,000 trees which would have been cut to produce about
8,000 tons of paper for printing the ballot papers.
● South Block and North Block of the Central Secretariat were built during the 1930s:

WHY DO WE NEED A PARLIAMENT?

⮚ South Block houses the Prime Minister's Office (PMO), Ministry of Defence, and Ministry of
External Affairs.
⮚ North Block has the Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Home Affairs.

8
 UNDERSTANDING LAWS
4
Law is a system of rules created and enforced by a country or community to regulate the behavior and
actions of its members. For example, specifying the age of marriage, buying and selling of property, etc. Our
Parliament is the body responsible for making laws.

Applicability of laws:
To check any arbitrary exercise of power, our Constitution provides for the establishment of the 'Rule of
law' which means:
● All laws apply equally to all citizens of the country and no one can be above the law including any
government official, wealthy person or even the President of India.
● The law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their religion, caste or gender.
● Any crime or violation of law has a specific punishment as well as a process through which the guilt of
the person has to be established.

Status of Laws before the Independence of India

● In Ancient India:
⮚ There were innumerable and often overlapping local laws.
⮚ Different communities enjoyed different degrees of autonomy in administering these laws.
⮚ In some cases, the punishment that two persons received for the same crime varied depending on
their caste backgrounds.
● During Colonial Period:
⮚ The system of law began to evolve during the colonial period, and it is often believed that British
colonialists introduced the 'Rule of law' in India.
⮚ However, this claim has been refuted by many Historians because:
o Colonial laws were arbitrary such as Sedition Act of 1870, Rowlatt Act of 1919. These laws
allowed the British government to imprison people without due trial.
o Indian nationalists played a prominent role in the development of the legal sphere in British India.

Role of Indians in the evolution of 'Rule of law' during colonial period:

● Indian Nationalists: They began protesting and criticizing the arbitrary use of authority by the British.
They also began fighting for greater equality and wanted to change the idea of law from a set of rules
that they were forced to obey, to law as including ideas of justice.
● Legal professionals: By the end of the nineteenth century, they began emerging and demanded
respect in colonial courts. They began to use law to defend the legal rights of Indians. Indian judges
also began to play a greater role in making decisions.
UNDERSTANDING LAWS

After independence, the Constitution served as the foundation on which our parliamentary representatives
began making laws for the country. Every year these representatives pass several new laws as well as
amend the existing ones.

Formation of Laws:
● Role of Parliament: The Parliament has prime role in making laws. There are many ways through
which this takes place, and it is often different groups in society that raise the need for a particular law.

9
 An important role of Parliament is to be sensitive to the problems faced by people.
● Role of citizens: At every stage of the law-making process, the voice of the citizen is a crucial element.
This voice can be heard through TV reports, newspaper editorials, radio broadcasts, etc.
The role of the citizens does not end with electing our representatives. It is the extent, involvement and
enthusiasm of the people that helps Parliament perform its representative functions properly.

Unpopular and Controversial Laws:

Reasons: A law can be constitutionally valid and hence legal. But it can become unpopular and
controversial if:
● The people feel that the intention behind it is unfair and harmful and deny accepting it.
● A law favours one group and disregards the other leading to controversy and conflict.
Remedy:
● People might criticize this law, hold public meetings, write about it in newspapers, report to TV news
channels etc.
● When a large number of people begin to feel that a wrong law has been passed, then there is a
pressure on the Parliament to change this.
● People who think that the law is not fair can approach the court to decide on the issue. The court has
the power to modify or cancel laws if it finds that they don't adhere to the Constitution.

Interesting points

· Rowlatt Act of 1919:

⮚ It allowed the British government to imprison people without due trial.
⮚ Despite the large number of protests, the Rowlatt Act came into effect on 10 March 1919.
⮚ On April 10 in Punjab, two leaders of the movement Dr Satyapal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew
were arrested.
⮚ To protest these arrests, a public meeting was held on 13 April at Jallianwala Bagh in
Amritsar. General Dyer entered the park with his troops and ordered to fire. Several hundreds of
people died in this gunfire and many more were wounded including women and children. The
incident is known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
● Domestic violence: It generally refers to the injury or harm or threat of injury or harm caused by an
adult male, usually the husband, against his wife. Injury may be caused by physically beating up
the woman or by emotionally abusing her.
UNDERSTANDING LAWS

● The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 extends the understanding of the
term 'domestic' to include all women who 'live or have lived together in a shared household' with
the male member who is perpetrating the violence.
● Sedition: This applies to anything that the government might consider as stirring up resistance or
rebellion against it.
● Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5: Gender Equality.

10
 JUDICIARY
5
The Judiciary is a system of courts which interpret and apply the law. Any citizen can approach to judiciary
when a law is violated. As a third organ of the government, the judiciary plays a crucial role in the
functioning of India's democracy.

Role of the Judiciary:

● Dispute Resolution: The judicial system provides a mechanism for resolving disputes between
citizens, between citizens and the government, between two state governments and between the
centre and state governments.
● Judicial Review: As the final interpreter of the Constitution, the judiciary also has the power to strike
down particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic
structure of the Constitution.
● Upholding the Law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights: Every citizen of India can approach the
Supreme Court or the High Court if they believe that their Fundamental Rights have been violated. For
example, In Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity vs State of West Bengal case of 1996, Supreme
Court ruled that Article 21 also includes the Right to Health and directed the West Bengal
government to pay compensation as well as to come up with a blueprint for primary health care with
reference to treatment of patients during an emergency.

Independence of Judiciary:
● Independence of the judiciary allows the courts to play a central role in ensuring that there is no
misuse of power by the other branches of government, i.e., legislature and the executive.
● It also plays a crucial role in protecting the Fundamental Rights of citizens as anyone can approach
the courts if they believe that their rights have been violated.
Our Constitution envisions the independence of the judiciary and ensures it by:
● Separation of Powers: The legislature and the executive cannot interfere in the work of the judiciary.
The courts are not under the government and they do not act on their behalf.
● Appointment of Judges: All the Judges in the High Court as well as the Supreme Court are appointed
with very little interference from other branches of government. Once appointed to this office, it is
also very difficult to remove them.

Structure of Courts in India:

● There are three different levels of courts in our country:
⮚ Supreme Court: It is the apex level court for the whole country. It is located in New Delhi and is
presided over by the Chief Justice of India.
⮚ High Court: Each state has a High court which acts as the highest court of that state.
⮚ Subordinate or District Courts: These are usually at the district or Tehsil level or in towns and they
hear many kinds of cases. Each state is divided into districts that are presided over by a District
Judge.
● Integrated judicial system: Following features makes our Judicial system as an integrated one:

11
 ⮚ Pyramid Structure: The structure of the courts from the lower to the highest level resembles a
pyramid. Decisions made by higher courts are binding on the lower courts.

Fig 5.1: Pyramid structure of our Integrated Judicial System

⮚ Appellate System: A person can appeal to a higher court if one believes that the judgment passed
by the lower court is not just.

Different Branches of the Legal System:

The legal system in India is divided into two branches: Criminal law and Civil Law.

Table 5.1: Differences between Criminal law and Civil Law

12
 Accessibility of Courts to the people and its issues:
In principle, all citizens of India can access the courts in this country. However, there are some issues that
hampers the access of justice to the common person that are as follows:
● Complexity of Legal Procedures:
⮚ Legal procedures involve a lot of money, paperwork, and a lot of time. This makes the idea of going
to court to get justice often remote.
⮚ To increase access to justice, Supreme Court in the early 1980s devised a mechanism of Public
Interest Litigation (PIL).

Public Interest Litigation (PIL):

It allows any individual or organisation to file a PIL in the High Court or the Supreme Court on
behalf of those whose rights were being violated.
Even a letter or telegram addressed to the Supreme Court or the High Court could be treated
as a PIL.
It simplified the legal process and imparted justice even in untouched areas such as:
Rescuing bonded labours from inhuman work conditions.
Securing release of prisoners who have completed their imprisonment period.
Mid-Day Meal Scheme is an outcome of an PIL.

● Different interpretation of the Fundamental Rights:

⮚ Access to courts is access to justice. However, there are some court judgments that people believe
work against the best interests of the common person.
⮚ For example, the judgment of the Olga Tellis vs Bombay Municipal Corporation established the
Right to Livelihood as part of the Right to Life conferred by Article 21. While later judgments tend
to view the slum dweller as an encroacher in the city.
● Justice delayed is Justice denied: The courts inordinately take long number of years to hear a case.
Huge vacancy (as shown below) in judiciary particularly in the subordinate courts contributes to it.
Table 5.2: Number of Judges in India
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

*Data in A and B (as on 1 November 2019)

13
Despite these issues, there is no denying that the judiciary has played a crucial role in democratic India,
serving as a check on the powers of the executive and the legislature as well as in protecting the
Fundamental Rights of the citizen.

Interesting points

· The Supreme Court:

⮚ It was established on 26 January 1950.
⮚ Like its predecessor, the Federal Court of India (1937-1949), it was in the Chamber of Princes
in the Parliament House and moved to its present building in 1958.
● The High Courts:
⮚ They were first established in the three Presidency cities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in
1862.
⮚ The High Court of Delhi came up in 1966.
⮚ Currently, there are 25 High Courts in India.
⮚ Some states share a common High Court. For example,
o Punjab and Haryana at Chandigarh.
o Four North Eastern states - Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh - at
Guwahati.
⮚ Some High Courts have benches in other parts of the state for greater accessibility like
Lucknow bench of Allahabad High Court.
⮚ Andra Pradesh (Amaravati) and Telangana (Hyderabad) have separate High Courts from 1
January 2019.
● The subordinate court is more commonly known by many different names such as the Trial Court
or the Court of the District Judge, the Additional Sessions Judge, Chief Judicial Magistrate,
Metropolitan Magistrate, Civil Judge.
● Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 16: 'Peace, Justice and Strong institutions’

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

14
 UNDERSTANDING OUR
6 CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
The Criminal Justice System encompasses all legal processes and agencies that deal with criminal
proceedings and punishment with an aim to maintain the rule of law. Its key features are:
● All the legal processes must be adhered to uphold the 'Rule of Law' and ensure a fair trial.
● The three key players in the criminal justice system are the Police, the Public Prosecutor, and the Judge.

Role of Police:
● To investigate any complaint about the commission of a crime. An investigation includes recording
statements of witnesses and collecting different kinds of evidence.

First Information Report (FIR): It is with the registration of an FIR that the police can begin their
investigations into a crime.
The law statesthat it is compulsory for an officer in charge of a policestation to register an FIR
whenever a person givesinformation about a cognizable offence.
This information can be given to the police either orally or in writing.
The FIR usually mentions the date, time, and place of the offence, details the basic facts of the
offence, including a description of the events.

● Filing of a charge sheet in the court highlighting the evidence of the crime.

Supreme Court Guidelines for the Police:

Police investigations always must be conducted in accordance with law and with full respect for human
rights. The Supreme Court has laid down guidelines that the police must follow at the time of arrest,
detention, and interrogation such as:
● The police are not allowed to torture or beat or shoot anyone during investigation.
● They cannot inflict any form of punishment on a person even for petty offences.

Furthermore, the Supreme Court of India has laid down specific requirements and procedures that the police
and other agencies must follow for the arrest, detention, and interrogation of any person. These are known
as the D.K. Basu Guidelines and some of these include:
● The police officials who carry out the arrest or interrogation should wear clear, accurate and visible
identification and name tags with their designations.
● A memo of arrest should be prepared at the time of arrest and should include the time and date of
arrest. It should also be attested by at least one witness who could include a family member of the
person arrested. The arrest memo should be counter-signed by the person arrested.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

● The person arrested, detained, or being interrogated has a right to inform a relative, friend or well-
wisher.
CRAFTS

● When a friend or relative lives outside the district, the time, place of arrest and venue of custody must
be notified by police within 8 to 12 hours after arrest.
THEATRE

Role of the Public Prosecutor:

Criminal offence is regarded as a public wrong. It is considered to have been committed not only against

15
 the affected victims but against the society also. In courts, it is the Public Prosecutor who represents the
interests of the State.
● The role of the Prosecutor begins once the police has conducted the investigation and filed the charge
sheet in the court. He/she has no role to play in the investigation.
● The Prosecutor must conduct the prosecution on behalf of the State.
● As an officer of the court, it is his/ her duty to act impartially and present the full and material facts,
witnesses, and evidence before the court to enable the court to decide the case.

Role of the Judge:

● The judge is like an umpire in a game and conducts the trial impartially and in an open court.
● The judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the prosecution and the
defence.
● The judge decides whether the accused person is guilty, or innocent based on the evidence
presented and in accordance with the law.
● If the accused is convicted, then the judge pronounces the sentence. He/she may send the person to jail
or impose a fine or both, depending on what the law prescribes.

Fair Trial:
● Article 21 of the Constitution that guarantees the Right to Life states that a person's life or liberty can
be taken away only by following a reasonable and just legal procedure. A fair trial ensures that
Article 21 of the Constitution is upheld.
● Furthermore, Article 22 of the Constitution and criminal law guarantee to every arrested person the
following Fundamental Rights:
⮚ The Right to be informed at the time of arrest of the offence for which the person is being arrested.
⮚ The Right to be presented before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest.
⮚ The Right not to be ill-treated or tortured during arrest or in custody.
⮚ Confessions made in police custody cannot be used as evidence against the accused.
⮚ A boy under 15 years of age and women cannot be called to the police station only for questioning.
⮚ Every person has a Fundamental Right to be defended by a lawyer.
The rule of law which says that everyone is equal before the law would not make much sense if every citizen
were not guaranteed a fair trial by the Constitution.

Interesting points
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

· Article 39A of the Constitution places a duty upon the State to provide a lawyer to any citizen who
is unable to engage one due to poverty or other disability.
● Cognizable refers to an offence for which the police may arrest a person without the permission of
the court.

16
 UNDERSTANDING MARGINALISATION
7
To be marginalised is to be forced to occupy the sides or fringes and thus not be at the centre of things.
People or communities face marginalisation because of different language, customs, religious group etc.
Tribals (Adivasis) and religious minorities such as Muslims are two major communities which are socially
marginalised in India.

Adivasis:
● The term 'Adivasis' literally means 'original inhabitants'. These are the communities who lived, and
often continue to live, in close association with forests.
● Tribals are also referred to as Adivasis.
● They constitute around 8 per cent of India's population.
● They are not a homogeneous population as there are over 500 different Adivasi groups in India.
Alone, Odisha is home to more than 60 different tribal groups.
● Adivasi societies lacks social hierarchy such as jati-varna (caste).
● Areas of inhabitation:
⮚ Majority live in states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha etc. and in the north-
east India.
⮚ Many of India's most important mining and industrial centres are in Adivasi areas such as
Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro etc.
● Religion:
⮚ They practice a range of tribal religions that are different from Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity.
⮚ These often involve the worship of ancestors, village and nature spirits like 'mountain-spirits', 'river-
spirits' etc.
⮚ They have been influenced by different surrounding religions like Shakta, Buddhist, Vaishnav,
Bhakti and Christianity.
⮚ Adivasi religions themselves have influenced dominant religions of the empires around them, for
example, the Jagannath cult of Odisha and Shakti and Tantric traditions in Bengal and Assam.
⮚ During the nineteenth century, substantial numbers of Adivasis converted to Christianity, which
has emerged as a very important religion in modern Adivasi history.
● Language:
⮚ They have their own languages, most of them radically different from and possibly as old as
Sanskrit.
⮚ Their language has often deeply influenced the formation of 'mainstream' Indian languages, like
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Bengali.
Adivasis and Stereotyping:
● Adivasi communities are portrayed in very stereotypical ways - in colorful costumes, headgear and
through their dancing.
● People often wrongly believe that they are exotic, primitive, and backward.
● They are blamed for their lack of advancement as they are believed to be resistant to change or new
ideas.

17
Adivasis and Development
Conditions of Adivasis:
● Till the middle of the nineteenth century, Adivasis had control over most of tracts of the forests.
● They were traditionally ranged hunter gatherers and nomads and lived by shifting agriculture.
● For the past 200 years, Adivasis have been increasingly forced to migrate and to live as workers in
plantations, at construction sites, in industries and as domestic workers because of:
⮚ economic changes
⮚ forest policies
⮚ political force applied by the State and private industry.

Problems to Adivasis due to mainstream development:

● Loss of tribal lands:
⮚ Forest lands have been cleared for timber and to get land for agriculture and industry.
⮚ Adivasis areas rich in minerals and other natural resources are taken over for mining and other large
industrial projects.
⮚ Most of the time, the land is taken away forcefully, and procedures are not followed.
⮚ According to official figures, more than 50 per cent of persons displaced due to mines and mining
projects are Tribals.
● Labelled as encroachers: Tribals inhabited forests were declared as national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries and they were evicted and termed as encroachers.
● Loss of livelihood:
⮚ Many Adivasis migrated to cities in search of work and got employed for very low wage works.
⮚ Slowly, they get caught in a cycle of poverty and deprivation.
⮚ 45 per cent of tribal groups in rural areas and 35 per cent in urban areas live below the poverty line.
⮚ This overall has led to deprivation in other areas such as child nourishment, literacy rates, etc.
⮚ A survey report shows that 79 per cent of the persons displaced from the states of Andhra
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Jharkhand are tribals.
● Loss of traditions and customs: They lost their unique way of living and being.

Minorities and Marginalisation:

● The term minority is commonly used to refer to communities that are numerically small in relation to
the rest of the population.
● This concept goes well beyond numbers and encompasses issues of power, access to resources and
has social and cultural dimensions.
● Size can be a disadvantage and lead to the marginalisation of the relatively smaller communities.
● Sometimes, minorities feel insecure about their lives, assets, and well-being.
● The Constitution provides safeguards to religious and linguistic minorities as part of our
Fundamental Rights against the possibility of being culturally dominated by the majority.
● Judiciary plays a crucial role in upholding the law and enforcing Fundamental Rights.

18
Muslims and Marginalisation:
Muslims are considered as a marginalised community in India because in comparison to other
communities, they have over the years been deprived of the benefits of socio-economic development.
Following three tables below indicate the situation of the Muslim community with regard to basic
amenities, literacy and public employment:

Table 7.1: Access to Basic Amenities

Source: India Human Development Report 2011: Towards Social Inclusion

Table 7.2: Literacy rate by Religion

Source: Census of India 2011

Table 7.3: Public employment of Muslims

Source: Social, Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India, Prime Minister's
High Level Committee Report 2006

19
In addition to this, Muslim also face unfair treatment and discrimination because of the differences in their
customs and practices from the mainstream.

Rajindar Sachar Committee for Muslims:

The government recognized that Muslims in India were lagging in terms of various development
indicators and set up a high-level committee in 2005 which was chaired by Justice Rajindar
Sachar to examine the social, economic, and educational status of the Muslim community in India.
Its major findings are:
The average years of schooling for Muslim children between the ages of 7-16 is much lower than
that of other socio-religious communities.
25 per cent of Muslim children in the 6-14 years age group have either never been enrolled in
school or have dropped out.
It debunked the myths about Muslims that they prefer to send their children to Madarsas. In
actual, 4 per cent of Muslim children are in Madarsas whereas 66 per cent attend government
schools and 30 per cent private schools.
On a range of social, economic, and educational indicators, the situation of the Muslim community
is comparable to that of other marginalised communities like Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes.

Interesting points

· Ragas are traditionally envisioned in divine or human form in romantic or devotional contexts by
musicians and poets.
· Each raga is associated with a specific mood, time of the day and season.
· The six main ragas are Bhairava, Malkos, Hindol, Dipak, Megha and Shri.
● Scheduled Tribes is the term used for Adivasis by the Indian government in various official
documents. There is an official list of tribes.
● There are 70 lakh Adivasis in Assam alone.
● Santhali has the largest number of speakers and has a significant body of publications including
magazines on the internet or in e-zines.
● Niyamgiri Hill located in Kalahandi district of Odisha is inhabited by Dongarria Konds tribe.
They consider the hill as sacred.
● According to 2011 census, Muslims are 14.2 per cent of India's population.

20
 CONFRONTING MARGINALISATION
8
Marginalized groups have fought, protested, and struggled against being excluded or dominated by others.
Many among them invoke the Constitution to address their concerns. In this way, their Fundamental rights
are translated into laws. The government also put various efforts to formulate policies for their development.

Fundamental Rights for Marginalised Groups:

● Article 15: It states that no citizen of India shall be discriminated against on the basis of religion, race,
caste, sex or place of birth.
● Article 17: It prohibits the practice of untouchability. This means that no one can prevent Dalits from
educating themselves, entering temples, using public facilities etc. In fact, untouchability is a
punishable crime now.
● Articles 25-28: These provide Freedom of Religion to all the citizens that includes the right to practise,
profess and propagate the religion of their choice.
● Articles 29-30: These provide Cultural and Educational Rights. For example, religious groups like the
Muslims and Parsis have the right to be the guardians of the content of their culture, as well as the right
to make decisions on how best this content is to be preserved.
By granting these rights, the Constitution tries to ensure that the culture of these groups is neither
dominated nor wiped out by the culture of the majority community.

Invoking Fundamental Rights:

Marginalised people have drawn on these rights in two ways:
● They have forced the government to recognise the injustice done to them.
● They have insisted the government to enforce these laws.

Laws for the Marginalised:

The government make laws to protect its citizens. There are specific laws, policies, and schemes for the
marginalised in our country. The government makes effort to promote such policies in order to give
opportunities to these groups and impart social justice. This could be achieved in the following manner:
● Promoting welfare: To implement the Constitution, both state and central governments create
specific schemes for implementation in tribal areas or in areas that have a high Dalit population. For
example, the government provides free or subsidized hostels for students of Dalit and Adivasi
communities so that they can avail of education facilities.
● End inequity in the system: Reservation policy in education and government employment is one tool
to eradicate inequality.
⮚ It is based on an important argument that for centuries sections of the population have been denied
opportunities to learn and to work in order to develop new skills or vocations and a democratic
government needs to step in and assist these sections.

21
 ⮚ Governments across India have their own list of Scheduled Castes (or Dalits), Scheduled Tribes and
backward and most backward castes. The central government too has its list.

Specific Laws for the Protection and Welfare of the Marginalised Section

The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989
● History:
⮚ It was framed in response to demands made by Dalits and others highlighting the ill treatment and
humiliation Dalits and tribal groups face in an everyday sense.
⮚ It acquired a violent character in the late 1970s and 1980s.
⮚ Adivasi people successfully organised themselves and demanded equal rights and for their land
and resources to be returned to them.
● The Act distinguishes several levels of crimes:
⮚ It lists modes of humiliation that are both physically horrific and morally reprehensible and seeks to
punish those who commits any act which is derogatory to human dignity.
⮚ It lists actions that dispossess Dalits and Adivasis of their meagre resources or which force them to
perform slave labour.
⮚ It recognizes that crimes against Dalit and Tribal women are of a specific kind and, therefore, seeks
to penalize anyone who assaults or uses force on any woman belonging to a Scheduled Caste or a
Scheduled Tribe with intent to dishonour her.

Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993:
● It prohibits the employment of manual scavengers as well as the construction of dry latrines.
● In 2003, the Safai Karamchari Andolan and 13 other organisations and individuals, including seven
scavengers, filed a PIL in the Supreme Court.
● The petitioners complained that manual scavenging still existed, and it even continued in government
undertakings like the railways.
● The court observed that the number of manual scavengers in India had increased since the 1993 law
and directed that:
⮚ Every department/ministry of the union and state governments to verify the facts within six
months.
⮚ If manual scavenging was found to exist, then the government department has to actively take up a
time-bound programme for their liberation and rehabilitation.
● Now, The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act came into
force on 6 December 2013.

22
 Manual Scavenging:
It refers to the practice of removing human and animal waste/excreta using brooms, tin plates and
baskets from dry latrines and carrying it on the head to disposal grounds some distance away.
A manual scavenger is the person who does the job of carrying this filth. This job is mainly done by
Dalit women and young girls.
Related Issues:
Manual scavengers are exposed tosubhuman conditions of work and face serious health hazards.
They are constantly exposed to infections that affect their eyes, skin, respiratory and gastro-
intestinal systems.
They get very low wages for the work they perform.
It is against the Constitutional mandate. Manual scavengers in different parts of the country - the
Bhangis in Gujarat, Pakhis in Andhra Pradesh, and the Sikkaliars in Tamil Nadu - continue to be
considered untouchable.

Adivasi Demands and the 1989 Act:

Adivasi activists refer to the Act to defend their right to occupy land that was traditionally theirs. This Act
confirms the following promises made to the tribal people in the Constitution:
● Land belonging to tribal people cannot be sold to or bought by non-tribal people.
● The tribal people have the right to re-possess their land.
C.K. Janu, an Adivasi activist, has pointed out that one of the violators of Constitutional rights guaranteed
to tribal people are governments in the various states of India.
● They allow non-tribal encroachers in the form of timber merchants, paper mills etc., to exploit tribal
land.
● They forcibly evict tribal people from their traditional forests in the process of declaring forests as
reserved or as sanctuaries.

Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006:
● The Act meant to undo the historical injustices meted out to forest dwelling populations in not
recognizing their rights to land and resources.
● It recognizes their right to homestead, cultivable and grazing land and to non-timber forest produce.
● It also pointed out that the rights of forest dwellers include conservation of forests and biodiversity
also.

23
 Interesting points

· The term Dalit means 'broken'. It is used deliberately and actively by groups to highlight the
centuries of discrimination they have experienced within the caste system.
● Soyrabai was the wife of the well-known Bhakti poet Chokhamela, from fourteenth century
Maharashtra. They belonged to the Mahar caste, which was at that time considered untouchable.
● Uma Chakravarti wrote 'Gendering Caste: Through a Feminist Lens'.
● According to the Andhra Pradesh based Safai Karamchari Andolan, there are one lakh persons
from Dalit communities who continue to be employed in manual scavenging job in this country
and who work in 26 lakhs private and community dry latrines managed by municipalities.
● Kabir was fifteenth century poet and weaver who belonged to the Bhakti tradition.
⮚ His poetry spoke about his love for the supreme being free of ritual and priests.
⮚ He attacked those who attempted to define individuals on the basis of their religious and caste
identities.
⮚ His poetry brings out the powerful idea of the equality of all human beings and their labour.

24
 PUBLIC FACILITIES
9
Public facilities are the essential facilities for everyone such as water, healthcare, electricity, public
transport, schools, etc. The Government plays a crucial role in their provision and once it is provided, its
benefits can be shared by many people.

Role of Government:
One of the most important functions of the government is to ensure that these public facilities are made
available to everyone. Government must bear this responsibility because:
● Public facilities are not for profit: Private companies operate for profit in the market. For example, they
will not get any direct benefit for keeping the drains clean.
● Availability and Affordability: In interest areas of private sector like schools and hospitals, the service
is not available to all at an affordable rate.
● Basic Needs: Public facilities are related to people's basic needs. Any modern society requires that
these facilities be provided to meet people's basic needs.
● Fundamental Rights: The Right to Life that the Constitution guarantees is for all persons living in the
country.

Financing Public Facilities:

● In the Budget, the government announces the various ways in which it plans to meet its expenses.
● The main source of revenue for the government is the taxes collected from the people. The
government is empowered to collect these taxes and use them for such programmes.
● For instance, to supply water, the government has to incur costs in pumping water, carrying it over long
distances, laying down pipes for distribution, etc.
● It meets these expenses partly from the various taxes that it collects and partly by charging a price for
water.

Water as a Public Facility:

● Importance of Water:
⮚ Water is essential for life and good health.
⮚ Safe drinking water can prevent many water-related diseases: India has one of the largest number
of cases of diseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera. (Over 1,600 Indians, most of them
children below the age of five, reportedly die every day because of water-related diseases).
PUBLIC FACILITIES

● Constitutional mandate: The Constitution of India recognizes the Right to Water as being a part of
the Right to Life under Article 21. This means that it is the right of every person, whether rich or poor,
to have enough water to fulfil one's daily needs at an affordable price.
● Judicial Intervention:
⮚ Right to Safe drinking water is a Fundamental Right: It has been held by the High Courts and

25
 Supreme Court in several court cases.
⮚ In 2007, the Andhra Pradesh High Court restated this while hearing a case based on a letter
written by a villager of Mahbubnagar district on the contamination of drinking water. The villager's
complaint was that a textile company was discharging poisonous chemicals into a stream near his
village, contaminating ground water, which was the source for irrigation and drinking water.
⮚ The judges directed the Mahbubnagar district collector to supply 25 litres of water to each person in
the village.

Glaring Situation of Water supply by local bodies in India:

● In Chennai, Municipal supply meets only about half the needs of the people of the city.
● The burden of shortfalls in water supply falls mostly on the poor.
● Great inequalities in water use exists as shown in Table below:

Required supply of water per Av a i l a b l e / c o n s u m e d b y Available/consumed by people in

person in an urban area people in slums luxury hotels

135 litres per day per person 20 litres per day per person 1,600 litres per day per person
(7 buckets) (1 bucket) (80 buckets)

● A similar scenario of shortages and acute crisis during the summer months is common to other cities of
India.
Some people argue that since the government is unable to supply the amount of water that is needed and
many of the municipal water departments are running at a loss, private companies should be allowed to
take over the task of water supply.

Private sector in Water Supply:

● Throughout the world, water supply is a function of the government. There are very few instances of
private water supply.
● There are areas in the world such as Porto Alegre (Brazil) where public water supply has achieved
universal access.
PUBLIC FACILITIES

● In a few cases, where the responsibility for water supply was handed over to private companies, there
was a steep rise in the price of water, making it unaffordable for many.
● Cities saw huge protests, riots breaking out in places like Bolivia, forcing the government to take back
the service from private hands.

26
 Success Stories of Government Water Departments in India:
● Mumbai: The water supply department raises enough money through water charges to cover its
expenses on supplying water.
● Hyderabad: Urban body has increased coverage and improved performance in revenue collection.
● Chennai: Several rainwater harvesting initiatives have been initiated to increase the level of
groundwater. It has also used the services of private companies for transporting and distributing
water, but the government water supply department decides the rate for water tankers and gives
them permission to operate.

Public Water Supply in Porto Alegre City (Brazil):

The city has a far lower number of infant deaths as compared to most other cities of the world.
The city's water department has achieved universal access to safe water, and this is the main
reason behind the lower number of infant deaths.
The average price of water is kept low, and the poor are charged half the basic rate. Whatever
profit the department makes is used to improve the water supply.

Public Transport as Public facility:

● Buses are the most important forms of public transport over short distances. It is the main link to the
workplace for majority of the working people.
● As an alternative to buses, the government has planned and executing ambitious metro rail projects
for most metropolitan cities.

Sanitation as Public facility:

● Besides safe drinking water, sanitation is a must in prevention of water-borne diseases.
● In India, Sanitation coverage is even lower than that of clean water. Official figures for 2011 show
that 87 percent of the households in India have access to drinking water and about 53 percent have
access to sanitation (toilet facilities within the premises of residence).

Public Water Supply in Porto Alegre City (Brazil):

The city has a far lower number of infant deaths as compared to most other cities of the world.
The city's water department has achieved universal access to safe water, and this is the main
PUBLIC FACILITIES

reason behind the lower number of infant deaths.

The average price of water is kept low, and the poor are charged half the basic rate. Whatever
profit the department makes is used to improve the water supply.

27
 Interesting points

· Sustainable Development Goal (SDG):

⮚ Goal 6 is Clean Water and Sanitation.
⮚ Goal 11 is Sustainable Cities and Communities.
⮚ Goal 12 is Responsible Consumption and Production.
● The Indian Constitution guarantees the Right to Education for all children between the ages of 6-14
years.
● Budget: This is an account of the expenses the government has made on its programmes in the past
year and how much it plans to spend in the coming year.
● Right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible, and affordable
water for personal and domestic use: United Nations (2002).
● Mumbai's sub-urban Railway:
⮚ It is the densest route in the world, attending to 65 lakh passengers daily.
⮚ It has a rail network of about 300 kilometers.

PUBLIC FACILITIES

28
 10 LAW AND SOCIAL JUSTICE
A major role of the government is to control the activities of private sector by making, enforcing, and
upholding laws to prevent unfair practices and ensure social justice.

Significance of a Law:
Laws are necessary in many situations, whether this be the market, office, or factory to protect people from
unfair practices. For example, Minimum Wages Act as discussed below:
● Major Provision: The Act specifies that wages should not be below a specified minimum.
● Need of the law: Many workers are denied fair wages by their employers because workers badly need
work and remain with no bargaining power.
● Beneficiaries: All workers particularly farm labour, construction workers, factory workers, domestic
workers, etc.
To make higher profits, Private companies, contractors, etc., resort to unfair practices such as paying
workers low wages, employing children for work, ignoring the conditions of work, ignoring the damage to
the environment thus increasing the necessity of the Law.

Role of the Government:

● Strict implementation of laws: Merely making laws is not enough. The government must ensure that
these laws must be enforced. For instance, the government must regularly inspect work sites and
punish those who violate the Minimum Wages Act.
● Check on Private Companies: Through making, enforcing, and upholding laws, the government can
control the activities of individuals or private companies.
● Uphold of Constitutional mandate: Many of the laws have their basis in the Fundamental Rights
guaranteed by the Indian Constitution. For instance, the Right against Exploitation says:
⮚ No one can be forced to work for low wages or under bondage.
⮚ No child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any factory or mines or engaged in
any other hazardous employment.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy: World's Worst Industrial Disaster

An American company Union Carbide (UC) had a pesticide producing factory in Bhopal. At midnight, on 2
LAW AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

December 1984, methyl-isocyanite (MIC) - a highly poisonous gas - started leaking from the factory.
● Within three days, more than 8,000 people were dead. Hundreds of thousands were maimed.
● Most of those exposed to the poison gas came from poor, working-class families, of which nearly
50,000 people are today too sick to work.
● Among those who survived, many developed severe respiratory disorders, eye problems and other
disorders. Children developed peculiar abnormalities.
● UC had deliberately ignored the essential safety measures to cut costs.

29
 ● In the ensuing legal battle, the government represented the victims in a civil case against UC. It filed a
$3 billion compensation case in 1985 but accepted a lowly $470 million in 1989. Survivors appealed
against the settlement, but the Supreme Court ruled that the settlement amount would stand.
● UC stopped its operations but left behind tons of toxic chemicals. These have seeped into the ground,
contaminating water. Dow Chemical, the company who now owns the plant, refuses to take
responsibility for clean-up.
● Even after decades, fight for justice to the victims is ongoing. It is to get safe drinking water, health-
care facilities and jobs for the people poisoned by UC. People also demand that Anderson, the UC
chairman who faces criminal charges, be prosecuted.

Particular In West Virginia (U.S.A.) In Bhopal (India)

Wa r n i n g a n d M o n i t o r i n g Computerized Manual, rely on human sense to

systems detect gas leakages

Emergency evacuation plans In place Non-existent

A comparison of UC's safety system:

Root Cause of the Disaster:

● Safety laws were lax in India.
● Even these weak safety laws were not enforced:
⮚ Government officials refused to recognize the plant as hazardous and allowed it to come up in a
populated locality.
⮚ Government overlooked safety violation for continued investment and employment.
⮚ It was unthinkable to the officials to ask UC to shift to cleaner technology or safer procedures.
⮚ Government inspectors continued to approve the procedures in the plant, even when repeated
incidents of leaks from the plant made it obvious to everybody that things were seriously wrong.
Instead of protecting the interests of the people, their safety was being disregarded both by the government
and by private companies. LAW AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

Status of an Indian Worker:

● Easy replacement: Large unemployment rate exists, and many workers get ready to work in unsafe
conditions in return for a low wage.
● Vulnerability: Making use of the workers' vulnerability, employers ignore safety in workplaces.

Reasons for foreign companies coming to India:

30
 ● Cheap labor: Wages that the companies pay to workers, say in the U.S.A., are far higher than what
they must pay to workers in countries like India.
● Long working hours: Companies can get longer working hours even after paying low wages.
● Fewer Additional expenses such as for housing facilities for workers.
● Cost cutting by other more dangerous means: Lower working conditions including lower safety
measures. For example- In the UC plant, every safety device was malfunctioning or was in short
supply. Between 1980 and 1984, the work crew for the MIC plant was cut in half from 12 to 6 workers.
The period of safety training for workers was brought down from 6 months to 15 days.

Duty of Government:
● As the lawmaker and enforcer, the government is supposed to ensure that safety laws are
implemented properly.
● Government also needs to ensure that the Right to Life guaranteed under Article 21 of the
Constitution is not violated.

New Laws to Protect the Environment:

● Before Bhopal Disaster:
⮚ In 1984, there were very few laws protecting the environment in India, and there was hardly any
enforcement of these laws.
⮚ The environment was treated as a 'free' entity. Whether it was rivers, air, groundwater - the
environment was being polluted and the health of people disregarded.
● After Bhopal Disaster:
⮚ Several thousands of persons who were not associated with the factory in any way were greatly
affected because of the poisonous gases leaked from the plant and this highlighted the importance
of Environment.
⮚ Indian government introduced new laws on the environment. Henceforth, the polluter was to be
held accountable for the damage done to environment.
⮚ Role of Judiciary:
o The courts also gave several judgments upholding the Right to a Healthy Environment as
LAW AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

intrinsic to the Fundamental Right to Life.

o In Subhash Kumar vs. State of Bihar (1991), the Supreme Court held that the Right to Life is a
Fundamental Right under Article 21 of the Constitution and it includes the right to the
enjoyment of pollution-free water and air for full enjoyment of life.

31
 Interesting points

· According to the 2011 census, over 4 million children in India aged between 5 and 14 work in
various occupations including hazardous ones.
● In 2016, Parliament amended the Child Labor (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 banning
the employment of children below the age of 14 years in all occupations and of adolescents
(14-18 years) in hazardous occupations and processes. It made employing these children or
adolescents a cognizable offence.
● PENCIL Portal:
⮚ It stands for Platform for Effective Enforcement for No Child Labour.
⮚ It has become functional in 2017.
⮚ It is an online portal meant for filing of complaint, child tracking, implementation and
monitoring of National Child Labour Project (NCLP).
● Sustainable Development Goal (SDG):
⮚ Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth.
⮚ Goal 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure.
● In a series of rulings (1998 onwards), the Supreme Court had ordered all public transport vehicles
in Delhi using diesel were to switch to Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).

LAW AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

32
NCERT NOTES
FOR POLITY
9th Standard
CONTENTS
What is Democracy? Why Democracy? .................................................................................. 1 - 3

Constitutional Design .................................................................................................................... 4 - 9

Electoral Politics ......................................................................................................................... 10 - 18

Working of Institutions ............................................................................................................... 19 - 24

Democratic Rights ..................................................................................................................... 25 - 31

 WHAT IS DEMOCRACY?
1 WHY DEMOCRACY?
Democracy is the most prevalent form of government in the world today and it is expanding to more
countries. It has many features which makes it better than other forms of government.

Democracy:
● Democracy comes from a Greek word 'Demokratia'. In Greek, 'demos' means people and 'kratia'
means rule. So, democracy is rule by the people.
● Democracy in simple words, is a form of government in which the rulers are elected by the people.
● This definition allows us to separate democracy from forms of government that are clearly not
democratic. For example, the army rulers of Myanmar were not elected by the people, Dictators like
Pinochet (Chile) are not elected by the people.

Features of Democracy:
● Major decisions by elected leaders:
⮚ The final decision-making power must rest with those elected by the people.

Case study of Pakistan:

In Pakistan, General Pervez Musharraf led a military coup in October 1999 and overthrew a
democratically elected government. Later he made various changes to the Constitution.
The final power rested with military officers and General Musharraf himself. So, it can't be called
as a truly democratic government.

● Free and fair electoral competition:

⮚ A democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power have a fair
chance of losing.
● One person, one vote, one value:
WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY?

⮚ Democracy is based on a fundamental principle of political equality. Each adult citizen must have
one vote and each vote must have one value.
⮚ The choice and opportunity to choose rulers is available to all the people on an equal basis.

Some instances of denial of equal right to vote:

Until 2015, in Saudi Arabia women did not have the right to vote.
Estonia's citizenship rules make it difficult for Russian minority to get the right to vote.

● Rule of law and respect for rights:

⮚ Democratic government rules within limits set by constitutional law and citizens' rights.
⮚ Respecting some basic rules: It has to respect some guarantees to the minorities and every major
decision has to go through a series of consultations. Every office bearer has certain rights and
responsibilities assigned by the constitution and the law.

1
 ⮚ Accountability: Each of the elected person is accountable not only to the people but also to other
independent officials.
⮚ Sufficient room for normal political activity before elections: As Popular governments can be
undemocratic and Popular leaders can be autocratic.
⮚ The rights of people must be protected by an independent judiciary whose orders are obeyed by
everyone.

Need of the Democracy

Arguments against Democracy:
● Instability: Leaders keep changing in a democracy.
● Low scope of morality: Democracy is all about political competition and power play.
● Delays in decision making: So many people have to be consulted in a democracy.
● Bad decisions: Elected leaders do not know the best interest of the people.
● Corruption: It is based on electoral competition.
● Ordinary people don't know what is good for them; they should not decide anything.

Arguments for Democracy:

● It is a more accountable form of government.
⮚ Democracy responds to the needs of the people: A non-democratic government may and can
respond to the people's needs, but it all depends on the wishes of the rulers.
⮚ A democracy requires that the rulers have to attend to the needs of the people.
● Improves the quality of decision-making:
⮚ Based on consultation and discussion: A democratic decision always involves many persons,
discussions and meetings. When a number of people put their heads together, it reduces the
chances of rash or irresponsible decisions.

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY?

● Provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts:
⮚ Resolving conflicts: The difference of opinions between people are particularly sharp in a country
like ours which has an amazing social diversity.
⮚ It provides the only peaceful solution as no one is a permanent winner or a loser.
● Enhances the dignity of citizens:
⮚ It is based on the principle of political equality, on recognising that the poorest and the least
educated has the same status as the rich and the educated.
⮚ People are not subjects of a ruler, they are the rulers themselves.
⮚ Even when they make mistakes, they are responsible for their conduct.
● It allows us to correct people's own mistakes:
⮚ Mistakes cannot be hidden for long: There is a space for public discussion on mistakes and there is
a room for correction.
⮚ Either the rulers have to change their decisions, or the rulers can be changed.

2
 Representative Democracy:
● Democracy doesn't mean that all the people rule: A majority is allowed to take decisions on behalf of
all the people. The majority does not rule directly but rule through their elected representatives.
● Reasons for representative democracy:
⮚ Modern democracies involve such a large number of people that it is physically impossible for them
to sit together and take a collective decision.
⮚ Even if they could, the citizen does not have the time, the desire or the skills to take part in all the
decisions.

Interesting points
● Syria is a small west Asian country. The ruling Ba'ath Party and some of its small allies are the only
parties allowed in that country.
● In China, country's parliament is called Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (National People's
Congress).
WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY?

3
 2 CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN
There are certain basic rules that the citizens and the government have to follow. All such rules together are
called constitution. Constitution is the supreme law that determines the rights of citizens, the powers of the
government and how the government should function.

Functions of the Constitution:

● It generates a degree of trust and coordination that is necessary for different kind of people to live
together.
● It specifies how the government will be constituted and who will have power to take which decisions.
● It lays down limits on the powers of the government and gives the rights of the citizens.
● It expresses the aspirations of the people about creating a good society.

History of other countries Constitution:

● After the War of Independence against Great Britain, the Americans gave themselves a constitution.
● After the Revolution, the French people approved a democratic constitution. Since then it has
become a practice in all democracies to have a written constitution.

Making of Indian Constitution: A Difficult Task

● Difficult circumstances: Constitution making for a huge and diverse country like India was not an easy
affair as people of India were emerging from the status of subjects to that of citizens.
● Painful partition: The country was born through a partition on the basis of religious differences. At
least ten lakh people were killed on both sides of the border in partition related violence.
● Issues in merging of Princely States: The British had left it to the rulers of the princely states to
decide whether they wanted to merge with India or with Pakistan or remain independent. The
merger of these princely states was a difficult and uncertain task.

The path to Constitution:

● Consensus: Much of the consensus about democratic India had evolved during the freedom struggle.
Some basic ideas accepted by almost everyone during national movement:
⮚ As far back as in 1928, Motilal Nehru and eight other Congress leaders drafted a Constitution for
India.
⮚ In 1931, the resolution at the Karachi session of the Indian National Congress dwelt on how
CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN

independent India's constitution should look like.

⮚ Both these documents were committed to the inclusion of universal adult franchise, right to
freedom and equality and to protecting the rights of minorities in the Constitution of independent
India.
● Familiarity with political institutions of colonial rule:
⮚ It also helped develop an agreement over the institutional design. Though their institutional design
was not fully democratic in 1937 elections, but the experience gained by Indians in the working of
the legislative institutions proved to be very useful for the country in setting up its own institutions

4
 and working in them. That is why the Indian Constitution adopted many institutional details and
procedures from colonial laws like the Government of India Act, 1935.
● Our leaders gained confidence to learn from other countries, but on our own terms:
⮚ Many of our leaders were inspired by the ideals of French Revolution, the practice of parliamentary
democracy in Britain and the Bill of Rights in the US.
⮚ The socialist revolution in Russia had inspired many Indians to think of shaping a system based on
social and economic equality.

The Constituent Assembly:

● The drafting of the document called the Constitution was done by an assembly of elected
representatives called the Constituent Assembly.
● Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in July 1946. Its first meeting was held in December
1946.
● It was elected mainly by the members of the existing Provincial Legislatures.
● After partition of India:
⮚ The country was divided into India and Pakistan. The Constituent Assembly was also divided into
the Constituent Assembly of India and that of Pakistan.
⮚ The Constituent Assembly that wrote the Indian constitution had 299 members.
⮚ The Assembly adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949, but it came into effect on 26
January 1950.

Reasons for acceptance of the Constitution:

● Broad consensus:
The Constitution does not reflect the views of its members alone but expresses a broad consensus of its time.
● Constituent Assembly - Represented the people of India:
⮚ Fair geographical share from all regions of country: Though, there was no universal adult
franchise at that time, but the Constituent Assembly was elected mainly by the members of the
existing Provincial Legislatures.
⮚ The Assembly was dominated by the Indian National Congress, the party that led India's freedom
struggle. But the Congress itself included a variety of political groups and opinions. The Assembly
also had many members who did not agree with the Congress.
CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN

⮚ In social terms: The Assembly represented members from different language groups, castes,
classes, religions and occupations.
● Manner in which the Constituent Assembly worked gives sanctity to the Constitution:
⮚ The Constituent Assembly worked in a systematic, open and consensual manner.
⮚ First some basic principles were decided and agreed upon. Then a Drafting Committee chaired by
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar prepared a draft constitution for discussion.
⮚ Deliberation:
o Several rounds of thorough discussion took place on the Draft Constitution, clause by clause.

5
 o More than two thousand amendments were considered.
o The members deliberated for 114 days spread over three years. Every document presented and
every word spoken in the Constituent Assembly has been recorded and preserved. These are
called 'Constituent Assembly Debates'. These debates provide the rationale behind every
provision of the Constitution. These are used to interpret the meaning of the Constitution.

Guiding values of the Indian Constitution

Philosophy of the Constitution:
● Values that inspired and guided the freedom struggle and were in turn nurtured by it, formed the
foundation for India's democracy. These values are embedded in the Preamble of the Indian
Constitution.
● They guide all the 28 Articles of the Indian Constitution.

Preamble:

CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN

6
 Institutional Design:
● A constitution is not merely a statement of values and philosophy but about embodying these values
into institutional arrangements. Much of the document called the Constitution of India is about these
arrangements.
● Constitutional Amendment:
⮚ The Constitution is a very long and detailed document. Therefore, it needs to be amended quite
regularly to keep it updated.
⮚ The Constitution makers felt that it has to be in accordance with people's aspirations and changes in
society.
⮚ They did not see it as a sacred, static and unalterable law. So, they made provisions to incorporate
changes from time to time. These changes are called constitutional amendments.

Some Great Personalities and their Contribution:

Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel Born: Gujarat. Minister of Home, Information and Broadcasting in
(1875-1950) the Interim Government. Lawyer and leader of Bardoli Peasant
Satyagraha. Played a decisive role in the integration of the Indian
princely states. Later: Deputy Prime Minister

Abul Kalam Azad (1888-1958) Born: Saudi Arabia. Educationist, author and theologian; scholar of
Arabic. Congress leader, active in the national movement. Opposed
Muslim separatist politics. Later: Education Minister in the first
union cabinet.

T. T. Krishnamachari (1899- Born: Tamil Nadu. Member, Drafting Committee. Entrepreneur and
1974) Congress leader. Later: Finance Minister in the Union Cabinet.

Rajendra Prasad (1884-1963) Born: Bihar. President of the Constituent Assembly. Lawyer,
known for his role in the Champaran satyagraha. Three times the
President of Congress. Later: the first President of India.

Jaipal Singh (1903-1970) Born: Jharkhand A sportsman and educationist. Captain of the first
CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN

national Hockey team. Founder President of Adivasi Maha Sabha.

Later: founder of Jharkhand Party.

H. C. Mookherjee (1887-1956) Born: Bengal. Vice-Chairman of the Constituent Assembly.

Reputed author and educationist. Congress leader. Member of All
India Christian Council and Bengal Legislative Assembly. Later:
Governor of West Bengal.

7
G. Durgabai Deshmukh (1909- Born: Andhra Pradesh. Advocate and public activist for women's
1981) emancipation. Founder of Andhra Mahila Sabha. Congress leader.
Later: Founder Chairperson of Central Social Welfare Board.

Baldev Singh (1901-1961) Born: Haryana. A successful entrepreneur and leader of the Panthic
Akali Party in the Punjab Assembly. A nominee of the Congress in
the Constituent Assembly. Later: Defence Minister in the Union
Cabinet.

Kanhaiyalal Maniklal Munshi Born: Gujarat. Advocate, historian and linguist. Congress leader and
(1887-1971) Gandhian. Later: Minister in the Union Cabinet. Founder of the
Swatantra Party.

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar Born: Madhya Pradesh. Chairman of the Drafting Committee.
(1891-1956) Social revolutionary thinker and agitator against caste divisions and
caste-based inequalities. Later: Law Minister in the first cabinet of
post-independence India. Founder of Republican Party of India.

S h ya m a Pr a s a d M u k h e r j e e Born: West Bengal. Minister for Industry and Supply in the Interim
(1901-1953) Government. Educationist and lawyer. Active in Hindu Mahasabha.
Later: Founder President of Bharatiya Jansangh.

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) Born: Uttar Pradesh. Prime Minister of the interim government.
Lawyer and Congress leader. Advocate of socialism, democracy and
anti-imperialism. Later: First Prime Minister of India.
CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN

Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949) Born: Andhra Pradesh. Poet, writer and political activist. Among the
foremost women leaders in the Congress. Later: Governor of Uttar
Pradesh.

Somnath Lahiri (1901-1984) Born: West Bengal. Writer and editor. Leader of the Communist
Party of India. Later: Member of West Bengal Legislative Assembly.

8
 Interesting points
● Nelson Mandela:
⮚ He was tried for treason by the white South African government and sentenced to life
imprisonment in 1964 for daring to oppose the apartheid regime in his country.
⮚ He spent the next 28 years in South Africa's most dreaded prison, Robben Island.
⮚ He was the first President of new South Africa.
⮚ At the midnight of 26 April 1994, the new national flag of the Republic of South Africa was
unfurled.
● Apartheid: It was the name of a system of racial discrimination unique to South Africa. The
African National Congress (ANC) was the umbrella organisation that led the struggle against it.
● Mahatma Gandhi was not a member of the Constituent Assembly. His magazine was Young
India.
● Preamble: The Constitution begins with a short statement of its basic values.
● Most countries have chosen to begin their Constitution by taking inspiration from American
model. decision has to go through a series of consultations. Every office bearer has certain rights
and responsibilities assigned by the constitution and the law.
CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN

9
 3 ELECTORAL POLITICS
In a democracy it is neither possible nor necessary for people to govern directly. The most common form of
democracy in our times is for the people to govern through their representatives. To elect the
representatives, elections are necessary and useful in a democracy.
Elections: People can choose their representatives at regular intervals and change them if they wish to do so.
This mechanism is called election.

Need of Elections:
● To establish rule of law: A rule of the people is possible without elections if all the people can sit
together everyday and take all the decisions but this is neither possible in any large community nor is it
possible for everyone to have the time and knowledge to take decisions on all matters.
● To give voters various choices such as:
⮚ Choosing who will make laws for them.
⮚ Choosing who will form the government and take major decisions.
⮚ Choosing the party whose policies will guide the government and law making.

Minimum conditions of a Democratic election:

● Everyone should be able to choose: Everyone should have one vote and every vote should have equal
value.
● Real choices: Parties and candidates should be free to contest elections and should offer some real
choice to the voters.
● Choice should be offered at regular intervals: Elections must be held regularly after every few years.
● The candidate preferred by the people should get elected.
● Elections should be conducted in a free and fair manner where people can choose freely.
Elections are mostly all about political competition which takes various forms. The most obvious form is the
competition among political parties. At the constituency level, it takes the form of competition among several
candidates.

Demerits of electoral competition:

● It creates a sense of disunity and 'factionalism' in every locality.
● Party-politics: Parties and candidates often use dirty tricks to win elections.
● Unhealthy competition: Pressure to win electoral fights does not allow sensible long-term policies to
be formulated. Some good people do not like the idea of being dragged into unhealthy competition.
ELECTORAL POLITICS

Reasons for choosing free competition in elections:

● Political leaders all over the world, like all other professionals, are motivated by a desire to advance their
political careers. They want to remain in power or get power and positions for themselves.
● It is important to set up a system where political leaders are rewarded for serving the people and
punished for not doing so by the people. That's why free competition in elections was chosen.
● It works better in long run.

10
 System of Elections in India:
● Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha (Assembly) elections are held regularly after every five years.
● After five years, the term of all the elected representatives comes to an end. The Lok Sabha or Vidhan
Sabha stands 'dissolved'.
● Elections are held in all constituencies at the same time, either on the same day or within a few days.
This is called a general election.
● Sometimes election is held only for one constitutency to fill the vacancy caused by death or resignation
of a member. This is called a by-election.

Electoral Constituencies:
● Area based system of representation: The country is divided into different areas for purposes of
elections. These areas are called electoral constituencies. The voters who live in an area elect one
representative.
● For Lok Sabha elections:
⮚ The country is divided into 543 constituencies. The representative elected from each constituency
is called a Member of Parliament or an MP.
⮚ Every vote should have equal value: Our Constitution requires that each constituency should have
a roughly equal population living within it.
● For States:
⮚ Each state is divided into a specific number of Assembly constituencies. In this case, the elected
representative is called the Member of Legislative Assembly or an MLA.
⮚ Each Parliamentary constituency has within it several assembly constituencies.
● For Panchayat and Municipal elections:
⮚ Each village or town is divided into several 'wards' that are like constituencies.
⮚ Each ward elects one member of the village or the urban local body. Sometimes these
constituencies are counted as 'seats', for each constituency represents one seat in the assembly.

Reserved Constituencies:
● Some constituencies are reserved for people who belong to the Scheduled Castes (SC) and
Scheduled Tribes (ST). In a SC reserved constituency only someone who belongs to the Scheduled
Castes can stand for election.
● Currently, in the Lok Sabha, 84 seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes and 47 for the Scheduled
ELECTORAL POLITICS

Tribes (as on 26 January 2019). This number is in proportion to their share in the total population.
● This system of reservation was extended to other weaker sections at the district and local level.
● In many states, seats in rural (panchayat) and urban (municipalities and corporations) local bodies are
now reserved for Other Backward Classes (OBC) also. However, the proportion of seats reserved
varies from state to state.
● For women: One-third of the seats are reserved in rural and urban local bodies for them.

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Reasons for Reserved Constituencies:
● In an open electoral competition, certain weaker sections may not stand a good chance to get elected
to the Lok Sabha and the state Legislative Assemblies.
● Weaker section may not have the required resources, education and contacts to contest and win
elections against others.

Voters List:
In a democratic election, the list of those who are eligible to vote is prepared much before the election and
given to everyone. This list is officially called the Electoral Roll and is commonly known as the Voters' List.

Importance of Voters list:

● Everyone should get an equal opportunity to choose representatives.
● Everyone should have one vote and each vote should have equal value.
● No one should be denied the right to vote without a good reason.
● Equal say in decisions: Different citizens differ from one another in many ways in terms of caste,
religion, economic background etc. but all of them are human beings with their own needs and views.

Voter List in India:

● All the citizens aged 18 years and above can vote in an election.
● Every citizen has the right to vote, regardless of his or her caste, religion or gender.
● Only in rare situations, some criminals and persons with unsound mind can be denied the right to
vote.
● It is the responsibility of the government to get the names of all the eligible voters put on the voters'
list.
● As new persons attain voting age, names are added to the voters' list. Names of those who move out of
a place or those who are dead are deleted.
● A complete revision of the list takes place every five years to ensure that it remains up to date.
● In the last few years, a new system of Election Photo Identity Card (EPIC) has been introduced.
● The card is not yet compulsory for voting. For voting, the voters can show many other proofs of
identity like the ration card or the driving licence.

Nomination of Candidates:
ELECTORAL POLITICS

● Anyone who can be a voter can also become a candidate in elections. The only difference is that the
minimum age for candidate is 25 years, while it is only 18 years for being a voter.
● There are some other restrictions on criminals etc. but these apply in very extreme cases.
● Political parties nominate their candidates who get the party symbol and support. Party's nomination
is often called party 'ticket'.
● Security deposit: Every person who wishes to contest an election has to fill a 'nomination form' and
give some money as 'security deposit'.

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 ● Recently, a new system of declaration has been introduced on direction from the Supreme Court. Every
candidate has to make a legal declaration, giving full details of:
⮚ Serious criminal cases pending against the candidate.
⮚ Details of the assets and liabilities of the candidate and his or her family.
⮚ Educational qualifications of the candidate.
This information has to be made public as it provides an opportunity to the voters to make their decision on
the basis of the information provided by the candidates.

Educational qualifications for candidates:

There is no educational qualification for holding such an important position because of following
reasons:
Educational qualifications are not relevant to all kinds of jobs. The relevant qualification for
being an MLA or an MP is the ability to understand people's concerns, problems and to
represent their interests which is examined by voters after every five years.
Even if education was relevant, it should be left to the people to decide how much importance
they give to educational qualifications.
In our country putting an educational qualification would go against the spirit of democracy for
yet another reason. It would mean depriving a majority of the country's citizens the right to
contest elections. For example, if a graduate degree was made compulsory for candidates, more
than 90 per cent of the citizens will become ineligible to contest elections.

Election Campaign:
● The main purpose of election is to give people a chance to choose the representatives, the
government and the policies they prefer. For this, free and open discussions happen during election
campaigns.
● In India, such campaigns take place for a two-week period between the announcement of the final list
of candidates and the date of polling.
● During this period the candidates contact their voters, political leaders address election meetings and
political parties mobilise their supporters.
● Election campaign not limited to these two weeks only: As political parties start preparing for
elections months before they actually take place.
ELECTORAL POLITICS

● Necessary to regulate campaigns: To ensure that every political party and candidate gets a fair and
equal chance to compete.

According to our election law, no party or candidate can:

● Bribe or threaten voters.
● Appeal to them in the name of caste or religion.
● Use government resources for election campaign.

13
 ● Spend more than Rs 25 lakh in a constituency for a Lok Sabha election or Rs 10 lakh in a constituency in
an Assembly election.
If they do so, their election can be rejected by the court even after they have been declared elected.

Model Code of Conduct:

In addition to the laws, all the political parties in the country have agreed to it for election campaigns.
According to this, no party or candidate can:
● Use any place of worship for election propaganda.
● Use government vehicles, aircrafts and officials for elections.
● Once elections are announced, Ministers shall not lay foundation stones of any projects, take any big
policy decisions or make any promises of providing public facilities.

Polling and Counting of votes:

● The final stage of an election is the day when the voters cast or 'poll' their vote. That day is usually called
the election day.
● Once the voter goes inside the booth, the election officials identify her, put a mark on her finger and
allow her to cast her vote.
● An agent of each candidate is allowed to sit inside the polling booth and ensure that the voting takes
place in a fair way.
● Voting procedure:
⮚ Earlier the voters used to indicate who they wanted to vote for by putting a stamp on the ballot
paper.
⮚ Now a days electronic voting machines (EVM) are used to record votes which shows the names of
the candidates and the party symbols.
⮚ Once the polling is over, all the EVMs are sealed and taken to a secure place.
⮚ The agents of all candidates are present during counting of votes to ensure that the counting is done
properly.
⮚ The candidate who secures the highest number of votes from a constituency is declared elected.

Electoral malpractices:
● Inclusion of false names and exclusion of genuine names in the voters' list.
● Misuse of government facilities and officials by the ruling party.
ELECTORAL POLITICS

● Excessive use of money by rich candidates and big parties.

● Intimidation of voters and rigging on the polling day.

Factors responsible for making Elections Democratic in India

Independent Election Commission (EC):
● In our country elections are conducted by an independent and very powerful Election Commission
(EC).

14
 ● It enjoys the same kind of independence that the judiciary enjoys.
● The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) is appointed by the President of India.
● But once appointed, the Chief Election Commissioner is not answerable to the President or the
government.
● Even if the ruling party or the government does not like what the Commission does, it is virtually
impossible for it to remove the CEC.

Wide ranging powers of Election Commission of India:

● EC takes decisions on every aspect of conduct and control of elections from the announcement of
elections to the declaration of results.
● It implements the Code of Conduct and punishes any candidate or party that violates it.
● During the election period, the EC can order the government to follow some guidelines, to prevent
use and misuse of governmental power to enhance its chances to win elections, or to transfer some
government officials.
● When on election duty, government officers work under the control of the EC and not the
government.
● When election officials come to the opinion that polling was not fair in some booths or even an entire
constituency, they order a repoll.

Popular Participation:
Another way of checking the quality of the election process is to see whether people participate in it with
enthusiasm or not.

Some facts about participation in India:

● People's participation in election is usually measured by voter turnout figures. Turnout indicates the
per cent of eligible voters who actually cast their vote. Over the last fifty years, the turnout in Europe
and North America has declined. In India, the turnout has either remained stable or actually gone up.
ELECTORAL POLITICS

Fig. 3.1: Voter Turnout in India and the UK

15
● In India the poor, illiterate and underprivileged people vote in larger proportion as compared to the
rich and privileged sections. This is in contrast to western democracies. For example, in the United
States of America, poor people, African Americans and Hispanics vote much less than the rich and the
white people.

Source: Figures of India from National Election Study 2004, CSDS. Figures for US from 2004, University of Michigan.
ELECTORAL POLITICS

● Common people in India attach a lot of importance to elections and feel that through elections they can
bring pressure on political parties to adopt policies and programmes favourable to them.
● The interest of voters in election related activities has been increasing over the years. During the
2004 elections, more than one third voters took part in a campaign related activities. More than half of
the people identified themselves as being close to one or the other political party. One out of every
seven voters is a member of a political party.

16
 Acceptance of election outcome:
One final test of the free and fairness of election has in the outcome itself. If elections are not free or fair, the
outcome always favours the powerful.
The outcome of India's elections speaks for itself:
● The ruling parties routinely lose elections in India both at the national and state level. Infact, the ruling
party lost in every two out of the three elections held in the last 25 years.
ELECTORAL POLITICS

● In the US, an incumbent or 'sitting' elected representative rarely loses an election. In India about half of
the sitting MPs or MLAs lose elections.
● Candidates who are known to have spent a lot of money on 'buying votes' and those with known
criminal connections often lose elections.
● Barring very few disputed elections, the electoral outcomes are usually accepted as 'people's verdict'
by the defeated party.

17
Challenges to free and fair elections:
● Money power: Candidates and parties with a lot of money may not be sure of their victory but they do
enjoy a big and unfair advantage over smaller parties and independents.
● Criminal background: In some parts of the country, candidates with criminal connection have been
able to push others out of the electoral race and to secure a 'ticket' from major parties.
● Family politics: Some families tend to dominate political parties and tickets are distributed to relatives
from these families.
● Lack of choice: Very often elections offer little choice to ordinary citizens as the major parties are quite
similar to each other in terms of policies and practice.
● Smaller parties and independent candidates suffer a huge disadvantage compared to bigger parties.

Interesting points
● Chaudhary Devi Lal led a movement called 'Nyaya Yudh' (Struggle for Justice) and formed a new
party, Lok Dal.
● There are more than one hundred countries in the world in which elections take place to choose
people's representatives.
● Currently, in the Lok Sabha, 84 seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes and 47 for the
Scheduled Tribes (as on 26 January 2019).
● Some of the successful slogans given by different political parties in various elections:

Slogan Given by

Garibi Hatao (Remove poverty) The Congress party led by Indira Gandhi in the Lok
Sabha elections of 1971.

Save Democracy Janata Party under the leadership of Jayaprakash

Narayan, in the Lok Sabha election held in 1977.

Land to the Tiller The Left Front in the West Bengal Assembly elections
held in 1977.

'Protect the Self-Respect of the Telugus' N. T. Rama Rao, the leader of the Telugu Desam Party
ELECTORAL POLITICS

in Andhra Pradesh Assembly elections in 1983.

● A ballot paper is a sheet of paper on which the names of the contesting candidates along with
party name and symbols are listed.

18
 WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS
4
In a democracy, the government has to work with and within institutions which play an important role in
major decisions being taken and implemented in a country. In this process, we come across three
institutions that play a key role in major decisions – legislature, executive and judiciary. These three
institutions together carry on the work of government.

The Decision Makers in India

Major decision involves major functionaries in our country:
● President is the head of the state and is the highest formal authority in the country.
● Prime Minister is the head of the government and actually exercises all governmental powers.
● Parliament consists of the President and two Houses, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
● The Prime Minister must have the support of a majority of Lok Sabha members.

Need for Political Institutions:

Political Institution: It is a set of procedures for regulating the conduct of government and political life in the
country.
Several institutions at work in India:
● Important decisions taken by: The Prime Minister and the Cabinet.
● Implementation by: The Civil Servants.
● Disputes resolved by: Supreme Court where disputes between citizens and the government are finally
settled.

Negative implication of Institutions Positive implication of Institutions

Institutions involve rules and regulations which Wide consultation: Some of the delays and
can bind the hands of leaders. complications introduced by institutions are very
useful. They provide an opportunity for a wider
set of people to be consulted in any decision.

Institutions involve meetings, committees and They make it difficult to rush through a bad
routines which leads to delays and complications. decision.
WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS

Parliament:
● In all democracies, an assembly of elected representatives exercises supreme political authority on
behalf of the people. At the state level, this is called Legislature or Legislative Assembly.
● The task of law making or legislation is so crucial that these assemblies are called legislatures.

Need of Parliament:
● To make laws: Parliaments can make new laws, change existing laws, or abolish existing laws and
make new ones in their place.
● To exercise some control over those who run the government: In some countries like India this control

19
 is direct and full. Those who run the government can take decisions only so long as they enjoy support
of Parliament.
● To control money of the government: In most countries the public money can be spent only when
Parliament sanctions it.
● To provide a forum for discussion and debate on public issues and national policy.

Two Houses of Parliament:

● Since Parliament plays a central role in modern democracies, most large countries divide the role and
powers of Parliament in two parts. They are called Chambers or Houses.
● One House is usually directly elected by the people and exercises the real power on behalf of the
people while the second House is usually elected indirectly and performs some special functions.
● In India, Parliament consists of two Houses:
⮚ Council of States (Rajya Sabha).
⮚ House of the People (Lok Sabha).
⮚ The President of India is a part of Parliament, although s/he is not a member of either House and
all laws made in the Houses come into force only after they receive the assent of the President.

Difference of Powers between two Houses:

● Though Rajya Sabha is called the 'Upper Chamber' and the Lok Sabha the 'Lower Chamber' but this
is just an old style of speaking and not the language used in our Constitution.
● Our Constitution does give the Rajya Sabha some special powers over the states.
● But on most matters, the Lok Sabha exercises supreme power:
⮚ View of Lok Sabha prevails: Any ordinary law needs to be passed by both the Houses but if there is
a difference between the two Houses, the final decision is taken in a joint session in which members
of both the Houses sit together. As the Lok Sabha has the larger number of members, the view of the
Lok Sabha is likely to prevail.
⮚ Lok Sabha exercises more powers in money matters: Once the Lok Sabha passes the budget of the
government or any other money related law, the Rajya Sabha cannot reject it. The Rajya Sabha can
only delay it by 14 days or suggest changes in it. The Lok Sabha may or may not accept these changes.
⮚ The Lok Sabha controls the Council of Ministers: Only a person who enjoys the support of the
WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS
majority of the members in the Lok Sabha is appointed the Prime Minister. If the majority of the Lok
Sabha members say they have 'no confidence' in the Council of Ministers, all ministers including the
Prime Minister, have to quit. The Rajya Sabha does not have this power.

Political Executive
Executive:
● At different levels of any government, there are functionaries who take day-to-day decisions but do
not exercise supreme power on behalf of the people. All those functionaries are collectively known as
the executive.

20
 ● They are called executive because they are in charge of the 'execution' of the policies of the
government.
In a democracy, two categories make up the executive:
● Political Executive: They are elected by the people for a specific period and includes Political leaders
who take the big decisions.
● Permanent Executive or Civil servants: People are appointed on a long-term basis. Persons working
in civil services are called civil servants. They remain in office even when the ruling party changes.
These officers work under political executive and assist them in carrying out the day-to-day
administration.

Reasons for Political Executive having more power than Permanent Executive:
● In a democracy, the will of the people is supreme. The minister is an elected representative of the
people and thus empowered to exercise the will of the people on their behalf.
● Answerable to the people for all the consequences of her decision: This is the reason the minister
takes all the final decisions.

Prime Minister and Council of Ministers

Their Appointment:
● No direct election to post of PM: The President appoints the leader of the majority party or the
coalition of parties that commands a majority in the Lok Sabha, as Prime Minister.
● In case no single party or alliance gets a majority, the President appoints the person most likely to
secure a majority support.
● The Prime Minister does not have a fixed tenure. He continues in power so long as he remains the
leader of the majority party or coalition.
● After the appointment of the Prime Minister, the President appoints other Ministers on the advice of
the Prime Minister.
● The Prime Minister is free to choose Ministers, as long as they are members of Parliament.
Sometimes, a person who is not a member of Parliament can also become a Minister. But such a
person has to get elected to one of the Houses of Parliament within six months of appointment as
Minister.
WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS

Council of Ministers: It is the official name for the body that includes all the Ministers.
● It usually has 60 to 80 Ministers of different ranks.
⮚ Cabinet Ministers are usually top-level leaders of the ruling party or parties who are in charge of the
major ministries. Usually, the Cabinet Ministers meet to take decisions in the name of the Council of
Ministers. Cabinet is thus the inner ring of the Council of Ministers.
⮚ Ministers of State with independent charge are usually in-charge of smaller Ministries. They
participate in the Cabinet meetings only when specially invited.
⮚ Ministers of State are attached to and required to assist Cabinet Ministers.

21
 ● Parliamentary democracy is often known as the Cabinet form of government: Since it is not practical
for all ministers to meet regularly and discuss everything, the decisions are taken in Cabinet meetings.
● The Cabinet works as a team: The ministers may have different views and opinion, but everyone has
to own up to every decision of the Cabinet. No minister can openly criticize any decision of the
government, even if it is about another Ministry or Department.

Cabinet Secretariat:
● Every ministry has secretaries, who are civil servants. The secretaries provide the necessary
background information to the ministers to take decisions.
● The Cabinet as a team is assisted by the Cabinet Secretariat. This includes many senior civil servants
who try to coordinate the working of different ministries.
Powers of the Prime Minister: The Constitution does not say very much about the powers of the Prime
Minister or the ministers or their relationship with each other. But as head of the government, the Prime
Minister has wide ranging powers such as:
● He chairs Cabinet meetings and coordinates the work of different Departments.
● His decisions are final in case disagreements arise between Departments.
● He exercises general supervision of different ministries.
● All ministers work under his leadership.
● The Prime Minister distributes and redistributes work to the ministers.
● He also has the power to dismiss ministers.
● When the Prime Minister quits, the entire ministry quits.
The powers of the Prime Minister in all parliamentary democracies of the world have increased so much in
recent decades that parliamentary democracies are sometimes seen as Prime Ministerial form of
government.

The President
● The President is the head of the State which exercises only nominal powers.
● The President of India is like the Queen of Britain whose functions are to a large extent ceremonial.
● The President supervises the overall functioning of all the political institutions in the country so that
they operate in harmony to achieve the objectives of the State.
WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS

Election of President:
● The President is not elected directly by the people. The elected Members of Parliament (MPs) and the
elected Members of the Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) elect her.
● A candidate standing for President's post has to get a majority of votes to win the election. This
ensures that the President can be seen to represent the entire nation.
● At the same time, the President can never claim the kind of direct popular mandate that the Prime
Minister can. This ensures that she remains only a nominal executive.

22
 Powers of the President:
● All governmental activities take place in the name of the President:
⮚ All laws and major policy decisions of the government are issued in her name.
⮚ All major appointments like CJI, the Governors of the states etc. are made in the name of the
President.
⮚ All international treaties and agreements are made in the name of the President.
⮚ The President is the supreme commander of the defence forces of India.
● Exercises all these powers only on the advice of the Council of Ministers:
⮚ The President can ask the Council of Ministers to reconsider its advice but if the same advice is given
again, she is bound to act according to it.
⮚ Similarly, a bill passed by the Parliament becomes a law only after the President gives assent to it. If
the President wants, she can delay this for some time and send the bill back to Parliament for
reconsideration. But if Parliament passes the bill again, she has to sign it.
● Appoint the Prime Minister:
⮚ When a party or coalition of parties secures a clear majority in the elections, the President, has to
appoint the leader of the majority party or the coalition that enjoys majority support in the Lok
Sabha.
⮚ When no party or coalition gets a majority in the Lok Sabha, the President exercises her
discretion. The President appoints a leader who in her opinion can muster majority support in the
Lok Sabha. In such a case, the President can ask the newly appointed Prime Minister to prove
majority support in the Lok Sabha within a specified time.

The Judiciary
● All the courts at different levels in a country put together are called the judiciary.
● The Indian judiciary consists of:
⮚ Supreme Court for the entire nation.
⮚ High Courts in the states.
⮚ District Courts and the courts at local level.
● India has an integrated judiciary. Supreme Court controls the judicial administration in the country. Its
decisions are binding on all other courts of the country.
⮚ It can take up any dispute
WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS

o Between citizens of the country.

o Between citizens and government.
o Between two or more state governments.
o Between governments at the union and state level.
⮚ It is the highest court of appeal in civil and criminal cases.
⮚ It can hear appeals against the decisions of the High Courts.

Independence of the Judiciary:

● Not under the control of the legislature or the executive: The judges do not act on the direction of the

23
 government or according to the wishes of the party in power.
● Less interference by Political executive: The judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts are
appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister and in consultation with the Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court.
● The senior most judge of the Supreme Court is usually appointed as the Chief Justice.
● Removal of judge: Once a person is appointed as judge of the Supreme Court or the High Court it is
nearly impossible to remove him or her from that position. A judge can be removed only by an
impeachment motion passed separately by two-thirds members of the two Houses of the
Parliament. It has never happened in the history of Indian democracy.

Powers of the Judiciary:

● The Supreme Court and the High Courts have the power to interpret the Constitution: They can
declare invalid any law of the legislature or the actions of the executive, whether at the Union level or at
the state level, if they find such a law or action is against the Constitution.
● Power of Judicial review: They can determine the Constitutional validity of any legislation or action of
the executive in the country, when it is challenged before them.
● The Supreme Court of India has also ruled that the core or basic principles of the Constitution cannot
be changed by the Parliament.
● The powers and the independence of the Indian judiciary allow it to act as the guardian of the
Fundamental Rights.

Interesting points
● Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC): It is another name for all those people who
belong to castes that are considered backward by the government. Only persons who belong to
backward classes were eligible for the quota of 27 per cent jobs.
● Mandal Commission: The Government of India had appointed the Second Backward Classes
Commission in 1979 headed by B.P. Mandal. Hence it was popularly called the Mandal
Commission. It was asked to determine the criteria to identify the socially and educationally
backward classes in India. The Commission gave its Report in 1980 and made many
recommendations. One of these was that 27 per cent of government jobs be reserved for the WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS
socially and educationally backward classes.
● The order to give 27 percent reservation was challenged in court. This case was known as the
'Indira Sawhney and others Vs Union of India case'. By a majority, the Eleven-member bench of
Supreme Court judges in 1992 declared that this order is valid but it said that well-to do persons
among the backward classes should be excluded from getting the benefit of reservation.
● The Presidential System: When the President is both the head of the state and the head of the
government. For example- The President of the United States of America who is directly elected
by the people and personally chooses and appoints all Ministers.

24
 DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS
5
Elections and institutions need to be combined with a third element – enjoyment of rights – to make a
government democratic. Even the most properly elected rulers working through the established institutional
process must learn not to cross some limits. Citizens' democratic rights set those limits in a democracy.

Rights in a Democracy
Rights:
● Rights are claims of a person over other fellow beings, over the society and over the government.
● A right is possible when a person make a claim that is equally possible for others. A person cannot have
a right that harms or hurts others.
● These claims should be reasonable. Thus, a right comes with an obligation to respect other rights.
● Rights acquire meaning only in society. Every society makes certain rules to regulate our conduct.
What is recognised by the society as rightful becomes the basis of rights.
● When the socially recognised claims are written into law they acquire real force. Otherwise they
remain merely as natural or moral rights.

Rights are reasonable claims of persons recognised by society and sanctioned by law.
Need of Rights in a Democracy:
● Necessary for the very sustenance of a democracy.
● Protection of Minorities from the oppression of majority.
● Protection from other citizens: Things may go wrong when some citizens may wish to take away the
rights of others.
● Protection from government: Sometimes elected governments may not protect or may even attack
the rights of their own citizens. Some rights need to be placed higher than the government, so that the
government cannot violate them.

Rights in the Indian Constitution:

● In India, the basic rights of the citizens are written down in the Constitution. Some rights which are
fundamental to our life are given a special status. They are called Fundamental Rights.
● Preamble to our Constitution talks about securing for all its citizens equality, liberty and justice.
Fundamental Rights put this promise into effect.
● Our Constitution provides for six Fundamental Rights.
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS

Fig. 5.1: Types of Fundamental Rights

25
Right to Equality:
● Rule of law: The Constitution says that the government shall not deny to any person in India equality
before the law or the equal protection of the laws. It means that the laws apply in the same manner to
all, regardless of a person's status.
● Rule of law means that no person is above the law. There cannot be any distinction between a
political leader, government official and an ordinary citizen.
● No person can legally claim any special treatment or privilege just because he or she happens to be
an important person.

Implications of the Right to Equality:

● The government shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex
or place of birth.
● Every citizen shall have access to public places like shops, restaurants, hotels, and cinema halls.
● Similarly, there shall be no restriction with regard to the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads,
playgrounds and places of public resorts maintained by government or dedicated to the use of general
public.
● Same principle applies to public jobs: All citizens have equality of opportunity in matters relating to
employment or appointment to any position in the government. No citizen shall be discriminated
against or made ineligible for employment on the grounds mentioned above.
● Extension of principle of non-discrimination to social life: The Constitution mentions one extreme
form of social discrimination, the practice of untouchability, and clearly directs the government to put
an end to it. The practice of untouchability has been forbidden in any form.

Untouchability: It refers to any belief or social practice which looks down upon people on account of their
birth with certain caste labels. Constitution made untouchability a punishable offence.

Reservations are not against Right to Equality:

● Equality means giving everyone an equal opportunity to achieve their capability.
● Sometimes it is necessary to give special treatment to someone in order to ensure equal opportunity.
● The Constitution says that reservations of this kind are not a violation of the Right to Equality.

Right to Freedom:
Freedom means absence of constraints. In practical life, it means absence of interference in our affairs by
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS

others – be it other individuals or the government.

Scope of Right to Freedom:

● Every citizen has the right to all these freedoms: One cannot exercise his freedom in such a manner
that violates others' right to freedom or cause public nuisance or disorder.
● Freedom is not unlimited licence to do anything: Accordingly, the government can impose certain
reasonable restrictions on our freedoms in the larger interests of the society.

26
 Constitution grants all citizens the right to:
● Freedom of speech and expression:
⮚ Essential features of any democracy: Our ideas and personality develop only when we are able to
freely communicate with others.
⮚ Accepting Disagreements: One may disagree with a policy of government or activities of an
association. That person is free to criticise the government or the activities of the association. One
may publicise his views through a pamphlet, magazine or newspaper, through paintings, poetry or
songs.
⮚ Limit:
o This freedom cannot be used to instigate violence against others or to incite people to rebel
against government.
o It can't be used to defame others by saying false and mean things that cause damage to a
person's reputation.
● Assembly in a peaceful manner:
⮚ Citizens have the freedom to hold meetings, processions, rallies and demonstrations on any
issue.
⮚ Limit: Such meetings have to be peaceful and should not lead to public disorder or breach of peace
in society. Those who participate in these activities and meetings should not carry weapons with
them.
● Form associations and unions:
⮚ Citizens also can form associations. For example- workers in a factory can form a workers' union to
promote their interests.
● Move freely throughout the country.
● Reside in any part of the country:
⮚ Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India.
● Practice any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade or business:
⮚ No one can force a person to do or not to do a certain job. Women cannot be told that some kinds of
occupations are not for them.
⮚ People from deprived castes cannot be kept to their traditional occupations.
● No person can be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established
by law:
⮚ No person can be killed unless the court has ordered a death sentence.
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS

⮚ A government or police officer cannot arrest or detain any citizen unless he has proper legal
justification. Even when they do, they have to follow some procedures:
o A person who is arrested and detained in custody will have to be informed of the reasons for
such arrest and detention.
o A person who is arrested and detained shall be produced before the nearest magistrate within
a period of 24 hours of arrest.
o Such a person has the right to consult a lawyer or engage a lawyer for his defence.

27
Right against Exploitation:
The Constitution mentions three specific evils and declares these illegal:
● Prohibits 'traffic in human beings': Traffic here means selling and buying of human beings, usually
women, for immoral purposes.
● Prohibits forced labour or begar in any form: Begar is a practice where the worker is forced to render
service to the 'master' free of charge or at a nominal remuneration. When this practice takes place on a
life-long basis, it is called the practice of bonded labour.
● Prohibits child labour: No one can employ a child below the age of fourteen to work in any factory or
mine or in any other hazardous work, such as railways and ports.

Right to Freedom of Religion:

● Right to freedom includes right to freedom of religion also.
● India is a secular state: It does not establish any one religion as official religion. Indian secularism
practices an attitude of a principled and equal distance from all religions. The state has to be neutral
and impartial in dealing with all religions.
● Every person has a right to profess, practice and propagate any religion.
● Every religious group or sect is free to manage its religious affairs.
● A person is free to change religion on his or her own will but a person can't compel another person to
convert into his religion by means of force, fraud, inducement or allurement. Of course,
● Freedom to practice religion does not mean that a person can do whatever he wants in the name of
religion. For example, one cannot sacrifice animals or human beings as offerings to supernatural forces
or gods.
● India does not confer any privilege or favour on any particular religion. It does not punish or
discriminate against people on the basis of religion they follow. So, the government cannot compel any
person to pay any taxes for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious
institution.
● There shall be no religious instruction in the government educational institutions.
● In educational institutions managed by private bodies no person shall be compelled to take part in
any religious instruction or to attend any religious worship.

Cultural and Educational Rights:

Need: Democracy gives power to the majority. So, language, culture and religion of minorities needs
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS

special protection. Otherwise, they may get neglected or undermined under the impact of the language,
religion and culture of the majority.

Constitution specifies the cultural and educational rights of the minorities:

● Any section of citizens with a distinct language or culture have a right to conserve it.
● Admission to any educational institution maintained by government or receiving government aid
cannot be denied to any citizen on the ground of religion or language.

28
 ● All minorities have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.

Meaning of Minority:
● Here minority does not mean only religious minority at the national level.
● In some places, people speaking a particular language are in majority and people speaking a different
language are in a minority. For example, Telugu speaking people form a majority in Andhra Pradesh.
But they are a minority in the neighboring State of Karnataka.

Right to Constitutional Remedies:

● Constitution has a right to seek the enforcement of the other rights. This is called the Right to
Constitutional Remedies. This itself is a Fundamental Right.
● This right makes other rights effective: When any of rights are violated, a person can seek remedy
through courts. If it is a Fundamental Right, s/he can directly approach the Supreme Court or the High
Court of a state. (That is why Dr. Ambedkar called the Right to Constitutional Remedies, 'the heart and
soul' of our Constitution)
● Fundamental Rights are guaranteed against the actions of the Legislatures, the Executive and any
other authorities instituted by the government. There can be no law or action that violates the
Fundamental Rights. If any act of the Legislature or the Executive takes away or limits any of the
Fundamental Rights then it will be invalid.
● Courts also enforce the Fundamental Rights against private individuals and bodies.
● The Supreme Court and High Courts have the power to issue directions, orders or writs for the
enforcement of the Fundamental Rights. They can also award compensation to the victims and
punishment to the violators.

Expanding scope of rights over the years:

Sometimes expansion leads to expansion in the legal rights that the citizen can enjoy. From time to time, the
courts gave judgments to expand the scope of rights.
● While Fundamental Rights are the source of all rights, our Constitution and law offers a wider range of
rights.
● Certain rights like right to freedom of press, right to information, and right to education are derived
from the Fundamental Rights. For example- Now school education has become a right for Indian
citizens. The governments are responsible for providing free and compulsory education to all
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS

children up to the age of 14 years.

● Constitution provides many more rights, which may not be Fundamental Rights. For example- the
right to property is not a Fundamental Right but it is a constitutional right. Right to vote in elections is
an important constitutional right.
● Some international covenants have also contributed to the expansion of rights.

29
 Interesting points

● Prison in Guantanamo Bay:

⮚ About 600 people were secretly picked up by the US forces from all over the world and put in a
prison in Guantanamo Bay, an area near Cuba controlled by Amercian Navy.
⮚ The US government said that they were enemies of the US and linked to the attack on New
York on 11 September 2001.
● Amnesty International: An international organisation of volunteers who campaign for human
rights.
● Writ: A formal document containing an order of the court to the government issued only by High
Court or the Supreme Court.
● Human rights: These are universal moral claims that may or may not have been recognised by
law.
● National Human Rights Commission (NHRC):
⮚ It is an independent commission set up by law in 1993.
⮚ Like judiciary, the Commission is independent of the government.
⮚ Th e Commission is appointed by the President and includes retired judges, officers and
eminent citizens.
⮚ No burden of deciding court cases: It focus on helping the victims secure their human rights.
o These include all the rights granted to the citizens by the Constitution.
o They also include the rights mentioned in the UN sponsored international treaties that
India has signed.
⮚ No power to punish the guilty: That is the responsibility of courts. The NHRC is there to make
independent and credible inquiry into any case of violation of human rights.
⮚ It also inquires into any case of abetment of such violation or negligence in controlling it by any
government officer and takes other general steps to promote human rights in the country.
⮚ The Commission presents its findings and recommendations to the government or intervene
in the court on behalf of the victims.
⮚ Like any court, it can summon witnesses, question any government official, demand any official
paper, visit any prison for inspection or send its own team for on-the-spot inquiry.
⮚ Any citizen of India can write a letter to their address to complain against the violation of human
rights.
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS

⮚ There is no fee or any formal procedure to approach the NHRC.

⮚ Like NHRC, there are State Human Rights Commissions in 26 states of the country (as on 10
December 2018).
● International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights:
⮚ This has not yet become an international treaty.

30
 ⮚ These include:
o Right to work: Opportunity to everyone to earn livelihood by working.
o Right to safe and healthy working conditions, fair wages that can provide decent standard
of living for the workers and their families.
o Right to adequate standard of living including adequate food, clothing and housing.
o Right to social security and insurance.
o Right to health: Medical care during illness, special care for women during childbirth and
prevention of epidemics.
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS

31
NCERT NOTES
FOR POLITY
10th Standard
Democratic Politics II
CONTENTS
Power-sharing ................................................................................................................................. 1 - 3

Federalism ......................................................................................................................................... 4 - 9

Democracy and Diversity ........................................................................................................ 10 - 11

Gender, Religion and Caste .................................................................................................... 12 - 19

Popular Struggles and Movements ...................................................................................... 20 - 22

Political Parties ........................................................................................................................... 23 - 28

Outcomes of Democracy ......................................................................................................... 29 - 31

Challenges to Democracy ....................................................................................................... 32 - 33

 POWER-SHARING
1
In a democracy all power does not rest with any one organ of the government. An intelligent sharing of
power among legislature, executive and judiciary is very important.

Case Study of Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka:

· Sri Lanka is an island nation, just a few kilometers off the southern coast of Tamil Nadu.
· Diverse population: The major social groups are:
Ø Sinhala-speakers (74 per cent)
Ø Tamil-speakers (18 per cent): Among Tamils there are two sub-groups.
o Tamil natives of the country are called 'Sri Lankan Tamils' (13 per cent).
4They are concentrated in the north and east part of the country.
o The rest, whose forefathers came from India as plantation workers during colonial period,
are called 'Indian Tamils'.
· Religion: Most of the Sinhala speaking people are Buddhists, while most of the Tamils are
Hindus or Muslims.
· Feeling of Alienation among Sri Lankan Tamils:
Ø Sri Lanka emerged as an independent country in 1948 and adopted a series of Majoritarian
measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
Ø The Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for the recognition of Tamil as an official
language, for regional autonomy and equality of opportunity in securing education and jobs but
their demand for more autonomy to provinces populated by the Tamils was repeatedly denied.
Ø By 1980s, several political organisations were formed demanding an independent Tamil
Eelam (state) in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
Ø The distrust between the two communities turned into widespread conflict. It soon turned into
a Civil war which ended in 2009.

Case Study of Accommodation of various Ethnic communities in Belgium:

· Belgium is a small country in Europe. It has borders with France, the Netherlands, Germany, and
Luxembourg.
· Complex Ethnic Composition:
Ø 59 per cent people: live in the Flemish region and speaks Dutch language.
Ø 40 per cent people: live in the Wallonia region and speak French.
Ø In the Capital city Brussels:
o 80 per cent: French speakers
o 20 per cent: Dutch speakers
POWER-SHARING

· Tensions between the Dutch-speaking and French Speaking:

Ø The minority French-speaking community was relatively rich and powerful which was
resented by the Dutch-speaking community who got the benefit of economic development and
education much later.
· Accommodative path used by Belgium: They recognised the existence of regional differences

1
 and cultural diversities. Some of the elements of the Belgian model are:
Ø No decisions by one community unilaterally: Some special laws require the support of
majority of members from each linguistic group.
Ø The state governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.
Ø There is a third kind of government called 'community government' which is elected by
people belonging to one language community – Dutch, French and German-speaking – no matter
where they live. This government has the power regarding cultural, educational, and language-
related issues.
The arrangement in Belgian model have worked well and helped to avoid civic strife between the
two major communities and a possible division of the country on linguistic lines.

Need of Power Sharing:

· Reduce the possibility of Conflict between Social Groups:
Ø It helps in ensuring Political order as social conflict often leads to violence and political instability.
Ø Imposing the will of majority community undermines the unity of the nation.
· Uphold the spirit of Democracy:
Ø A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise and who have to live
with its effects.
Ø A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the
system.

Forms of Power-Sharing:
· Among different Organs of the Government: Such as the legislature, executive and judiciary.
Ø Horizontal Distribution of Power: It allows different organs of government placed at the same
level to exercise different powers.
Ø Checks and Balances of power: None of the organs can exercise unlimited power.
Ø For example: Although, judges are appointed by the executive, they can check the functioning of
executive or laws made by the legislatures.
· Among the Governments at different levels:
Ø Vertical Division of power: It involves higher and lower levels of Government.
o Federal government: A general Government for the entire country. In India, they are known as
the Central or Union Government.
o Government at Provincial or Regional level: In India, they are known as State Governments.
Ø No specific model: There are many countries where there are no provincial or state governments.
POWER-SHARING

But in countries like India, the Constitution clearly lays down the powers of different levels of
government.
· Among different Social Groups: Such as the religious and linguistic groups.
Ø In some countries, there are constitutional and legal arrangements whereby socially weaker
sections and women are represented in the legislatures and administration.

2
 Ø This method is used to give minority communities a fair share in power.
· By way of Political Parties, Pressure Groups and Movements: These control or influence those in
power.
Ø Power is shared among different political parties that represent different ideologies and social
groups in a democracy. Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties form
an alliance to contest elections and forms government.
Ø In a democracy, Interest groups such as those of traders, businessmen, industrialists, farmers and
industrial workers also have a share in governmental power, either through participation in
governmental committees or bringing influence on the decision-making process.

Interesting points

· Brussels is the Headquarter of European Union.

· Beirut is the capital of Lebanon.
· Lebanon arrangement of Power:
Ø The President must belong to the Maronite sect of Catholic Christians.
Ø The Prime Minister must be from the Sunni Muslim community.
Ø The post of Deputy Prime Minister is fixed for Orthodox Christian sect.
Ø The post of Speaker is fixed for Shi'a Muslims.
POWER-SHARING

3
 FEDERALISM
2
Vertical division of power among different levels of government is one of the major forms of power sharing
in modern democracies.
Federalism:
It is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various
constituent units of the country.

Table 2.1: Difference between Unitary and Federal Form of Government

Unitary Form of Government Federal Form of Government

Either there is only one level of government or the sub- There are multiple levels of government.
units are subordinate to the central government.

The central government can pass on orders to the State government has powers of its own
provincial or the local government. for which it is not answerable to the central
government.

Features of Federalism:
· Usually, a federation has two levels of government:
Ø Government for the entire country: It is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national
interest.
Ø Governments at the level of Provinces or States: It looks after much of the day-to-day
administration of their state.
· Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in
specific matters of legislation, taxation, and administration.
· The jurisdictions of the respective levels are specified in the Constitution. So, the existence and
authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
· The fundamental provisions of the Constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of
government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government.
· Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government.
The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the
exercise of their respective powers.
· Sources of Revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial
autonomy.
FEDERALISM

· Dual Objectives of Federalism:

Ø To safeguard and promote unity of the country.
Ø To Accommodate the regional diversity.

4
 Balance of Power in Federalism:
It varies from one federation to another. This variation depends mainly on the historical context in which
the federation was formed. Two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed:
· Coming together Federation:
Ø It involves Independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by
pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security. For example- the USA,
Switzerland, and Australia.
Ø All the constituent States usually have equal power and are strong vis-à-vis the federal
government.
· Holding together Federation:
Ø A large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the National
Government. For example- India, Spain, and Belgium.
Ø The central government tends to be more powerful vis-à-vis the States.
o Sometimes different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers.
o Some units are granted special powers.

Federalism in India:
· The Constitution declared India as a Union of States. Although it did not use the word federation, the
Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism.
· The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Central Government
representing the Union of India and the State governments. Later, a third tier of federalism was added
in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities.
· Separate Jurisdiction: The Constitution clearly provided a threefold distribution of legislative powers
between the Union Government and the State Governments. It contains three lists:
Ø Union List: It includes subjects of National importance such as defence of the country, foreign
affairs, banking, communications, and currency.
o Subjects need a uniform policy on these matters throughout the country.
o The Union Government alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the Union
List.
Ø State List: It contains subjects of State and local importance such as police, trade, commerce,
agriculture, and irrigation.
Ø Concurrent List: Both the Union as well as the State Governments can make laws on the subjects
mentioned in this list.
o If their laws conflict with each other, the law made by the Union Government will prevail.
o Examples: Forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption, and succession.
Ø Residuary subjects are legislated by the Union Government.
· Unequal Power to States: Some States like Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram enjoy a special status under
certain provisions of the Constitution (Article 371) due to their peculiar social and historical
FEDERALISM

circumstances. These special powers are especially enjoyed in relation to the protection of land rights
and culture of the indigenous peoples.
· Little power to Union Territories: These areas are too small to become an independent State and

5
 could not be merged with any of the existing States. For example, Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, or Delhi.
Ø They do not have the same powers as the States.
Ø The Central Government has special powers in running these areas.
· Procedure of Constitutional Changes: The sharing of power between the Union Government and the
State governments constitutes the basic to the structure of the Constitution.
Ø It is not easy to make changes to this power sharing arrangement.
Ø Any change to it must be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds
majority.
Ø Then, it must be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.
· Role of Judiciary: It plays an important role in overseeing the implementation of the Constitutional
provisions and procedures.

Practice of Federalism in India:

The real success of federalism in India can be attributed to its nature of democratic politics. This ensured
that the spirit of federalism, respect for diversity and desire for living together became shared ideals in our
country.
· Linguistic States:
Ø Creation of Linguistic States: It was the first major test for democratic politics in India.
Ø After Independence, the boundaries of several old States of India were changed to create new
States to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived in the same State.
Ø Some States were also created to recognise differences based on culture, ethnicity, or geography
such as Nagaland, Uttarakhand etc.
Ø The experience has shown that the formation of linguistic States has actually made the country
more united. It has also made administration easier.
· Language Policy:
Ø The Constitution did not give the status of National language to any one language.
Ø Hindi was identified as the official language, but Hindi is the mother tongue of only about 40 per
cent of Indians.
Ø Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognised as Scheduled Languages by the
Constitution.
Ø A candidate in an examination conducted for the Central Government positions may opt to take the
examination in any of these languages.
Ø States too have their own official languages. Much of the government work takes place in the
official language of the concerned State.
Ø Cautious attitude in spreading the use of Hindi:
o According to the Constitution, the use of English for official purposes was to stop in 1965.
o But many non-Hindi speaking States demanded that the use of English continue.
o Promotion of Hindi continues to be the official policy of the Government of India.
FEDERALISM

o Promotion does not mean that the Central Government can impose Hindi on States where
people speak a different language.
· Centre-State Relations:

6
 Ø For a long time, the same party ruled both at the Centre and in most of the States. So, the State
governments did not exercise their rights as autonomous federal units.
Ø As and when the ruling party at the State level was different, the parties that ruled at the Centre
tried to undermine the power of the States.
Ø After 1990, there was rise of regional political parties in many States of the country. This was also
the beginning of the era of coalition governments at the centre.
Ø It led to a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State Governments.
Ø It was supported by a major judgement of the Supreme Court that made it difficult for the Central
Government to dismiss state governments in an arbitrary manner.

Linguistic Diversity of India

· The 2011 Census of India held recorded more than 1300 distinct languages which people
mentioned as their mother tongues.
Ø These languages were grouped together under some major languages.
Ø Languages like Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Bundelkhandi, Chhattisgarhi, Rajasthani etc. were grouped
together under 'Hindi'.
· The Census found 121 major languages and of these 22 languages are now included in the
Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution and are therefore called 'Scheduled Languages'.
Others are called 'non-Scheduled Languages'.
· Hindi is the mother tongue of only about 44 per cent Indians. If all those who knew Hindi are
added as their second or third language, the total number was still less than 50 per cent in 2011.
· As for English, only 0.02 per cent Indians recorded it as their mother tongue.
Table 2.2: Scheduled Languages in India
FEDERALISM

N-Stands for Negligible

7
 When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government, it is called
Decentralisation.

Need of Decentralization:
· There are large number of problems and issues which are best settled at the local level as people have
better knowledge of problems in their localities.
· Democratic participation: At the local level it is possible for the people to directly participate in
decision making.
· A vast country like India cannot be run only through two-tiers. States in India are as large as
independent countries of Europe.
· Federal power sharing in India needed another tier of government, below that of the State
governments which resulted a third tier of government.
· The need for decentralisation was recognised in our Constitution.

Weakness of Decentralisation before 1992:

· Local governments were directly under the control of state governments.
· No regular elections to local governments.
· Local governments did not have any powers or resources of their own.
Major step towards Decentralisation in 1992:
The Constitution was amended to make the third tier of democracy more powerful and effective.
· It is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.
· Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for the
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
· At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
· An independent institution called the State Election Commission has been created in each State to
conduct panchayat and municipal elections.
· The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local government
bodies. The nature of sharing varies from State to State.

Rural Local Government (Panchayati Raj)

· Gram Panchayat:
Ø It is there in each village, or a group of villages in some States.
Ø This is a Council consisting of several ward members, often called Panch, and a President or
Sarpanch.
Ø They are directly elected by all the adult population living in that ward or village.
Ø It is the decision-making body for the entire village.
Ø It works under the overall supervision of the Gram Sabha which have all the voters in the village
FEDERALISM

are its members.

Ø It has to meet at least twice or thrice in a year to approve the annual budget of the gram panchayat
and to review the performance of the gram panchayat.

8
 · Block level:
Ø A few gram panchayats are grouped together to form what is usually called a Panchayat Samiti or
Block or Mandal.
Ø Its members are elected by all the Panchyat members in that area.
· District level:
Ø All the Panchayat samitis or Mandals in a district together constitute the Zilla (district) Parishad.
Ø Most members of the Zilla parishad are elected.
Ø Members of the Lok Sabha and MLAs of that district and some other officials of other district level
bodies are also its members.
Ø Chairperson of Zilla parishad is the Political Head of the Zilla parishad.

Urban Local Government:

· Municipalities are set up in Towns.
· Big cities are constituted into Municipal Corporations.
· Both are controlled by elected bodies consisting of people's representatives.
· Municipal Chairperson is the Political Head of the municipality while in a Municipal Corporation
such an officer is called the Mayor.

Major issues with Local Governments:

· Though elections are held regularly, Gram Sabhas are not held regularly.
· Most state governments have not transferred significant powers to the local governments.
· State governments has also not given adequate resources to them.

Case study of Brazil about combining Decentralization with Participative Democracy:

· A city called Porto Alegre in Brazil has set up a parallel organisation operating alongside the
Municipal Council, enabling local inhabitants to take real decisions for their city.
· The city is divided into many sectors and each sector has a meeting, like that of the Gram Sabha, in
which anyone living in that area can participate.
· There are some meetings to discuss issues that affect the entire city. Any citizen of the city can
participate in those meetings.

Interesting points

· About 25 of the world's 193 countries have federal political systems whose citizens make up 40
per cent of the world's population.
· India has about 36 lakh elected representatives in the Panchayats and Municipalities.
FEDERALISM

9
 DEMOCRACY AND DIVERSITY
3
People identify themselves and relate with others on the basis of their physical appearance, class, language,
religion, gender, caste, tribe, etc. Democracy responds to social differences, divisions and inequalities.

Differences, Similarities and Divisions:

Social diversity takes various forms in terms of religion, caste, language etc. in different societies.

Origins of Social differences

· Kinds of Social differences:
Ø Based on birth: Person belong to his community as one is born in it.
Ø Based on Physical traits: People differ in terms of heights, complexions, etc.
Ø Based on our Choices: For instance, some people are atheists, etc.
· Social differences divide similar people from one another, but they also unite very different people.
· People belonging to different social groups share differences and similarities cutting across the
boundaries of their groups.
· It is fairly common for people belonging to the same religion to feel that they do not belong to the same
community, because their caste or sect is very different.

Overlapping and cross-cutting differences:

· Social division takes place when some social difference overlaps with other differences. For
example, the difference between Blacks and Whites becomes a social division in the US because the
Blacks tend to be poor, homeless, and discriminated.
· It is difficult to pit one group of people against the other if social differences crosscut one another.
· Social divisions of one kind or another exist in most countries.
Ø It does not matter whether the country is small or big.
Ø For example, India is a vast country with many communities. Belgium is a small country with many
communities.

Politics of Social Divisions:

· Normally it appears that the combination of politics and social divisions is very dangerous.
· Democracy involves competition among various political parties which tends to divide any society.
· If political parties start competing in terms of some existing social divisions, it can make social
divisions into political divisions and lead to conflict, violence or even disintegration of a country.
UNDERSTANDING LAWS

Range of outcomes:
· Case of Northern Ireland (region of the United Kingdom):
Ø It is a site of a violent and bitter ethno-political conflict.
Ø Division of Population: The population is divided into two major sects of Christianity.
o 53 per cent are Protestants: They were represented by Unionists who wanted to remain with
the UK, which is predominantly protestant.

10
 o 44 per cent are Roman Catholics: They were represented by Nationalist parties who
demanded that Northern Ireland be unified with the Republic of Ireland, a predominantly
Catholic country.
Ø Hundreds of civilians, militants and security forces were killed in their fight.
Ø It was only in 1998, that the UK government and the Nationalists reached a peace treaty after which
the latter suspended their armed struggle.
· Case of Yugoslavia:
Ø Political competition along religious ending and ethnic lines led to the disintegration of Yugoslavia
into six independent countries.

Factors deciding the outcome of Politics of Social Divisions:

· People perception about their identities: If people see their identities in singular and exclusive terms,
it becomes very difficult to accommodate.
· Raise of demands for any community by Political leaders:
Ø It is easier to accommodate demands that are within the constitutional framework and are not at the
cost of another community.
Ø For example, In Sri Lanka, the civil war occurred because the demand for 'only Sinhala' was at the
cost of the interest and identity of the Tamil community.
· Reaction of the Government towards the demands of different groups:
Ø Social divisions become less threatening, if the rulers are willing to share power and
accommodate the reasonable demands of minority community.
Ø Attempts at forced integration often sow the seeds of disintegration.

Interesting points

· Civil Rights Movement in the USA (1954-1968):

Ø It refers to a set of events and reform movements aimed at abolishing legal racial
discrimination against African-Americans.
Ø It was led by Martin Luther King Jr. and practiced non-violent methods of civil disobedience
against racially discriminatory laws and practices.
· The Black Power movement emerged in 1966 and lasted till 1975, which was a more militant
anti-racist movement in the US.

11
 GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE
4
The existence of social diversity does not threaten democracy. Political expression of social differences is
possible and sometimes quite desirable in a democratic system. Social differences can take the form of social
divisions and inequalities.

Gender and Politics:

· Gender division is a form of hierarchical social division seen everywhere but is rarely recognised in
the study of politics.
· The gender division tends to be understood as natural and unchangeable.
· It is not based on biology but on social expectations and stereotypes.

Public/Private Division:
· Sexual Division of labour: Boys and girls are brought up to believe that the main responsibility of
women is housework and bringing up children.
· Low value for Women's work:
Ø Women's work is not valued to equal to the work of men.
Ø Double jeopardy: Majority of women do some sort of paid work in addition to domestic labour.
· Result of Division of labour:
Ø Although women constitute half of the humanity, their role in public life, especially politics, is
minimal in most societies.
Ø Earlier, only men were allowed to participate in public affairs, vote and contest for public offices.
Ø Feminist movements: Women in different parts of the world organised and agitated for equal
rights. These agitations demanded enhancing the political and legal status of women and improving
their educational and career opportunities.

Improvement in Women's role in Public life:

· Women are now found in working as scientists, doctors, engineers, etc. which were earlier not
considered suitable for women.
· In some parts of the world, for example in Scandinavian countries such as Sweden, Norway and
Finland, the participation of women in public life is very high.

GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE

Condition of Women in India
Disadvantage, Discrimination and Oppression faced by Women:
· In education:
Ø The literacy rate among women is only 54 per cent as compared to 76 per cent among men.
Ø High dropout rates: Parents prefer to spend their resources for their boys' education.
· In jobs:
Ø The proportion of women is low in highly paid and valued jobs.
Ø Their work is not valued even though, on an average an Indian woman works one hour more than an
average man every day.
· Unequal wages:

12
 Ø They do not get equal wages for doing same work as that of men.
Ø The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 provides that equal wages should be paid to equal work but
in almost all areas of work women are paid less than men.
· Crime against Women:
Ø There are reports of various kinds of harassment, exploitation, and violence against women.
Ø Domestic violence: They are not safe even within their own home from beating and harassment.
· Preference for boys:
Ø Sex-selective abortion: In many parts of India, parents prefer to have sons and find ways to have
the girl child aborted before she is born. This led to a decline in child sex ratio to merely 919.

Women's Political Representation:

Issues related to women's well-being or otherwise are not given adequate attention. Unless women
control power, their problems will not get adequate attention.
Women as Elected Representatives:
· Less participation of women in Legislature of India:
Ø The percentage of elected women members in Lok Sabha has touched 14.36 per cent of its total
strength for the first time in 2019.
Ø Their share in the State assemblies is less than 5 per cent.
· India is among the bottom group of nations in the world. India is behind the averages for several
developing countries of Africa and Latin America.
· In the Government, Cabinets are largely all-male even when a woman becomes the Chief Minister or
the Prime Minister.
GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE

Note: Figure are for the percent of women in the directly elected
houses of Parliament as on 1 October 2018.

13
Measures to improve Women participation in Legislatures:
· To make it legally binding to have a fair proportion of women in the elected bodies. For instance, in
Local Bodies, one-third of seats in local government bodies are now reserved for women.
· There has been demand for similar of at least one-third of seats in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies
for women. A bill with this proposal has been pending before the Parliament for more than a decade.

Social and Religious Diversity of India:

The Census of India records the religion of every Indian after every ten years. Since Independence, the
total population of each community has increased substantially but their proportion in the country's
population has not changed much.

· Composition of Religious communities:

Ø The population of the Hindus, Jains and Christians has declined marginally since 1961.
Ø Common but mistaken impression about the Muslims: It is believed that the proportion of the
Muslims in the country's population is going to overtake other religious communities.
· However, in actual, the balance in composition of different religions is expected to not change in
big way.
· Expert estimates done for Sachar Committee show that the proportion of the Muslims is expected
to go up a little, by about 3 to 4 per cent, in the next 50 years.

Ø The proportion of Muslim, Sikh and Buddhist population has increased slightly.

Common but mistaken impression about the Muslims: It is believed that the proportion of the Muslims in
the country's population is going to overtake other religious communities.
· However, in actual, the balance in composition of different religions is expected to not change in big
way.
· Expert estimates done for Sachar Committee show that the proportion of the Muslims is expected to
go up a little, by about 3 to 4 per cent, in the next 50 years.

GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE

· Major Caste groups:

Ø In 2011, the Scheduled Castes were 16.6 per cent and the Scheduled Tribes were 8.6 per cent of
the country's population.
Ø The Census does not yet count the Other Backward Classes. The National Sample Survey of
2004-05 estimates their population to be around 41 per cent.
Ø The SC, ST and the OBC together account for about two-thirds of the country's population and
about three-fourths of the Hindu population.

14
 Source: Census of India, 2011

Religion, Communalism and Politics:

Religious differences-based divisions are not as Universal as the Gender, but religious diversity is
widespread in the world today. Even when most of the people belong to the same religion, there can be
serious differences about the way people practice that religion. Unlike Gender differences, the Religious
differences are often expressed in the field of politics.

Relationship between Religion and Politics:

CRAFTS AND CASTE

· Gandhiji used to say that Religion can never be separated from Politics where the religion was not
any particular religion but moral values that inform all religions. He believed that Politics must be
guided by ethics drawn from Religion.
· Human Rights groups in India have argued that most of the victims of communal riots in our country
GENDER, RELIGION

are people from Religious minorities.

· Women's movement has argued that family laws of all religions discriminate against women.
· It is notable that the political acts are not wrong if they treat every religion equally. Ideas, ideals and
THEATRE

values drawn from different religions can and perhaps should play a role in politics.

15
Communalism and Religion:
Communalism becomes a problem when religion is seen as the basis of the nation.
· Communal Politics: When beliefs of one religion are presented as superior to those of other religions
and the State power is used to establish domination of one religious-group over others.
· Idea behind Communal Politics: The Religion is the principal basis of social community.
Ø The followers of a particular religion belong to one community and their fundamental interests are
the same.
Ø Also, People who follow different religions cannot belong to the same social community. Their
interests are bound to be different and involve a conflict.
· Extreme form of Communalism: It leads to the belief that people belonging to different religions
cannot live as equal citizens within one nation. Either one of them has to dominate the rest or they have
to form different nations.

Flaws in the Idea of Communalism:

People of one religion do not have the same interests and aspirations in every context. Everyone has
several other roles, positions, and identities. Any attempt to bring all followers of one religion together in
context of other than religion is bound to suppress many voices within that community.

Various forms of Communalism in Politics:

· In everyday beliefs, it involves religious prejudices, stereotypes of religious communities and belief in
the superiority of one's religion over other religions.
· Quest for Political domination of one's own religious community:
Ø For those belonging to majority community, this takes the form of majoritarian dominance.
Ø For those belonging to the minority community, it can take the form of a desire to form a separate
political unit.
· Political Mobilisation on Religious lines: It involves the use of sacred symbols, religious leaders,
emotional appeal and plain fear in order to bring the followers of one religion together in the political
arena.
· Communal violence, riots and massacre: India and Pakistan suffered some of the worst communal

GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE

riots at the time of the Partition.

Secular State:
A Secular State is one which is officially neutral in matters of religion, supporting neither religion nor
irreligion.
Reflection of Secular State in our Constitutional provisions in India: Unlike Sri Lanka where Buddhism is
the official religion of the country, India has no official religion. This could be expanded as:
· It provides to all individuals and communities freedom to profess, practice, and propagate any religion.
· It prohibits discrimination on grounds of the Religion.
· It allows the State to intervene in the matters of religion in order to ensure equality within religious

16
 communities.
Secularism is not just an ideology of some parties or persons but constitutes one of the foundations of our
country. Communalism threatens the very idea of India.

Prevailing Caste inequality:

National Sample Survey shows that the Caste continues to be very strongly linked to economic status in
many important ways:
· The average economic status (measured by criteria like monthly consumption expenditure) of caste
groups still follows the old hierarchy. For example, the 'upper' castes are best off and the Dalits and
Adivasis are worst off.
· Although every caste has some poor members, the proportion living in extreme poverty (below the
official 'poverty line') is much higher for the lowest castes and much lower for the upper castes.
· The upper castes are heavily over-represented among the rich while the lower castes are severely
under-represented.

Table 4.1: Percentage of Population living below the Poverty line, 1999-2000
GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE

Note: 'Upper caste' here means those who are not from SC, ST, or OBC. Below the poverty line means
those who spent Rs. 327 or less per person per month in rural and Rs. 454 or less per person per month in
urban areas.
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), Government of India, 55th Round, 1999-2000

17
Caste and politics:
Basis of Caste System: Caste System is rooted in the belief that caste is the sole basis of social
community and people belonging to the same caste belong to a natural social community and have the
same interests which they do not share with anyone from another caste.

Caste Inequalities: Unlike Gender and Religion, Caste division is special to India.
· All societies have some kind of social inequality and some form of Division of labour.
Ø In most societies, occupations are passed on from one generation to another. Its extreme form is
Caste system.
Ø In Caste system, Hereditary occupational division was sanctioned by rituals.
· Members of the same caste group were supposed to form a social community that practiced the same
or similar occupation, married within the caste group etc.
· Caste system was based on exclusion of and discrimination against the 'outcaste' groups. They were
subjected to the inhuman practice of untouchability.

Changes in Caste System in Modern India:

· There is breakdown of caste hierarchy due to economic development, large scale urbanization,
growth of education, occupational mobility and the weakening of the position of landlords in the
villages.
· The Constitution of India prohibited any caste-based discrimination and laid the foundations of
policies to reverse the injustices of the caste system.

Non- disappearance of castes in the contemporary India:

· Some of the older aspects of caste have persisted like even now most people marry within their own
caste or tribe.
· Untouchability has not ended completely, despite the Constitutional prohibition.
· The Caste groups that had access to education under the old system have done very well in acquiring
modern education.
· Caste continues to be closely linked to economic status.

GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE

Caste in Politics
Manifestation of Caste in Politics:
· Selection of candidates in Elections: Parties keep in mind the caste composition of the electorate and
nominate candidates from different castes to muster necessary support to win elections.
· Raising caste sentiments: Political parties and Candidates in elections make appeals based on caste
sentiment to muster support.
· Political mobilization: Universal Adult Franchise and the Principle of 'one-person-one-vote' have
compelled political leaders to gear up to the task of mobilising and securing political support of
particular communities.

18
 Elections and Caste:
· Parties need support of more than one caste: No parliamentary constituency in the country has a
clear majority of one single caste.
· No party wins the votes of all the voters of a caste or community.
· Some voters have more than one candidate from their caste while many voters have no candidate from
their caste.
· The ruling party and the sitting MP or MLA frequently lose elections in our country. This signify that all
castes and communities were not frozen in their political preferences.

Flaws in the Idea of Caste Politics:

· People within the same caste or community have different interests depending on their economic
condition. Rich and poor or men and women from the same caste often vote very differently.
· People's assessment of the performance of the government and the popularity rating of the leaders
matters and are often decisive in elections.

Politics in Caste:
Politics also influences the caste system and caste identities by bringing them into the political arena.
Thus, it is not politics that gets caste-ridden, it is the caste that gets politicised.

Manifestation of Politics in Caste:

· Each caste group tries to become bigger by incorporating the neighbouring castes or sub-castes
which were earlier excluded from it.
· Various caste groups are required to enter into a coalition with other castes or communities and thus
enter into a dialogue and negotiation.
· New kinds of caste groups have come up in the political arena like 'backward' and 'forward' caste
groups.
· In some situations, expression of caste differences in politics gives many disadvantaged communities
the space to demand their share of power.
GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE

Interesting points

· Child Sex Ratio is the number of girl children per thousand boys.
· A 'Time use survey' conducted by the Government of India in six Indian states shows that an
average woman works every day for a little over seven and half hours while an average man
works for six and a half hours.

19
 POPULAR STRUGGLES AND
5 MOVEMENTS
Democracy almost invariably involves conflict of interests and viewpoints. These differences are often
expressed in organised ways. Those who are in power are required to balance these conflicting demands
and pressures. Struggles around conflicting demands and pressures shape the Democracy. The indirect
ways of influencing politics are through pressure groups and movements such as Movement of Democracy
in April 2006 restored democracy in Nepal.

Democracy and Popular Struggles

· Evolution of the Democracy through Popular Struggles:
Ø Defining moments of Democracy usually involve conflict between those groups who have
exercised power and those who aspire for a share in power.
Ø These moments come when the country is going through transition to democracy, expansion of
democracy or deepening of democracy.
· Conflict resolution through Mass Mobilization:
Ø Sometimes it is possible that the conflict is resolved by using the existing institutions like the
Parliament or the Judiciary.
Ø But when there is a deep dispute, very often these institutions themselves get involved in the
dispute. The resolution has to come from outside, from the people.
· Effective Public Participation:
Ø The spontaneous public participation becomes effective with the help of organised politics.
Ø There can be many agencies of organised politics which include political parties, pressure groups
and movement groups.

Mobilisation and Organisations

In a democracy several different kinds of organisations work behind any big struggle.
Roles of Organisations:
· Direct Participation in competitive Politics: This is done by creating parties, contesting elections

POPULAR STRUGGLES AND MOVEMENTS

and forming governments.
· Indirect Ways: Every citizen does not participate directly. They could do so by forming an
organisation and undertaking activities to promote their interests or their viewpoints. These are called
interest groups or pressure groups.
Pressure Groups and Movements
· Pressure Groups:
Ø They are organisations that attempt to influence government policies but unlike political parties,
they do not aim to directly control or share political power.
Ø They are formed when people with common occupation, interest, aspirations or opinions come
together in order to achieve a common objective.
· People's Movements:
Ø It also attempts to influence politics rather than directly take part in electoral competition but
unlike the interest groups, they have a loose organisation. They are not quite an organisation.

20
 Ø Their decision making is more informal and flexible. They depend much more on spontaneous
mass participation than an interest group.
Ø People's movement is used to describe many forms of collective action. For example, Narmada
Bachao Andolan, Anti-liquor Movement, Women's Movement, etc.

Types of Interest Groups:

· Sectional Interest Groups: They are sectional because they represent a section of society such as
workers, employees, businesspersons, industrialists, followers of a religion, caste group, etc. Their
principal concern is betterment and well-being of their members, not society in general.
· Public Interest Groups: Sometimes these organisations are not about representing the interest of one
section of society. Their principal concern is that they represent some common or general interest
that needs to be defended. They are called Promotional groups or Public Interest Groups as they
promote collective rather than selective good.
Ø They aim to help groups other than their own members. For example, a group fighting against
bonded labour fights not for itself but for those who are suffering under such bondage.
Ø In some instances, the members of a Public Interest Group may undertake activity that benefits
them as well as others too.
Forms of Movement Groups:
· Most of the movements are issue-specific movements that seek to achieve a single objective within a
limited time frame. For example, Narmada Bachao Andolan started with the specific issue of the
people displaced by the creation of Sardar Sarovar dam on the Narmada river.
· Others are more general or generic movements that seek to achieve a broad goal in the very long
term.
· The single-issue movements can be contrasted with movements that are long term and involve more
than one issue.
· There is no single organisation that controls or guides movements such as the Environmental
POPULAR STRUGGLES AND MOVEMENTS

movement and the Women's movement.

· Sometimes the broad movements have a loose umbrella organisation also. For example, the National
Alliance for Peoples' Movements (NAPM) is an organisation of organisations.

Influence of Pressure Groups and Movements on Politics:

· They try to gain public support and sympathy for their goals and their activities by carrying out
information campaigns, organising meetings, filing petitions, etc.
· They often organise protest activity like strikes or disrupting government programmes.
· Business groups often employ professional lobbyists or sponsor expensive advertisements.
· Some persons from Pressure groups or Movement groups may participate in official bodies and
committees that offer advice to the government.
· While Interest groups and Movements do not directly engage in party politics, they seek to exert
influence on political parties.

21
 Various forms of relationship between Political parties and Pressure groups: They may take some
direct and others very indirect ways.
· Sometimes the Pressure groups are either formed or led by the leaders of political parties or act as
extended arms of political parties. For example, most students' organization in India are either
established by or affiliated to one or the other major political party.
· Sometimes Political parties grow out of movements. For example, Asom Gana Parishad (AGP)
formed after the Assam movement led by students against the 'foreigners' came to an end.
· They often take positions that are opposed to each other. Yet they are in dialogue and negotiation.
· Movement groups have raised new issues that have been taken up by political parties.

Influence of Interest groups on Politics

Negatives Influences:
· It may initially appear that it is not healthy for groups that promote interest of one section to have
influence in democracy. A Democracy must look after the interests of all, not just one section.
· It may seem that these groups wield power without any responsibility.
· Political parties have to face the people in elections, but these groups are not accountable to the
people.
· Sometimes, Pressure groups with small public support but lots of money can hijack public discussion
in favour of their narrow agenda.
Positives Influences:
· It deepens the Democracy as putting pressure on the rulers is not an unhealthy activity in a Democracy
as long as everyone gets this opportunity.
· Public Interest groups and Movements perform a useful role of countering the undue influence of
powerful and reminding the government of the needs and concerns of ordinary citizens.
· Where different groups function actively, no one single group can achieve dominance over society. If
one group brings pressure on government to make policies in its favour, another will bring counter

POPULAR STRUGGLES AND MOVEMENTS

pressure not to make policies in the way the first group desires. This leads to a rough balance of power
and accommodation of conflicting interests.

Interesting points

· Bolivia's Water War: Bolivia is a poor country in Latin America, where People successfully
struggled against Privatisation of water in Bolivia.
· In 1987, a movement called Kittiko-Hachchiko (meaning, pluck and plant) started a non-violent
protest in Karnataka, where people plucked the eucalyptus plants and planted saplings of trees
that were useful to the people.
· Green Belt Movement: Its leader is Wangari Maathai, and it has planted 30 million trees across
Kenya.

22
 POLITICAL PARTIES
6
Political parties act as vehicles of federal sharing of political power and as negotiators of social divisions in
the arena of Democratic politics. They are easily one of the most visible institutions in a Democracy.

Political Party:
· It is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the Government.
· They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promote the collective
good.
· They try to persuade people that their policies are better than others. They seek to implement these
policies by winning popular support through elections.
· They reflect fundamental political divisions in a society. Parties are about a part of the society and
thus involve partisanship.
· Components of a Political Party: Leaders, Active members and Followers.

Functions of Political Parties:

It fills political offices and exercise political power by performing a series of functions such as:
· To contest Elections: In most Democracies, elections are fought mainly among the candidates put up
by political parties.
· To put forward different Policies and Programme: A party reduces a vast multitude of opinions into a
few basic positions which it supports. A Government is expected to base its policies on the line taken
by the Ruling party.
· To play a decisive role in law-making: Formally, Laws are debated and passed in the Legislature but
since most of the members belong to a party and go by the direction of their party leadership.
· To form and run the Government: The big policy decisions are taken by political executive that comes
from the political parties. Parties recruit leaders, train them and then make them ministers to run the
government in their own way.
· To provide voice for different opinions: Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of
opposition by voicing different views and criticizing government for its failures or wrong policies.
· To shape Public opinion: They raise and highlight issues. Many of the Pressure groups are the
extensions of political parties among different sections of society. They also launch movements for the
resolution of problems faced by people.
· To enable easy access to the Public: For an ordinary citizen, it is easy to approach a local party leader
than a Government officer. Parties have to be responsive to people's needs and demands.
POLITICAL PARTIES

Necessity of Political Parties:

Situation without Political Parties:
· Every candidate in the elections will be independent and no one will be able to make any promises to
the people about any major policy changes. The Government may be formed, but its utility will remain
ever uncertain.

23
 · Elected representatives will be accountable to their constituency for what they do in the locality. But no
one will be responsible for how the country will be run.
Emergence of the Representative Democracies:
· Large societies need representative democracy: As societies became large and complex, they also
needed some agency to gather different views on various issues and to present these to the
Government.
· They needed a mechanism to support or restrain the government, make policies, justify, or oppose
them.

Party System
A party system is a concept concerning the system of government by political parties in a democratic
country. It could vary from country to country.

Evolution of the Party system:

A Party system evolves over a long period of time. It depends on the nature of society, social and regional
divisions, history of politics and system of elections.
· Each country develops a party system that is conditioned by its special circumstances.
· Example: India has evolved a multiparty system because the social and geographical diversity in such
a vast country is not easily absorbed by two or even three parties.

Types of Part System

One-Party system:
· When only one party is allowed to control and run the Government. For example, In China, only the
Communist Party is allowed to rule.
· Though legally people are free to form political parties, but it does not happen because the electoral
system does not permit free competition for power.
· Drawback: This is not a democratic option as any Democratic system must allow at least two parties
to compete in elections and provide a fair chance for the competing parties to come to power.
Two-Party system:
· In some countries, the power usually changes between two main political parties.
· Several other parties may exist, contest elections and win a few seats in the national legislatures. But
POLITICAL PARTIES

only the two main parties have a serious chance of winning majority of seats to form the Government.
For example, USA, United Kingdom.
Multi-Party system:
· If several parties compete for power, and more than two parties have a reasonable chance of
coming to power either on their own strength or in alliance with others. For example, India.

24
 · Advantage: It allows a variety of interests and opinions to enjoy political representation.
· Disadvantage: It often appears very messy and leads to political instability.
Kinds of Political Parties in Federal System:
· Parties that are present in only one of the federal units.
· Parties that are present in several or all units of the federation.
National Parties:
In India, there are some countrywide parties known as 'National Parties'. These parties have their units
in various states but by and large, all these units follow the same policies, programmes and strategy that is
decided at the National level. Following are some procedures regarding Political parties in India:
· Every party has to register with the Election Commission of India (ECI).
· While the ECI treats all parties equally, it offers some special facilities to large and established parties:
Ø They are given a Unique symbol and only the Official candidates of that party can use that election
symbol.
Ø Parties that get this privilege and some other special facilities are 'recognised' by the Election
Commission for this purpose. That is why these parties are called, 'Recognised Political Parties'.
· Conditions laid down by the ECI to be as a recognized party:
Ø A party that secures at least six per cent of the total votes in an election to the Legislative Assembly
of a State and wins at least two seats is recognised as a State party.
Ø A party that secures at least six per cent of the total votes in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly
elections in four States and wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha is recognised as a National
party.
Ø According to this classification, there were seven recognised national parties in the country in
2018:

Table: 6.1: Recognised National Parties in India (in 2018)

National Party Details

All India Trinamool · Launched on 1 January 1998 under the leadership of Mamata Banerjee.
Congress (AITC) · Recognised as a National party in 2016.
· The party’s symbol is flowers and grass.

Bahujan Samaj · Formed in 1984 under the leadership of Kanshi Ram.

Party (BSP) · The party's symbol is Elephant.
POLITICAL PARTIES

· Seeks to represent and secure power for the Bahujan Samaj which
includes the dalits, adivasis, OBCs and religious minorities.
· Draws inspiration from the ideas and teachings of Sahu Maharaj,
Mahatma Phule, Periyar Ramaswami Naicker and Babasaheb
Ambedkar.

25
 Bharatiya Janata · Founded in 1980 by reviving the erstwhile Bharatiya Jana Sangh,
Party (BJP) formed by Syama Prasad Mukherjee in 1951.
· Wants to build a strong and modern India by drawing inspiration from
India's ancient culture and values, and Deendayal Upadhyaya's ideas of
integral humanism and Antyodaya.

Communist Party of · Formed in 1925.

India (CPI) · Believes in Marxism-Leninism, secularism, and democracy.
· Accepts parliamentary democracy as a means of promoting the
interests of the working class, farmers, and the poor.

Communist Party of · Founded in 1964.

India - Marxist (CPI- · Believes in Marxism-Leninism.
M) · Accepts democratic elections as a useful and helpful means for securing
the objective of socioeconomic justice in India.
· Enjoys strong support among the poor, factory workers, farmers,
agricultural labourers and the intelligentsia.

Indian National · Founded in 1885 and popularly known as the Congress Party.
Congress (INC) · One of the oldest parties of the world.
· A centrist party (neither rightist nor leftist) in its ideological orientation.

Nationalist · Formed in 1999 following a split in the Congress party.

Congress Party
(NCP)

State Parties:
· Other than these seven national parties, most of the major parties of the country are classified by the
Election Commission as 'State Parties'. These are commonly referred to as Regional Parties.
· These parties need not be regional in their ideology or outlook. Some of these parties are all India
parties that happen to have succeeded only in some states.

Journey of Regional parties:

POLITICAL PARTIES

· As over the last three decades, the number and strength of regional parties has expanded. It has led to
bring more diversity in the Parliament.
· Since 1996, nearly every one of the State parties has got an opportunity to be a part of one or the other
National level coalition government.

Issues with Political Parties

26
 · Lack of Internal democracy within parties:
Ø All over the world, there is a tendency in political parties towards the concentration of power in
one or few leaders at the top.
Ø Parties do not keep membership registers, do not hold organisational meetings, and do not
conduct internal elections regularly.
Ø Ordinary members of the party do not get sufficient information on what happens inside the party.
· Dynastic succession:
Ø Since most political parties do not practice open and transparent procedures for their functioning,
there are very few ways for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a party.
Ø In many parties, the top positions are always controlled by members of one family.
Ø People who do not have adequate experience or popular support come to occupy positions of
power.
· Role of Money and Muscle power:
Ø Parties tend to use short-cuts to win elections. They tend to nominate those candidates who have
or can raise lots of money.
Ø Rich people and companies who give funds to the parties tend to have influence on the policies and
decisions of the party.
Ø In some cases, parties support criminals who can win elections.
· Lack of meaningful choices to the voters: In recent years there has been a decline in the ideological
differences among parties in most parts of the world. For example, In India, the differences among all
the major parties on the economic policies have reduced. Those who want really different policies have
no option available to them.

Steps undertaken to reform Political Parties:

· Constitution amendment:
Ø The Constitution was amended to prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing parties as many
elected representatives were indulging in defection in order to become ministers or for cash
rewards.
Ø Now, the Law says that if any MLA or MP changes parties, he or she will lose the seat in the
legislature. But this has made any dissent even more difficult as MPs and MLAs have to accept
whatever the party leaders decide.
· Supreme Court (SC) orders: SC passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals. It is
made mandatory for every candidate who contests elections to file an affidavit giving details of his
POLITICAL PARTIES

property and criminal cases pending against him. But there is no system of check if the information
given by the candidates is true.
· Election Commission orders: It passed an order making it necessary for political parties to hold their
organisational elections and file their income tax returns. Though the parties have started doing so
but sometimes it is mere formality.

27
Measures to reform Political Parties:
· A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties. It should be made
compulsory for political parties to maintain a register of its members, to follow its own constitution, to
hold open elections to the highest posts etc.
· It should be made mandatory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets, about one-
third, to women candidates.
· There should be state funding of elections in the forms of kind such as petrol, paper, telephone etc. or
in cash on the basis of the votes secured by the party in the last election.
· People can put pressure on political parties through petitions, publicity and agitations. If political
parties feel that they would lose public support by not taking up reforms, they will become more
serious about the reforms.
· Political parties can improve if those who want to improve the situation join political parties. The
quality of Democracy depends on the degree of public participation.

Interesting points

· Election Commission of India has officially banned wall-writing by parties during election times.
· More than 750 parties are registered with the Election Commission of India.

POLITICAL PARTIES

28
 OUTCOMES OF DEMOCRACY
7
Democracy has some expected and actual outcomes of democracy in various respects such as quality of
government, economic well-being, inequality, social differences and conflict and finally freedom and dignity.
Democracy: A better form of Government
Following characteristics of the Democracy makes it a better form of a Government:
· It promotes equality among citizens.
· It enhances the dignity of the individuals.
· It improves the quality of decision making.
· It provides a method to resolve conflicts.
· It allows room to correct mistakes.

Ideals of the Democracy

Accountable, Responsive, and Legitimate Government:
Democracy should produce a government that is accountable to the citizens, and responsive to the needs
and expectations of the citizens.
· Democracy is concerned with ensuring that People will have the right to choose and control their
rulers.
· Whenever possible and necessary, Citizens should be able to participate in decision making, that
affects them all.
· It follows the laid procedures.
· A Citizen can know if a decision was taken through the correct procedures. One has the right and the
means to examine the process of decision making.
· It develops mechanisms for citizens to hold the government accountable and mechanisms for citizens
to take part in decision making whenever they think fit.
· Democracies have had greater success in setting up regular and free elections and in setting up
conditions for open public debate.

Economic growth and development:

If democracies are expected to produce Good Governments, then is it fair to expect that they would also
produce development.
· Factors affecting economic development: Country's population size, global situation, cooperation
OUTCOMES OF DEMOCRACY

from other countries, economic priorities adopted by the country, etc.

· The difference in the rates of economic development between less developed countries with
dictatorships and democracies is negligible. Democracy is expected not to lag behind dictatorships in
this respect.

Reduction of inequality and poverty:

Perhaps more than development, it is reasonable to expect democracies to reduce economic disparities.
· Political equality: All individuals have equal weight in electing representatives.
· Reducing Economic inequalities: The poor constitute a large proportion of voters and no party would

29
 like to lose their votes. Yet democratically elected governments do not appear to be as keen to address
the question of poverty. However, a good Democracy must deal with such issues.
Accommodation of Social diversity:
Democracy should produce a harmonious social life.
· Accommodate Social divisions: Democracies usually develop a procedure to conduct their
competition. This reduces the possibility of these tensions becoming explosive or violent.
· Handle Conflicts: Democracy has ability to handle social differences, divisions and conflicts. Non-
democratic regimes often turn a blind eye to or suppress internal social differences. A democracy must
fulfil two conditions in order to achieve this outcome:
Ø The majority always needs to work with the minority so that Government functions to represent the
general view.
Ø In terms of religion or race or linguistic group, Rule by majority means that in case of every decision
or in case of every election, different persons and groups may and can form a majority.

Dignity and Freedom of the Individuals:

Democracy stands much superior to any other form of government in promoting the Dignity and Freedom of
the Individuals.
· The passion for respect and freedom are the basis of democracy. Democracies throughout the world
have recognised this, at least in principle, and it has been achieved in various degrees in various
democracies.
· For Societies which have been built for long on the basis of subordination and domination, it is not a
simple matter to recognize that all individuals are equal. For instance, the Democracy in India has
strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated castes for equal status and equal
opportunity.

Success of the Democracy:

People have developed awareness and the ability to expect and to look critically at Power holders. A Public
expression of dissatisfaction with democracy shows the success of the democratic project. It transforms
people from the status of a Subject into that of a Citizen.

OUTCOMES OF DEMOCRACY

Interesting points

· Economic outcomes of Dictatorial regimes and Democracy:

Ø Dictatorial regimes: On an average, the dictatorial regimes have had a slightly better record of
economic growth.

30
 Table 7.1: Rates of economic growth for different countries

Ø Democratic regimes: Within democracies there can be very high degree of inequalities. In Democratic
countries like South Africa and Brazil, the top 20 per cent people take away more than 60 per cent of
the national income, leaving less than 3 per cent for the bottom 20 per cent population.
OUTCOMES OF DEMOCRACY

Table 7.2: Inequality of income in selected countries

31
 CHALLENGES TO DEMOCRACY
8
Democracy is the better form of Government, but it has some challenges that are faced in India and
worldwide.
Challenges faced by different countries:
· Foundational challenge:
Ø At least one fourth of the globe is still not under Democratic government. These countries face the
challenge of making the transition to the Democracy and then instituting a Democratic
Government.
Ø This involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from
controlling Government and establishing a Sovereign and Functional state.
· Challenge of Expansion:
Ø It is faced by the most of established democracies and involves applying the basic principle of
Democratic Government across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions.
Ø These principles include ensuring greater power to Local Governments, extension of Federal
principle to all the units of the Federation, inclusion of Women and Minority groups, etc.
Ø This also means that less and less decisions should remain outside the arena of Democratic control.
Most countries including India and other democracies like the US face such a challenge.
· Deepening of Democracy:
Ø It is faced by every Democracy in one form or another and involves strengthening of the
Institutions and practices of Democracy. This should happen in such a way that people can realise
their expectations of democracy.
Ø It usually means strengthening those institutions that help people's participation and control.
Ø This requires an attempt to bring down the control and influence of the rich and powerful people
in making Governmental decision.

Political Reforms:
Generally, all the suggestions or proposals about overcoming various challenges to democracy are called
'Democracy reform' or 'Political reform'.
Guidelines to devise ways and means for Political Reforms in India:
· Overcoming resistance in bringing Legal changes:
Ø Law has an important role to play in political reform and carefully devised changes in law can help to
CHALLENGES TO DEMOCRACY
discourage wrong political practices and encourage good ones. But legal-constitutional changes
by themselves cannot overcome challenges to Democracy.
Ø Democratic reforms are to be carried out mainly by political activists, parties, movements, and
politically conscious citizens.
· Carefully analysing results from any legal change:
Ø Results of legal change may be counterproductive. For example, many states have banned people
who have more than two children from contesting Panchayat elections which has resulted in denial
of Democratic opportunity to many poor and women.
Ø Laws that give political actors incentives to do good things have more chances of working.

32
 Ø The best laws are those which empower people to carry out Democratic reforms. For example, RTI
Act empowers the people to find out what is happening in Government and act as watchdogs of
democracy.
· Increase Political Participation:
Ø The main focus of Political reforms should be on ways to strengthen Democratic practice.
Ø The most important concern should be to increase and improve the quality of political
participation by ordinary citizens.
· Promotion of Democratic movements, Citizens' organisations and Media: It is not very wise to think
that the legislatures will pass legislations that go against the interest of all the Political parties and
Members of Parliament. But measures that rely on Democratic movements, Citizens' organisations
and Media are likely to succeed.

Interesting points

· Challenge: A challenge is not just any problem but only those difficulties become a 'challenge'
which are significant, and which can be overcome. A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it
an opportunity for progress. Once a challenge is overcome, one goes up to a higher level than
before.
CHALLENGES TO DEMOCRACY

33
NCERT NOTES
FOR POLITY
11th Standard
Indian Constitution at Work
CONTENTS
Constitution: Why and How? ...................................................................................................... 1 - 7

Rights in the Indian Constitution ............................................................................................. 8 - 16

Election and Representation .................................................................................................. 17 - 24

Executive ...................................................................................................................................... 25 - 33

Legislature ................................................................................................................................... 34 - 43

Judiciary ........................................................................................................................................ 44 - 52

Federalism ................................................................................................................................... 53 - 60

Local Governments ................................................................................................................... 61 - 66

Constitution as a living document ........................................................................................ 67 - 74

The Philosophy of the Constitution ..................................................................................... 75 - 81

 CONSTITUTION: WHY AND HOW?
1
It is necessary to understand that the entire structure of the government and the various principles that bind
the institutions of government have their origin in the Constitution of India.

Need of Constitution:
Constitution allows coordination and assurance: It provides a set of basic rules that allow for minimal
coordination amongst members of a society.
● For minimal degree of coordination: Any group will need some basic rules that are publicly
promulgated and known to all members.
● Enforcement of rules: Their enforcement gives an assurance to everybody that others will follow these
and there will be punishment for not following them.
Specification of decision-making powers: It specifies who has the power to make decisions in a society
and decides how the government will be constituted.
● It is a body of fundamental principles according to which a state is constituted or governed.
● Specifies the basic allocation of power in a society: It decides who will make the laws.
● In the Indian Constitution, Parliament gets to decide laws and policies.

Limitations on the powers of government:

● Need: If laws made by the government based on certain procedures are found to be unjust and unfair.
● It sets some limits on what a government can impose on its citizens. These limits are fundamental in
the sense that government may never trespass them.
● It specifies certain fundamental rights that all of us possess as citizens and which no government can
ever be allowed to violate such as protection from being arrested arbitrarily.
● Citizens will normally have the right to some basic liberties: to freedom of speech, freedom of
conscience, freedom of association, freedom to conduct a trade or business etc.
● Specifies circumstances when these rights may be withdrawn: These rights can be limited during
times of national emergency.

Aspirations and goals of a society:

It enables the government to fulfil the aspirations of a society and create conditions for a just society.
CONSTITUTION: WHY AND HOW?

● Most of the older constitutions limited themselves largely to allocating decision-making power and
setting some limits to government power.
● Societies with deep entrenched inequalities of various kinds will not only have to set limits on the
power of government but they will also have to enable and empower the government to take positive
measures to overcome forms of inequality or deprivation.
● For example, India aspires to be a society that is free of caste discrimination and for this the
government will have to be empowered to take all the necessary steps to achieve this goal.
● The Constitution makers thought that each individual in society should have all that is necessary for
them to lead a life of minimal dignity and social self-respect - minimum material well-being,
education etc. So, the Indian Constitution enables the government to take positive welfare measures

1
 some of which are legally enforceable.

Fundamental identity of people:

● People as a collective entity come into being only through the basic constitution. It is by agreeing to a
basic set of norms about how one should be governed, and who should be governed that one forms a
collective identity.
● National identity:
⮚ Different nations embody different conceptions of about the relationship between the different
regions of a nation and the central government. This relationship constitutes the national identity of
a country.

Main functions of the Constitution:

The first function of a constitution is to provide a set of basic rules that allow for minimal
coordination amongst members of a society.
The second function of a constitution is to specify who has the power to make decisions in a
society. It decides how the government will be constituted.
The third function of a constitution is to set some limits on what a government can impose on its
citizens. These limits are fundamental in the sense that government may never trespass them.
The fourth function of a constitution is to enable the government to fulfil the aspirations of a
society and create conditions for a just society.

The Authority of a Constitution:

● In most countries, 'Constitution' is a compact document that comprises a number of Articles about
the state, specifying how the state is to be constituted and what norms it should follow.
● In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, do not have one single document that can be called
the Constitution. Rather they have a series of documents and decisions that, taken collectively, are
referred to as the Constitution.

CONSTITUTION: WHY AND HOW?

Factors Responsible for Effectiveness of Constitution
Mode of promulgation:
● It talks about how a constitution comes into being, who crafted the constitution and what is the limit
of their authority.
● In many countries, constitutions remain defunct because they are crafted by military leaders or
leaders who are not popular and do not have the ability to carry the people with them.
● Some successful constitution like India, South Africa were created in the aftermath of popular
national movements.
● Some countries have subjected their constitution to a full-fledged referendum, where all the people
vote on the desirability of a constitution.

2
 ● Formation of Indian Constitution:
⮚ It was formally created by a Constituent Assembly between December 1946 and November
1949 and drew upon a long history of the nationalist movement that had a remarkable ability to take
along different sections of Indian society together.
⮚ The final document reflected the broad national consensus at the time.
⮚ Enormous public authority: It had the consensus and backing of leaders who were themselves
popular and it was never subjected to a referendum.
⮚ The people adopted it as their own by abiding by its provisions. Therefore, the authority of people
who enact the Constitution helps determine in part its prospects for success.

Substantive provisions of a Constitution:

● Hallmark of a successful constitution: It gives everyone in society some reason to go along with its
provisions.
● No constitution by itself achieves perfect justice but it has to convince people that it provides the
framework for pursuing basic justice.
● For example, A group will have no reason to abide by it if their identity is being stifled.
● More a constitution preserves the freedom and equality of all its members, the more likely it is to
succeed.

Balanced Institutional Design:

● No single group can subvert Constitution: Well-crafted constitutions fragment power in society
intelligently.
● Checks and balances: It ensures that no single institution acquires monopoly of power. This is often
done by fragmenting power across different institutions.
● For example, the Indian Constitution horizontally fragments power across different institutions like the
Legislature, Executive and the Judiciary for ensuring that others institution can check transgressions of
other.
● It must strike the right balance between certain values, norms and procedures as authoritative, and
allow enough flexibility in its operations to adapt to changing needs and circumstances.
CONSTITUTION: WHY AND HOW?

● Issues:
⮚ Too rigid Constitution: It is likely to break under the weight of change.
⮚ Too flexible: A constitution will give no security, predictability or identity to a people.
● Indian Constitution is described as 'a living' document:
⮚ By striking a balance between the possibility to change the provisions and the limits on such
changes, the Constitution has ensured that it will survive as a document respected by people.

Formation of Indian Constitution:

● It was made by the Constituent Assembly which had been elected for undivided India.
● It held its first sitting on 9 December 1946 and reassembled as Constituent Assembly for divided

3
 India on 14 August 1947.
● Members of Assembly: They were not elected by universal suffrage and were chosen by indirect
election by the members of the Provincial Legislative Assemblies that had been established under the
Government of India Act, 1935.
● The Constituent Assembly was composed roughly along the lines suggested by the plan proposed by
the committee of the British cabinet, known as the Cabinet Mission.
⮚ Each Province and each Princely State or group of States were allotted seats proportional to their
respective population roughly in the ratio of 1:10,00,000. As a result, the Provinces (that were
under direct British rule) were to elect 292 members while the Princely States were allotted a
minimum of 93 seats.
⮚ The seats in each Province were distributed among the three main communities, Muslims, Sikhs
and general, in proportion to their respective populations.
⮚ Members of each community in the Provincial Legislative Assembly elected their own
representatives by the method of proportional representation with single transferable vote.
⮚ The method of selection in the case of representatives of Princely States was to be determined by
consultation.

Composition of the Constituent Assembly:

● It was a consequence of the Partition under the plan of 3 June 1947.
● Members elected from territories which fell under Pakistan ceased to be members of the
Constituent Assembly and the members in the Assembly was reduced to 299.
● The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 and 284 members were actually present on
24 January 1950 and appended their signature to the Constitution as finally passed.
● The Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950.
● The Constitution was committed to a new conception of citizenship where minorities would be
secure and religious identity would have no bearing on citizenship rights.
● Representative constituent assembly:
⮚ Members of all religions were given representation under the scheme.
⮚ In addition, the Assembly had twenty-eight members from the Scheduled Castes.

CONSTITUTION: WHY AND HOW?

⮚ In terms of political parties: The Congress dominated the Assembly occupying as many as
eighty-two per cent of the seats in the Assembly after the Partition but it itself was a diverse party
that managed to accommodate almost all shades of opinion within it.

The Principle of Deliberation:

● Authority of the Constituent Assembly: It comes from the procedures it adopted to frame the
Constitution and the values its members brought to their deliberations.
● Interest of whole nation: It was desirable that diverse sections of society participate not only as
representatives of their own identity or community.
● Each member deliberated upon the Constitution with the interests of the whole nation in mind.

4
 ● Healthy Debate:
⮚ Testament to democratic commitment: Almost every issue that lies at the foundation of a modern
state was discussed with great sophistication.
⮚ Only one provision of, the introduction of universal suffrage, of the Constitution was passed
without virtually any debate.
● Members were engaged in public reason:
⮚ Emphasis on discussion and reasoned argument: They did not simply advance their own interests
but gave principled reasons to other members for their positions.
⮚ The voluminous debates in the Constituent Assembly debating and scrutinizing each clause of the
Constitution is a tribute to public reason at its best.
⮚ These debates deserved to be memorialized as one of the most significant chapters in the history of
constitution.
Procedures:
● Mundane procedures of the Assembly:
⮚ The Constituent Assembly had eight major Committees on different subjects.
⮚ Usually, Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Patel or B.R. Ambedkar chaired these
Committees.
● Working together despite differences:
⮚ Ambedkar was a bitter critic of the Congress and Gandhi and accusing them of not doing enough for
the upliftment of Scheduled Castes.
⮚ Patel and Nehru disagreed on many issues.
⮚ Each Committee usually drafted particular provisions of the Constitution which were then
subjected to debate by the entire Assembly.
● Attempts to reach a consensus:
⮚ Belief: Provisions agreed to by all would not be detrimental to any particular interests.
⮚ Some provisions were subject to the vote.
⮚ Every single argument, query or concern was responded with great care and writing.
⮚ The Assembly met for one hundred and sixty-six days, spread over two years and eleven months.
● Its sessions were open to the press and the public alike.
CONSTITUTION: WHY AND HOW?

Inheritance of the Nationalist Movement:

● Consensus on main principles for Constitution:
⮚ The Constituent Assembly was giving concrete shape and form to the principles it had inherited
from the nationalist movement.
⮚ The nationalist movement had debated many questions that were relevant to the making of the
constitution like the shape and form of government etc.
⮚ Answers forged in those debates were given their final form in the Constitution.
● Best summary of the principles:
⮚ Objectives Resolution (the resolution that defined the aims of the Assembly): It was moved by

5
 Nehru in 1946 and had the aspirations and values behind the Constitution. It inspired the
substantive provisions of the constitution.
⮚ Based on this resolution, the Constitution gave institutional expression to these fundamental
commitments: equality, liberty, democracy, sovereignty etc.
⮚ Our Constitution is a moral commitment to establish a government that will fulfil the promises that
the nationalist movement held before the people.

Main points of the Objectives Resolution:

● India is an independent, sovereign, republic.

● India shall be a Union of erstwhile British Indian territories, Indian States, and other parts outside
British India and Indian States as are willing to be a part of the Union.
● Territories forming the Union shall be autonomous units and exercise all powers and functions of the
Government and administration, except those assigned to or vested in the Union.
● All powers and authority of sovereign and independent India and its constitution shall flow from the
people.
● All people of India shall be guaranteed and secured social, economic and political justice; equality
of status and opportunities and equality before law; and fundamental freedoms - of speech,
expression, belief, faith, worship, vocation, association and action - subject to law and public
morality.
● The minorities, backward and tribal areas, depressed and other backward classes shall be provided
adequate safeguards.
● The territorial integrity of the Republic and its sovereign rights on land, sea and air shall be
maintained according to justice and law of civilized nations.
● The land would make full and willing contribution to the promotion of world peace and welfare of
mankind.

CONSTITUTION: WHY AND HOW?

Institutional arrangements:
● Basic principle: Government must be democratic and committed to the welfare of the people.
● Constitution's effectiveness depends upon a balanced arrangement of the institutions of
government. The Constituent Assembly spent a lot of time on evolving the right balance among the
various institutions.
● Learn from experiments and experiences of other countries: The Constitution makers borrowed
number of provisions from different countries.
● Not imitation: Each provision of the Constitution had to be defended on grounds that it was suited to
Indian problems and aspirations.

6
 Provisions adapted from Constitutions of Different Countries:

Interesting points

● Enabling provisions of the Constitution: The Constitution give powers to the government for
pursuing collective good of the society.
⮚ Constitution of South Africa: It assigns many responsibilities to the government: it wants the
government to take measures to promote conservation of nature, make efforts to protect
persons or groups subjected to unfair discrimination etc.
⮚ Case of Indonesia: The government is enjoined to establish and conduct national education
system.
● “Political democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of it social democracy”- Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar.
● Universal suffrage: All citizens reaching a certain age, would be entitled to be voters irrespective
CONSTITUTION: WHY AND HOW?

of religion, caste, education, gender or income.

● Debate over Constitution making in Nepal:
⮚ Since 1948, Nepal had multiple constitutions.
⮚ The 1990 constitution introduced a multiparty competition, though the King continued to
hold final powers in many respects.
⮚ The King was not ready to give up powers and took over all powers in October 2002.
⮚ Finally, under pressure of popular agitation, the King had to install a government acceptable to
the agitating parties.
⮚ In 2008, Nepal emerged as a democratic republic after abolishing the monarchy.
⮚ Finally, Nepal adopted a new constitution in 2015.

7
 2 RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN
CONSTITUTION
A constitution is not only about the composition of the various organs of government and the relations
among them. It is a document that sets limits on the powers of the government and ensures a democratic
system in which all persons enjoy certain rights.

Importance of Rights:

Case study of construction workers who were denied rights:

● In 1982, the government engaged a few contractors who employed a large number of very poor
construction workers from different parts of the country to build the flyovers and stadiums during the
construction work for Asian Games.
● A team of social scientists studied their poor condition and petitioned the Supreme Court.
● Violation of right against Exploitation: Employing a person to work for less than the minimum
prescribed wage amounts to begar or forced labour.
● The court accepted this plea and directed the government to ensure that thousands of workers get
the prescribed wages for their work.

Bill of Rights:
● A democracy must ensure that individuals have certain rights and the government will always
recognise these rights.
● Most democratic countries list the rights of the citizens in the constitution itself. Such a list of rights
mentioned and protected by the Constitution is called the 'bill of rights'.
● Remedy against violation of rights: As it prohibits government from acting against the rights of the
individuals.
● Protection of individuals:
⮚ From person or private organization.

RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

⮚ From the organs of the government such as the legislature, executive, bureaucracy or even the
judiciary.

Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution

History of Rights:
● The importance of rights was realized by the leaders of the freedom movement and they demanded
that the British rulers should respect rights of the people.
● The Motilal Nehru committee had demanded a bill of rights as far back as in 1928.
● After independence, the Constitution listed the rights that would be specially protected and called
them 'fundamental rights'.
● Importance of Fundamental Rights:
⮚ The word fundamental suggests that these rights are so important that the Constitution has

8
 separately listed them and made special provisions for their protection.
⮚ The Constitution itself ensures that they are not violated by the government.
⮚ Judiciary has the powers and responsibility to protect the fundamental rights from violations by
actions of the government.
⮚ Not absolute or unlimited rights: As the Government can put reasonable restrictions on the
exercise of fundamental rights.

Difference between Fundamental Rights and other rights:

Ordinary Rights Fundamental Rights

They are protected and enforced by ordinary law. They are protected and guaranteed by the
Constitution.

They may be changed by the legislature by They may only be changed by amending the
ordinary process of law making. Constitution itself.
RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Fig. 2.1: Fundamental Rights

9
Right to Equality:
It tries to do away with caste, gender and other discriminations and strives to make India a true democracy
by ensuring a sense of equality of dignity and status among all its citizens.
● Provides for equal access: To public places like shops, hotels, places of entertainment, wells, bathing
ghats and places of worship. There cannot be any discrimination in this access on the grounds only of
religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
● It prohibits any discrimination in public employment on any of the above-mentioned basis.
● It abolished the practice of untouchability.
● It provides that the state shall confer no title on a person except those who excel themselves in
military or academic field.

Article 16 (4): Nothing in this Article shall prevent the State from making any provision for the
reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any backward class of citizens which, in the opinion
of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the State.

The Preamble mentions two things about Equality:

● Equality of Status.
● Equality of Opportunity:
⮚ All sections of the society enjoy equal opportunities.
⮚ The Constitution clarifies that the government can implement special schemes and measures for
improving the conditions of certain sections of society: children, women, and the socially and
educationally backward classes.

Reservations are not against Equality:

Article 16(4) of the Constitution explicitly clarifies that a policy like reservation will not be seen as a
violation of right to equality. It was required for the fulfilment of the right to equality of opportunity.

RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Right to Freedom:
● Equality and freedom or liberty are most essential to a democracy.
● Liberty means freedom of thought, expression and action but it does not mean freedom to do
anything that one desires or likes.
● Freedoms are defined in such a manner that every person will enjoy her freedom without threatening
freedom of others and without endangering law and order situation.

Right to Life and Personal Liberty:

It is the foremost right among rights to freedom.
● No citizen can be denied his or her life except by procedure as laid down under the law.
● No one can be denied his/her personal liberty:

10
 ⮚ No one can be arrested without being told the grounds for such an arrest.
⮚ If arrested, the person has the right to defend himself by a lawyer of his choice.
⮚ It is mandatory for the police to take that person to the nearest magistrate within 24 hours.
⮚ The magistrate, who is not part of the police, will decide whether the arrest is justified or not.
● Wider application: Various judgments of Supreme Court have expanded the scope of this right such
as this right also includes right to live with human dignity, free from exploitation.

Article 21: Protection of life and personal liberty - No person shall be deprived of his life or personal
liberty except according to procedure established by law.

Preventive Detention:
● Sometimes a person can be arrested simply out of an apprehension that he or she is likely to engage in
unlawful activity and imprisoned for some time without following the above-mentioned procedure.
● Reason: A person can be detained or arrested if government feels that a person can be a threat to law
and order or to the peace and security of the nation.
● It can be extended only for three months.
● After three months such a case is brought before an advisory board for review.
● Criticism:
⮚ Misused by the government against people for reasons other than the justified reasons.
⮚ It comes in conflict with right to life and personal liberty.

Other freedoms:
● There are other rights under the right to freedom but they are not absolute. Each of these is subject to
restrictions imposed by the government.
● Right to freedom of speech and expression is subject to restrictions such as public order, peace and
morality etc.
● Freedom to assemble too is to be exercised peacefully and without arms. The government may
RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

impose restrictions in certain areas declaring the assembly of five or more persons as unlawful.

Rights of accused:
● The Constitution ensures that accused persons would get sufficient protection.
● No one is guilty unless the court has found that person guilty of an offence.
● To ensure a fair trial in courts, the Constitution has provided three rights:
⮚ No person would be punished for the same offence more than once.
⮚ No law shall declare any action as illegal from a backdate.
⮚ No person shall be asked to give evidence against himself or herself.

Right Against Exploitation:

● In India, underprivileged people may be subjected to exploitation by their fellow human beings such as

11
 begar or forced labour without payment and buying and selling of human beings and using them as
slaves.
● Both of these are prohibited under the Constitution.
● The Constitution forbids employment of children below the age of 14 years in dangerous jobs like
factories and mines. It became more meaningful after right to education becoming a fundamental
right for children.

Right to Freedom of Religion:

● According to our Constitution, everyone enjoys the right to follow the religion of his or her choice.
● Democracy has always incorporated the freedom to follow the religion of one's choice as one of its
basic principles.

Freedom of faith and worship:

● Everyone is free to choose a religion and practice that religion.
● Freedom of religion also includes the freedom of conscience - a person may choose any religion or
may choose not to follow any religion.
● Freedom of religion includes the freedom to profess, follow and propagate any religion.
● Subject to certain limitations:
⮚ The government can impose restrictions on the practice of freedom of religion in order to protect
public order, morality and health.
⮚ The government can interfere in religious matters for rooting out certain social evils. Such as the
government has taken steps banning practices like sati, bigamy or human sacrifice.

Issues with right to freedom of religion:

● Issue of forcible conversions: The Constitution has guaranteed the right to propagate one's religion
which includes persuading people to convert from one religion to other but it does not allow forcible
conversions. It only gives us the right to spread information about our religion to attract others.

RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Equality of all religions:
● Being a country, which is home to several religions, it is necessary that the government must extend
equal treatment to different religions.
● Not favouring any particular religion:
⮚ India does not have any official religion and there is a guarantee that government will not
discriminate on the basis of religion in giving employment.
⮚ The state-run institutions will neither preach any religion or give religious education nor will
favour persons of any religion.

Cultural and Educational Rights:

● Our Constitution believes that diversity is our strength. Therefore, one of the fundamental rights is the

12
 right of the minorities to maintain their culture.
● Status of Minorities:
⮚ It is not dependent only upon religion and includes linguistic and cultural minorities.
⮚ Minorities are groups that have common language or religion and are outnumbered by other social
group in a particular part of the country or in the country as a whole.
⮚ They have their own culture, language and a script and have the right to conserve and develop
these.
● All minorities, religious or linguistic, can set up their own educational institutions.
● The government will not, while granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any
educational institution on the basis that it is under the management of minority community.

Right to Constitutional Remedies:

● It is a means through which fundamental rights could be practiced and defended.
● Dr. Ambedkar considered the right to constitutional remedies as 'heart and soul of the constitution'
because this right gives a citizen the right to approach a High Court or the Supreme Court to get any
of the fundamental rights restored in case of their violation.
● The Supreme Court and the High Courts can issue orders and give directives to the government for the
enforcement of rights.
The courts can issue various special orders known as Writs.

Habeas The court orders that the arrested person should be presented before it. It can also
Corpus order to set free an arrested person if the manner or grounds of arrest are not lawful
or satisfactory.

Mandamus When the court finds that a particular office holder is not doing legal duty and
thereby is infringing on the right of an individual.
RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Prohibition It is issued by a higher court (High Court or Supreme Court) when a lower court
has considered a case going beyond its jurisdiction.

Quo Warranto If the court finds that a person is holding office but is not entitled to hold that
office. It restricts that person from acting as an office holder.

Certiorari The court orders a lower court or another authority to transfer a matter pending
before it to the higher authority or court.

13
Apart from the judiciary, many other mechanisms have been created for the protection of rights such as the
National Commission on Minorities, the National Commission on Women, the National Commission on
Scheduled Castes, etc.

Directive Principles of State Policy:

The constitution maker thought that the moral force behind these guidelines would ensure that the
government would take them seriously. They expected that the people would also hold the governments
responsible for implementing these directives. So, a separate list of policy guidelines is included in the
Constitution. The list of these guidelines is called the Directive Principles of State Policy.
● Need:
⮚ The constitution makers knew that independent India was going to face many challenges such as to
bring about equality and well-being of all citizens.
⮚ They thought that certain policy direction was required for handling these problems.
⮚ They did not want future governments to be bound by certain policy decisions.
● Non-justiciable: These guidelines were incorporated in the Constitution, but they were not made
legally enforceable i.e., parts of the Constitution that cannot be enforced by the judiciary.
Directive Principles includes:
● The chapter on Directive Principles lists mainly three things:
⮚ The goals and objectives that society should adopt.
⮚ Certain rights that individuals should enjoy apart from the Fundamental Rights.
⮚ Certain policies that the government should adopt.

Some of the Directive Principles:

RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Fig. 2.2: Directive Principle of State Policy

14
 ● Examples of DPSPs implementation:
⮚ The governments passed several zamindari abolition bills, nationalised banks, enacted numerous
factory laws, fixed minimum wages etc.
⮚ Several efforts to give effect to the Directive Principles include the right to education, formation of
Panchayati raj institutions all over the country, the mid-day meal scheme etc.

Fundamental Duties of Citizens

● History:
⮚ They were inserted by the 42nd amendment, 1976 to the Constitution.
⮚ In all, ten duties were enumerated.
⮚ The Constitution does not say anything about enforcing these duties.
● Citizens must abide by the Constitution, defend his country, promote harmony among all citizens,
protect the environment.
● Does not change the status of Fundamental rights: Our Constitution does not make the enjoyment of
rights dependent or conditional upon fulfilment of duties. Thus, the inclusion of fundamental duties has
not changed the status of our fundamental rights.

Fundamental Rights (FR) Directive Principles

They restrain the government from doing certain It exhorts the government to do certain things.
things.

They mainly protect the rights of individuals. They ensure the well-being of the entire society.

Relationship between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles:

● It is possible to see both as complementary to each other.
● When government intends to implement Directive Principles of State Policy, it can come in conflict
RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

with the Fundamental Rights of the citizen.

● History:
⮚ Rise of problem: When the government sought to pass laws to abolish zamindari system which
were opposed on the ground that they violated right to property.
⮚ The government amended the Constitution to give effect to the Directive Principles of State Policy
keeping in mind the societal needs of individuals.
● Long legal battle:
⮚ Position of executive: The government claimed that rights can be abridged for giving effect to
Directive Principles as rights were a hindrance to welfare of the people.
⮚ Position of judiciary: The court held the view that FR were so important and sacred that they
cannot be limited even for purposes of implementing Directive Principles.
● Complicated debate related to the amendment of the Constitution:

15
 ⮚ Government stand: Parliament can amend any part of the Constitution.
⮚ Court stand: Parliament cannot make an amendment that violated Fundamental Rights.
● Settlement of controversy:
⮚ In Kesavananda Bharati case, the Supreme Court said that there are certain basic features of the
Constitution and these cannot be changed by Parliament.

InterestingInteresting
Points: points

● South African Constitution: It was inaugurated in December 1996 after the dissolution of the
Apartheid government. It says that its Bill of Rights is a cornerstone of their democracy.
● Independent organisations like the People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) or People's Union
for Democratic Rights (PUDR) have been working as watchdogs against the violations of rights.
● National Human Rights Commission (NHRC):
⮚ It was established in 1993.
⮚ Composition: Former chief justice of the Supreme Court of India, a former judge of the
Supreme Court, a former chief justice of a High Court and two other members who have
knowledge and practical experience in matters relating to human rights.
⮚ The Commission's functions include:
o Inquiry at its own initiative or on a petition presented to it by a victim into complaint of
violation of human rights,
o Visit to jails to study the condition of the inmates,
o Undertaking and promoting research in the field of human rights, etc.
⮚ The Commission generally receives complaints related to custodial death, custodial rape,
disappearances, police excesses, failure in taking action, indignity to women, etc.
⮚ It does not have the power of prosecution. It can merely make recommendations to the
government or recommend to the courts to initiate proceedings based on the inquiry that it

RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

conducts.
● Jotirao Phuley (1827-1890) was a radical social reformer from Maharashtra.

16
 ELECTION AND REPRESENTATION
3
In a Democracy, people participate in electoral process and directly choose their representatives. Our
Constitution lays down some rules to ensure free and fair elections.

Elections and Democracy

Direct democracy:
● It is one where the citizens directly participate in the day-to-day decision-making and in the running
of the government such as the ancient city-states in Greece.

Indirect democracy:
● Necessity of representation in a large democracy: All citizens cannot take direct part in making every
decision. Rule by the people usually means rule by people's representatives.
● In such an arrangement, citizens choose their representatives who are actively involved in governing
and administering the country.
● The method followed to choose these representatives is referred to as an election.
● Role of citizens:
⮚ Not actively involved: They have a limited role in taking major decisions and in running the
administration.
⮚ Citizens are involved indirectly through their elected representatives.

Role of Constitution:
● It lays down some basic rules about elections for ensuring free and fair elections.
● These basic rules are usually about eligibility to vote, to contest, supervision of elections etc.

Election System in India

In a democratic election, people vote, and their preference decides who will win the contest. Some rules can
favour the majority community while others can protect the minorities.
ELECTION AND REPRESENTATION

First Past the Post System:

● The entire country is divided into 543 constituencies.
● Each constituency elects one representative.
● The candidate who secures the highest number of votes in that constituency is declared elected.
● No need of majority of votes: In this system whoever has more votes than all other candidates, is
declared elected. This method is called the First Past the Post (FPTP) system.
● This method is also called the Plurality System.
● This is the method of election prescribed by the Constitution.

17
Proportional Representation (PR):

Comparing with Israel system of elections:

● In Israel once the votes are counted, each party is allotted the share of seats in the parliament in
proportion to its share of votes.
● Each party fills its quota of seats by picking those many of its nominees from a preference list that has
been declared before the elections. This system of elections is called the Proportional
Representation (PR) system.
● In this system, a party gets the same proportion of seats as its proportion of votes.

There are two variations in the PR system:

● In some countries like Israel or Netherlands, the entire country is treated as one constituency and
seats are allocated to each party according to its share of votes in the national election.
● In some countries like Argentina and Portugal, the country is divided into several multi-member
constituencies. Each party prepares a list of candidates for each constituency, depending on how
many have to be elected from that constituency.

In both cases, voters exercise their preference for a party and not a candidate. The seats in a constituency
are distributed based on votes polled by a party. Thus, representatives from a constituency, would and do
belong to different parties.

In India:
● India have adopted PR system on a limited scale for indirect elections.
● The Constitution prescribes a third and complex variation of the PR system for the election of
President, Vice President, and for the election to the Rajya Sabha and Vidhan Parishads.

PR system in Rajya Sabha elections:

● It follows a third variant of PR- the Single Transferable Vote system (STV).
● Every State has a specific quota of seats in the Rajya Sabha.

ELECTION AND REPRESENTATION

● The members are elected by the respective State legislative assemblies.
● The voters are the MLAs in that State.
● Every voter is required to rank candidates according to her or his preference.
● To be declared the winner, a candidate must secure a minimum quota of votes, which is determined by
a formula:

18
 ● Votes are counted based on first preference votes secured by each candidate i.e., of which the
candidate has secured the first preference votes.
● If after the counting of all first preference votes, required number of candidates fail to fulfil the quota,
the candidate who secured the lowest votes of first preference is eliminated and his/her votes are
transferred to those who are mentioned as second preference on those ballot papers. This process
continues till the required number of candidates are declared elected.
ELECTION AND REPRESENTATION

Table 3.1: Comparison of FPTP and PR system of Elections

Reasons for adopting the FPTP system by India:

● Simple system: It is extremely simple to understand even for common voters who may have no
specialized knowledge about politics and elections.
● Clear choice for voters:
⮚ Voters have to simply endorse a candidate or a party while voting.
⮚ It offers voters a choice not simply between parties but specific candidates.
● Issues with PR:
⮚ It is a complicated system which may work in a small country.

19
 ⮚ No accountability for own locality: Voters are often asked to choose a party and the
representatives are elected on the basis of party lists and they don't know their own representative.
⮚ Low stability: The Constitution makers felt that PR based election may not be suitable for giving a
stable government in a parliamentary system.
● Smooth functioning of government: The FPTP system generally gives the largest party or coalition
some extra bonus seats which is more than their share of votes would allow. It allows the formation of
a stable government.
● Working together: The FPTP system encourages voters from different social groups to come
together to win an election in a locality. In a diverse country like India, a PR system would encourage
each community to form its own nation-wide party.

Experience of the FPTP system:

FPTP system has confirmed the expectation of the constitution makers.
● It has proved to be simple and familiar to ordinary voters.
● It has helped larger parties to win clear majorities at the centre and the State level.
● It has also discouraged political parties that get all their votes only from one caste or community.
● Normally, the working of the FPTP system results in a two-party system.
● The experience of FPTP in India is slightly different.
⮚ After independence: There emerged a one-party dominance.
⮚ After 1989, India is witnessing the functioning of the multiparty coalitions.
⮚ In many States, a two-party competition is emerging, but the distinguishing feature of India's party
system is that the rise of coalitions has made it possible for new and smaller parties to enter into
electoral competition.

Reservation of Constituencies
Need:
● In FPTP election system, the candidate who secures the highest votes in a particular constituency is
declared elected. This often works to the disadvantage of the smaller social groups.
● India had a history of caste-based discrimination. In the FPTP electoral system, this means that the

ELECTION AND REPRESENTATION

dominant social groups and castes can win everywhere, and the oppressed social groups may
continue to remain unrepresented.

Separate electorates:
It was introduced by the British government.
It means that for electing a representative from a particular community, only those voters would
be eligible who belong to that community.
In the Constituent Assembly, many members expressed a fear that this will not suit our purposes.

20
 Reserved Constituencies:
● In this system, all voters in a constituency are eligible to vote but the candidates must belong to only
a particular community or social section for which the seat is reserved.
● To ensure proper representation: There are certain social groups which may be spread across the
country and their numbers may not be sufficient to be able to influence a victory of a candidate in a
constituency.
● Constitutional provisions:
⮚ It provides for reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies for the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
⮚ This provision was made initially for a period of 10 years and as a result of successive
constitutional amendments, has been extended up to 2030.
⮚ The Parliament can take a decision to further extend it when the period of reservation expires.
⮚ The number of seats reserved for both groups is in proportion to their share in the population of
India.
⮚ Of the 543 elected seats in the Lok Sabha, 84 are reserved for SC and 47 are reserved for ST (as on
26 January 2019).

Process to determine reserved constituencies:

● These constituencies are decided by an independent body called the Delimitation Commission which
is appointed by the President of India and works in collaboration with the Election Commission of
India.
● Purpose: Drawing up the boundaries of constituencies all over the country.
● A quota of constituencies to be reserved in each State is fixed depending on the proportion of SC or
ST in that State.
● After drawing the boundaries, the Delimitation Commission looks at the composition of population in
each constituency.
● In case of ST: Constituencies with highest proportion of ST population are reserved for ST.
● In case of SC: The Delimitation Commission looks at two things:
⮚ It picks constituencies that have higher proportion of Scheduled Caste population.
ELECTION AND REPRESENTATION

⮚ It also spreads these constituencies in different regions of the State because the Scheduled Caste
population is generally spread evenly throughout the country.
● These reserved constituencies can be rotated each time the Delimitation exercise is undertaken.
● The Constitution does not make similar reservation for other disadvantaged groups.

Free and Fair Elections

The true test of any election system is its ability:
● To ensure a free and fair electoral process.
● To ensure impartial and transparent Election system.
● To allow the voter's aspirations to find legitimate expression through the electoral results.

21
Universal Franchise and Right to Contest:
● Universal adult franchise: All adult citizens of the country must be eligible to vote in the elections.
Indian Constitution guarantees every adult citizen in India to have the right to vote.
● Voting age:
⮚ Till 1989, an adult Indian meant an Indian citizen above the age of 21.
⮚ An amendment to the Constitution in 1989, reduced the eligibility age to 18.
● Right to Contest Election:
⮚ All citizens have the right to stand for election.
⮚ Different minimum age requirements for contesting elections: For example - a candidate must be
at least 25 years old for standing in Lok Sabha or Assembly election.
⮚ Some legal restrictions: A person who has undergone imprisonment for two or more years for
some offence is disqualified from contesting elections.
⮚ It has no restrictions of income, education or class or gender.

Independent Election Commission:

It has been made to supervise and conduct' elections and ensuring the free and fair election system.
● Constitutional Provisions:
⮚ Article 324 provides for an independent Election Commission for the 'superintendence, direction
and control of the electoral roll Preparation and the conduct of elections' in India.
⮚ It gives the Election Commission a decisive role in virtually everything to do with elections.
● To assist the Election Commission of India, there is a Chief Electoral Officer in every state.
● The Election Commission is not responsible for the conduct of local body elections. The State
Election Commissioners work independently of the Election Commission of India and each has its
own sphere of operation.

Structure of Election Commission of India:

● It can either be a single member or a multi-member body.
● Till 1989, the Election Commission was single member.

ELECTION AND REPRESENTATION

● Multi-member: Just before the 1989 general elections, two Election Commissioners were
appointed. After the elections, it was reverted to its single member status.
● In 1993, two Election Commissioners were appointed once again, and the Commission became multi-
member and has remained since then.
● There is general consensus that a multi-member Election Commission is more appropriate as power
is shared and there is greater accountability.

Chief Election Commissioner (CEC):

● He/she presides over the Election Commission but does not have more powers than the other
Election Commissioners.

22
 ● The CEC and the two Election Commissioners have equal powers to take all decisions relating to
elections as a collective body.
● They are appointed by the President of India on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

Fear: It is possible for a ruling party to appoint a partisan person to the Commission who might favour them
in the elections.

Security of Tenure:
● The Constitution ensures the security of the tenure of the CEC and Election Commissioners.
● They are appointed for a six-year term or continue till the age of 65, whichever is earlier.
● Process of removal:
⮚ The CEC can be removed before the expiry of the term, by the President if both Houses of
Parliament make such a recommendation with a special majority.
⮚ The Election Commissioners can be removed by the President of India.

Functions of the Election Commission of India:

● Supervises the preparation of up-to-date voters' list: It makes every effort to ensure that the voters'
list is free of errors like nonexistence of names of registered voters or existence of names of those non-
eligible or non-existent.
● Determines the timing of elections and prepares the election schedule: The election schedule
includes the notification of elections, date from which nominations can be filed, last date for filing
nominations, last date of scrutiny, last date of withdrawal, date of polling and date of counting and
declaration of results.
● During this entire process, the Election Commission has the power to take decisions to ensure a free
and fair poll. It can postpone or cancel the election in the entire country or a specific State or
constituency on the grounds that the atmosphere is vitiated and therefore, a free and fair election may
not be possible.
● It also implements a model code of conduct for parties and candidates. It can order a re-poll in a
specific constituency. It can also order a recount of votes when it feels that the counting process has not
ELECTION AND REPRESENTATION

been fully fair and just.

● It accords recognition to political parties and allots symbols to each of them.

Administrative machinery of ECI:

● The Election Commission has very limited staff of its own. It conducts the elections with the help of
the administrative machinery.
● Once the election process has begun:
⮚ It has control over the administration as far as election related work is concerned.
⮚ During the election process, the administrative officers of the State and central governments are
assigned election related duty and, in this respect, the ECI has full control over them.

23
 ⮚ The EC can transfer the officers or stop their transfers.
⮚ It can act against them for failing to act in a non-partisan manner.

Electoral Reforms
Suggestions:
● Our system of elections should be changed from the FPTP to some variant of the PR system. This
would ensure that parties get seats, as far as possible, in proportion to the votes they get.
● There should be a special provision to ensure that at least one-third women are elected to the
parliament and assemblies.
● There should be stricter provisions to control the role of money in electoral politics. The elections
expenses should be paid by the government out of a special fund.
● Candidates with any criminal case should be barred from contesting elections, even if their appeal is
pending before a court.
● There should be complete ban on the use of caste and religious appeals in the campaign.
● There should be a law to regulate the functioning of political parties and to ensure that they function
in a transparent and democratic manner.

Apart from legal reforms, there are two other ways of ensuring that elections reflect the expectations and
democratic aspirations of the people:

● People themselves must be more vigilant and more actively involved in political activities.
● Various political institutions and voluntary organisations are developed and are active in
functioning as watchdog for ensuring free and fair elections.

Interesting points

● Two-party system: Power is often shared by two major parties alternately.

ELECTION AND REPRESENTATION

● Article 324 (1) The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of the electoral rolls
for, and the conduct of, all elections to Parliament and to the Legislature of every State and of
elections to the offices of President and Vice-President held under this Constitution shall be
vested in a Commission (referred to in this Constitution as the Election Commission).
● Special majority in Parliament:
⮚ Two-thirds majority of those present and voting.
⮚ Simple majority of the total membership of the House.
● The name of legislature of Israel is Knesset.

24
 4 EXECUTIVE
In a Democracy, people participate in electoral process and directly choose their representatives. Our
Constitution lays down some rules to ensure free and fair elections.
Legislature, executive and judiciary are the three organs of government. Together, they perform the
functions of the government, maintain law and order and look after the welfare of the people. The
Constitution ensures that they work in coordination with each other and maintain a balance among
themselves. In a parliamentary system, executive and the legislature are interdependent: the legislature
controls the executive, and, in turn, is controlled by the executive.

Executive:
● It is the branch of government responsible for the implementation of laws and policies adopted by
the legislature. It is often involved in framing of policy.
● The executive branch is not just about Presidents, Prime ministers and ministers and extends to the
administrative machinery (civil servants).
● Types of Executive:
⮚ Political Executive: The heads of government and their ministers who are saddled with the overall
responsibility of government policy.
⮚ Permanent Executive: Those who are responsible for day-to-day administration.
EXECUTIVE

25
Types of Executive
● In Presidential System, the office of President is very powerful. Example- United States, Brazil.
● Parliamentary System: Example- Germany, Italy, Japan, UK.
⮚ The Prime Minister is the head of government.
⮚ President or a monarch is the nominal Head of state.
⮚ The role of President or Monarch: It is primarily ceremonial and prime minister along with the
cabinet wields effective power.
● A Semi-Presidential System: Example- France, Russia, Sri Lanka.
⮚ It has both a President and a Prime Minister but unlike the parliamentary system the President
may possess significant day-to-day powers.
⮚ Possibility of conflict: Sometimes the President and the PM may belong to the same party and
sometimes to two different parties and thus, would be opposed to each other.

Country System

USA Presidential.

Canada Parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy.

France Semi-presidential system: The President appoints the Prime Minister as well as the
ministers but cannot dismiss them as they are responsible to the parliament.

Japan Parliamentary system with the Emperor as the head of the state and the Prime Minister as
the head of government.

Italy Parliamentary system with the President as the formal head of state and the Prime Minister
as the head of government.

Russia Semi-presidential system where President is the head of state and Prime Minister, who is
appointed by the President, is the head of government.

Germany Parliamentary system in which President is the ceremonial head of state and the
Chancellor is the head of government.

Parliamentary Executive in India:

● Experience of India with Parliamentary system: India had some experience of running the
EXECUTIVE

parliamentary system under the Acts of 1919 and 1935.

● The Constitution makers wanted to ensure that the government would be sensitive to public
expectations and would be responsible and accountable.

26
 ● The other alternative to the parliamentary executive was the presidential form of government. which
puts much emphasis on the President as the chief executive and as source of all executive power. There
is always the danger of personality cult in Presidential executive.
● But in the parliamentary form, there are many mechanisms that ensure that the executive will be
answerable to and controlled by the legislature or people's representatives.

Parliamentary System of India:

The Constitution adopted the parliamentary system of executive for the governments both at the national
and State levels.

At national level:
● The Constitution vests the executive power of the Union formally in the President who is the formal
Head of the state of India.
● The President exercises these powers through the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime
Minister. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers run the government.

At the State level:

● The executive comprises the Governor and the Chief Minister and Council of Ministers.

The President:
● Term: The President is elected for a period of five years.
● Election:
⮚ There is no direct election by the people for the office of President.
⮚ Voters: The elected MLAs and MPs.
⮚ Procedure: This election takes place in accordance with the principle of proportional
representation with single transferable vote.
● Removal:
⮚ The President can be removed from office only by Parliament by following the procedure for
impeachment which requires a special majority.
⮚ The only ground for impeachment is violation of the Constitution.

Power and position of President:

● As formal Head of the government:
⮚ The President has wide ranging executive, legislative, judicial and emergency powers.
⮚ In a parliamentary system, these powers are in reality used by the President only on the advice of
the Council of Ministers.
EXECUTIVE

⮚ The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers have support of the majority in the Lok Sabha and
they are the real executive.
⮚ In most of the cases, the President has to follow the advice of the Council of Ministers.

27
 Article 74 (1): There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise
the President who shall in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice. Provided that
the President may require the Council of Ministers to reconsider such advice….., and the President shall
act in accordance with the advice tendered after such reconsideration.

Discretionary Powers of the President:

● Constitutionally, the President has a right to be informed of all important matters and deliberations of
the Council of Ministers. The Prime Minister is obliged to furnish all the information that the President
may call for.
● The President often writes to the Prime Minister and expresses his views on matters confronting the
country.
Three situations where the President can exercise the powers using his or her own discretion:
● The President can send back the advice given by the Council of Ministers and ask the Council to
reconsider the decision.
⮚ Acts on his (or her) own discretion: When the President thinks that the advice has certain flaws
or legal lacunae, or that it is not in the best interests of the country, the President can ask the
Council to reconsider the decision.
⮚ As per an amendment, it was decided that the President can ask the Council of Ministers to
reconsider its advice but, has to accept the reconsidered advice.
● Veto power by which he can withhold or refuse to give assent to Bills (other than Money Bill) passed
by the Parliament.
⮚ Every bill passed by the Parliament goes to the President for his assent to become a law.
⮚ The President can send the bill back to the Parliament asking it to reconsider the bill. This 'veto'
power is limited because, if the Parliament passes the same bill again and sends it back to the
President, then, the President has to give assent to that bill.
⮚ However, there is no mention in the Constitution about the time limit within which the President
must send the bill back for reconsideration.
⮚ “Pocket veto”: The President can just keep the bill pending with him without any time limit. It
gives the President an informal power to use the veto in a very effective manner.

Additional Information:
● In 1986, the Parliament passed the Indian Post office (amendment) bill.
● Criticism: It sought to curtail the freedom of the press.
● The then President, Gyani Zail Singh, did not take any decision on this bill.
● The next President, Venkataraman sent the bill back to the Parliament for reconsideration.
EXECUTIVE

● But the government had changed and the new government did not bring the bill back before the
Parliament. So, the bill could never become a law.

28
 ● Discretion arises more out of political circumstances:
⮚ Formally, the President appoints the Prime Minister when a leader has the support of the majority
in the Lok Sabha.
⮚ Sometimes after an election, no leader or an alliance has a clear majority in the Lok Sabha or two or
three leaders are claiming of majority support in the House.
⮚ In such a situation, the President has to use his own discretion in judging who really may have the
support of the majority or who can actually form and run the government.
⮚ Scope for Presidential assertiveness: When governments are not stable, and coalitions occupy
power.
Need of the President:
● In a parliamentary system, the Council of Ministers is dependent on the support of the majority in the
legislature. So, it may be removed and replaced at any time.
● Such a situation requires a Head of the state who has a fixed term and who may be empowered to
appoint the PM and who may symbolize the entire country.
● When no party has a clear majority, the President has the additional responsibility of making a choice
and appointing the Prime Minister to run the government of the country.

The Vice-President of India:

● Term: Elected for Five years.
● Election method: It is similar to that of the President and the only difference is that members of State
legislatures are not part of the electoral college.
● Removal: The Vice President may be removed from his office by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha
passed by a majority and agreed to by the Lok Sabha.
● Role:
⮚ The Vice President acts as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha and takes over the office of
the President when there is a vacancy by reasons of death, resignation, removal by impeachment or
otherwise.
⮚ The Vice President acts as the President only until a new President is elected. For example, B. D.
Jatti acted as President on the death of Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed until a new President was elected.

Prime Minister and Council of Ministers:

The President exercises his powers only on the advice of the Council of Ministers which is headed by the
Prime Minister.

The Prime Minister:

● In the parliamentary form of executive, it is essential that the Prime Minister has the support of the
EXECUTIVE

majority in the Lok Sabha. So, he/she loses the office if this support of the majority is lost.
● Since 1989, various political parties have come together and formed a coalition that has majority in
the House. A person is appointed PM who is acceptable to most partners of the coalition.

29
 ● The Prime Minister allocates ranks and portfolios to the ministers.

Council of Ministers:
● The Prime Minister decides who will be the Ministers in the Council of Ministers.
● The Ministers are given the ranks of Cabinet Minister, Minister of State or Deputy Minister.
● Similarly, Chief Ministers of the States choose Ministers from their own party or coalition.
● Size of the Council of Ministers:
⮚ 91st Amendment Act (2003): The Council of Ministers shall not exceed 15 percent of total
number of members of the House of the People (or Assembly for states).
⮚ Before this, the size of the Council of Ministers was determined according to exigencies of time and
requirements of the situation. The minister berth was used as temptation to win over the support of
the members of the Parliament.

Important Information:
The Prime Minister and all the ministers must be members of the Parliament. If someone becomes a
minister or Prime Minister without being an MP, such a person must get elected to the Parliament
within six months.

Executive under control and supervision of the legislature:

● The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
● Council of Minister which loses confidence of the Lok Sabha is obliged to resign.
● Collective responsibility: It is based on the principle of the solidarity of the cabinet. It implies that a
vote of no confidence even against a single Minister leads to the resignation of the entire Council of
Ministers.
● Binding on all Ministers to pursue or agree to a policy: It indicates that if a minister does not agree
with a policy or decision of the cabinet, he or she must either accept the decision or resign.

Pre-eminent position of Prime Minister:

● Council of Ministers cannot exist without the Prime Minister: The Council comes into existence only
after the Prime Minister has taken the oath of office.
● The death or resignation of the Prime Minister automatically brings about the dissolution of the Council
of Ministers, but the demise, dismissal or resignation of a minister only creates a ministerial vacancy.
● It acts as a link between the Council of Ministers on the one hand and the President as well as the
Parliament on the other.
EXECUTIVE

It is this role of the Prime Minister which led Pt. Nehru to describe him as 'the linchpin of Government'.

30
 ● Constitutional obligation on Prime Minister: To communicate to the President all decisions of the
Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for
legislation.
● The Prime Minister is involved in all crucial decisions of the government and decides on the policies of
the government.
● Power wielded by the Prime Minister flows from various sources: Control over the Council of
Ministers, leadership of the Lok Sabha, command over the bureaucratic machine, access to media,
projection of personalities during elections, projection as national leader during international summitry
as well as foreign visits.

Political conditions affecting the power of Prime Minister:

● Unassailable: Whenever a single political party has secured majority in the Lok Sabha.
● Weak: Coalition governments sometimes be removed or resigned due to loss of support.

Effect of coalition government on the working of the parliamentary executive:

● It has resulted in a growing discretionary role of the President in the selection of Prime Ministers.
● It has necessitated much more consultation between political partners, leading to erosion of prime
ministerial authority.
● It has also brought restrictions on various prerogatives of the Prime Minister like choosing the
ministers and deciding their ranks and portfolios.
● Even the policies and programmes of the government cannot be decided by the Prime Minister
alone. Policies are framed after a lot of negotiations and compromises among the allies.
● The Prime Minister has to act more as a negotiator than as leader of the government.

Parliamentary executive at State level:

● A similar parliamentary executive exists, though with some variations.
● Important variation: Governor of the State appointed by the President (on the advice of the central
government).
● Though the Chief Minister like the Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in the Assembly,
the Governor has more discretionary powers.
● The main principles of parliamentary system operate at the State level too.

Permanent Executive: Bureaucracy

● The Executive organ of the government includes the Prime Minister, the Ministers and a large
organisation called the bureaucracy or the administrative machinery.
● To underline the difference between this machinery and the military service, it is described as civil
EXECUTIVE

service.
● Trained and skilled officers who work as permanent employees of the government are assigned the
task of assisting the Ministers in formulating policies and implementing these policies.

31
Role of Bureaucracy:
● In a democracy, the elected representatives and the Ministers are in charge of government and the
administration is under their control and supervision.
● The administrative officers cannot act in violation of the policies adopted by the legislature. It is the
responsibility of the ministers to retain political control over the administration.
● India has established professional administrative machinery.
● At the same time, this machinery is made politically accountable.
● Expected to be politically neutral: As Bureaucracy will not take any political position on policy matters.

System of Indian Bureaucracy:

● Enormously complex system: It consists of the All-India services, State services, Employees of the
local governments, and Technical and managerial staff running public sector undertakings.

● Impartial selection based on merit: The Union Public Service Commission has been entrusted with
the task of conducting the process of recruitment of the civil servants for the government of India.
● Similar public service commissions are provided for the States also.
● Members of the Public Service Commissions are appointed for a fixed term.
● Their removal or suspension is subject to a thorough enquiry made by a judge of the Supreme Court.
● More representative: The Constitution has provided for reservation of jobs for the Dalits and Adivasis.
Subsequently, they have also been provided for women and other backward classes.
● Persons selected by the UPSC for Indian Administrative Service and Indian Police Service constitute
the backbone of the higher-level bureaucracy in the States.
● An IAS or IPS officer is assigned to a particular State, where he or she works under the supervision of
the State government.
● Key administrative officers of the States are under the supervision of the State Government in place
of central government:
⮚ However, the IAS or IPS officers are appointed by the central government, they can go back into the
service of the central government.
⮚ Only the central government can take disciplinary action against them.
● Apart from the IAS and the IPS officers appointed by the UPSC, the administration of the State is
looked after by officers appointed through the State Public Service Commissions.
EXECUTIVE

Issues with the bureaucracy:

● Insensitive to ordinary citizens: People are afraid of approaching a government officer.

32
 ● Political interference: It turns the bureaucracy into an instrument in the hands of the politician.
● There are less provisions for protecting the civil servants from political interference.
● Not enough provisions: It is also felt that enough provisions are not there to ensure the
accountability of the bureaucracy to the citizen. There is an expectation that measures like the Right to
Information may make the bureaucracy a little more responsive and accountable.

Interesting points

● Semi-Presidential Executive in Sri Lanka:

⮚ The system of Executive Presidency was introduced in 1978. Under this, people directly elect
the President. The President has vast powers under the Constitution.
⮚ The President chooses the Prime Minister from the party that has a majority in the Parliament.
Though ministers must be members of the Parliament, the President has the power to remove
the Prime Minister, or ministers.
EXECUTIVE

33
 5 LEGISLATURE
In a Democracy, people participate in electoral process and directly choose their representatives. Our
Constitution lays down some rules to ensure free and fair elections.
Legislatures are elected by the people and work on behalf of the people. The elected legislatures function
and help in maintaining the democratic government. A genuine democracy is inconceivable without a
representative, efficient and effective legislature.

Need of Parliament:
● Lawmaking is one of the functions of the legislature.
● It is the centre of all democratic political process and packed with action; walkouts, protests,
demonstration, unanimity, concern and co-operation.
● It also helps people in holding the representatives accountable.
● It is recognised as one of the most democratic and open forum of debate.
● It is the most representative of all organs of government.
● It is vested with the power to choose and dismiss the government.

Parliament:
● Parliament' refers to the national legislature and legislature of the States is described as State
legislature.
● Bicameral legislature: The Parliament in India has two Houses:
⮚ The Council of States or the Rajya Sabha
⮚ The House of the People or the Lok Sabha.
● For States: The Constitution has given the States the option of establishing either a unicameral or
bicameral legislature. At present only six States have a bicameral legislature.

Need of Two Houses of Parliament:

● To give representation to all sections: It is used by countries with large size and much diversity.
● To give representation to all geographical regions or parts of the country.
● To ensure double check for every decision: Every decision taken by one House goes to the other
House for its decision so that every bill and policy would be discussed twice.

Rajya Sabha:
● Base of representation: It represents the States of India.
● Indirectly elected body: The elected members of State Legislative Assembly elect the members of the
LEGISLATURE

Rajya Sabha.
● Two different principles of representation:
⮚ Symmetrical representation: To give equal representation to all the parts of the country

34
 irrespective of their size or population.
⮚ Representation to parts of the country according to their population: Regions or parts having
larger population have more representatives in the second chamber. So, States with larger
population get more representatives than States with smaller population. For example, Uttar Pradesh
sends 31 members to the Rajya Sabha while Sikkim has only one seat.

Election to Rajya Sabha:

● Members of the Rajya Sabha are elected for a term of six years.
● They can get re-elected.
● Rajya Sabha is never fully dissolved:
⮚ Tenure: All members of the Rajya Sabha do not complete their terms at the same time.
⮚ Permanent House of the Parliament: Every two years, one third members of the Rajya Sabha
complete their term and elections are held for those one third seats only.
⮚ Advantage: The meeting of the Rajya Sabha can be called for conducting urgent business even
when the Lok Sabha is dissolved, and elections are yet to take place.
● Nominated members in Rajya Sabha:
⮚ It has twelve such members apart from the elected members.
⮚ The President nominates these members.
⮚ These nominations are made from among those persons who have made their mark in the fields of
literature, science, art and social service.

Lok Sabha:
● Election:
⮚ The Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies are directly elected by the people.
⮚ For elections: The entire country (State, in case of State Legislative Assembly) is divided into
territorial constituencies of roughly equal population.
⮚ One representative is elected from each constituency through universal adult suffrage.
⮚ At present there are 543 constituencies which has not changed since 1971 census.
● Tenure:
⮚ The Lok Sabha is elected for a period of five years.
⮚ It can be dissolved before the completion of five years if no party or coalition can form the
government or if the Prime Minister advises the President to dissolve the Lok Sabha and hold
fresh elections.
LEGISLATURE

Functions of Parliament:
● Legislative Functions:

35
⮚ It enacts legislations for the country but it often merely approves legislations.
⮚ Actual task of drafting the bill: It is performed by the bureaucracy under the supervision of the
Minister concerned.
⮚ The substance and even the timing of the bill are decided by the Cabinet.
⮚ No major bill is introduced in the Parliament without the approval of the Cabinet.
⮚ Members other than ministers can also introduce bills but these have no chance of being passed
without the support of the government.
● Control of Executive and ensuring its accountability:
⮚ It ensures that the executive does not overstep its authority and remains responsible to the people
who have elected them.

● Financial Functions:
⮚ Controls taxation and the way of using money by the government: If the Government of India
proposes to introduce any new tax, it has to get the approval of the Lok Sabha.
⮚ Parliament grants resources to the government to implement its programmes.
⮚ The government has to give an account to the legislature about the money it has spent and
resources that it wishes to raise.
⮚ Ensuring government does not misspend or overspend: Through the budget and annual financial
statements.
● Representation:
⮚ Parliament represents the divergent views of members from different regional, social, economic,
religious groups of different parts of the country.
● Debating Function:
⮚ Highest forum of debate in the country: There is no limitation on its power of discussion. Members
are free to speak on any matter without fear which makes it possible for the Parliament to analyse
any or every issue that faces the nation.

● Constituent Function:
⮚ The Parliament has the power of discussing and enacting changes to the Constitution.
⮚ Similar constituent powers: All constitutional amendments have to be approved by a special
majority of both Houses.
● Electoral Function:
⮚ It elects the President and Vice President of India.
LEGISLATURE

● Judicial Function:
⮚ It includes considering the proposals for removal of President, Vice-President and Judges of
High Courts and Supreme Court.

36
 Powers of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha:

Table 5.1: Powers of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha

Special Powers of Rajya Sabha:

Its purpose is to protect the powers of the States. Therefore, any matter that affects the States must be
referred to it for its consent and approval.
● The approval of the Rajya Sabha is necessary if the Parliament wishes to remove a matter from the
State list to either the Union List or Concurrent List in the interest of the nation.

Powers exercised only by the Lok Sabha:

● The Rajya Sabha cannot initiate, reject or amend money bills.
● The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha and not Rajya Sabha. Therefore, Rajya
Sabha can criticise the government but cannot remove it.
LEGISLATURE

Reasons for giving crucial powers to Lok Sabha:

● People are final authority in democracy: The representatives, directly elected by the people, should
have the crucial powers of removing a government and controlling the finances.

37
In all other spheres, including passing of non-money bills, constitutional amendments, and impeaching the
President and removing the Vice President the powers of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha are co-equal.

Procedure of Making laws in Parliament:

● A definite procedure is followed in the process of making law.
● Some of the procedures of law making are mentioned in the Constitution, while some have evolved
from conventions.

LEGISLATURE

Fig. 5.1: Procedure of Making laws in Parliament:

Law-making process is technical and even tedious.

● A Bill is a draft of the proposed law.

38
 ● Different types of Bills:
⮚ Private member's Bill: When a non-minister proposes a Bill.
⮚ Government Bill: A Bill proposed by a Minister.

Fig. 5.2: Types of Bills

Different stages in the life of a Bill:

● Even before a bill is introduced in the Parliament:
⮚ Debate on the need for introducing such a bill: A political party may pressurize the government to
initiate a bill.
⮚ Interest groups, media and citizens' forums may also persuade the government for a particular
legislation.
⮚ Law making is thus not merely a legal procedure but also a political course of action.
● During preparation of a Bill:
⮚ It involves many considerations such as resources required to implement the law, the support or
opposition that the bill is likely to produce, etc.
⮚ The Cabinet considers all these before arriving at a decision to enact a law.
● Task of drafting the legislation:
⮚ It begins once the Cabinet approves the policy behind the legislation.
⮚ The draft of any bill is prepared by the concerned ministry.
● First stage of law making (Within the Parliament):
⮚ A bill may be introduced in the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha by a member of the House (but often a
Minister responsible for the subject introduces the bill).
⮚ A money bill can be introduced only in Lok Sabha.
LEGISLATURE

● Second stage of law-making: A large part of the discussion on the bills takes place in the
committees. The recommendation of the committee is then sent to the House. Committees are
referred to as miniature legislatures.
● Third and final stage:

39
 ⮚ The bill is voted upon.
⮚ If a non-money bill is passed by one House, it is sent to the other House where it goes through
exactly the same procedure.
⮚ A bill has to be passed by both Houses for enactment.
⮚ If there is disagreement between the two Houses on the proposed bill, attempt is made to resolve it
through Joint Session of Parliament where usually the decision goes in favour of the Lok Sabha.
⮚ Special procedure in respect of Money Bills:
o Article 109 (1) : A Money Bill shall not be introduced in the Council of States.
o The Rajya Sabha can either approve the bill or suggest changes but cannot reject it.
o If it takes no action within 14 days, the bill is deemed to have been passed.
o Amendments to the bill, suggested by Rajya Sabha, may or may not be accepted by the Lok
Sabha.
● When a bill is passed by both Houses, it is sent to the President for his assent.
● The assent of the President results in the enactment of a bill into a law.

Control on Executive by Parliament:

● In a parliamentary democracy, the executive is drawn from the party or a coalition of parties that has
a majority in Lok Sabha.
● It is not difficult for the executive to exercise unlimited and arbitrary powers with the support of the
majority party.
● In such a situation, parliamentary democracy may slip into Cabinet dictatorship, where the Cabinet
leads and the House merely follows.
● An active and vigilant Parliament can keep regular and effective check on the executive.

Parliamentary Privileges:
● No action can be taken against a member for whatever the member may have said in the legislature.
This is known as parliamentary privilege.
● The presiding officer of the legislature has the final powers in deciding matters of breach of privilege.
● Purpose: To enable the members of the legislature to represent the people and exercise effective
control over the executive.

Instruments of Parliamentary Control:

The legislature in parliamentary system ensures executive accountability at various stages: policy making,
implementation of law or policy and during and post-implementation stage.
LEGISLATURE

Various devices used by Legislature

Deliberation and Discussion:
● During the law-making process: Members of the legislature get an opportunity to deliberate on the
policy direction of the executive and the ways in which policies are implemented.

40
 ● The control may also be exercised during the general discussions in the House.
● Zero Hour: Members are free to raise any matter that they think is important (though the ministers are
not bound to reply).
● Question Hour:
⮚ It is held every day during the sessions of Parliament where Ministers have to respond to
searching questions raised by the members.
⮚ It is the most effective method of keeping vigil on the executive and the administrative agencies of
the government. MPs have shown great interest in Question Hour and maximum attendance is
recorded during this time.
⮚ It gives the members an opportunity to criticise the government and represent the problems of
their constituencies.
● Some other instruments are - half-an-hour discussion on matters of public importance, adjournment
motion, etc.

Approval and ratification of laws:

● A bill can become a law only with the approval of the Parliament.
● If the government has not a disciplined majority, such approvals are the products of intense
bargaining and negotiations amongst the members of ruling party or coalition of parties and even
government and opposition.
● If the government has majority in Lok Sabha but not in the Rajya Sabha, the government will be forced
to make substantial concessions to gain the approval of both the Houses.
● Many bills, such as the Lok Pal Bill have failed enactment, Prevention of Terrorism bill (2002) was
rejected by the Rajya Sabha.

Financial control:
● Financial resources to implement the government programmes are granted through the Budget.
● Preparation and presentation of budget for the approval of the legislature is constitutional obligation
of the government. This obligation allows the legislature to exercise control over the purse strings of
the government.
● The legislature may refuse to grant resources to the government. (This seldom happens because the
government ordinarily enjoys support of the majority in the parliamentary system)
● Before granting money, the Lok Sabha can discuss the reasons for which the government requires
money.
● It can enquire into cases of misuse of funds on the basis of the report of the Comptroller and Auditor
General and Public Accounts committees.
LEGISLATURE

● Through financial control, the legislature controls the policy of the government.

No Confidence Motion:
● It is the most powerful weapon that enables the Parliament to ensure executive accountability.

41
 ● Governments are forced to resign due to lack of confidence of the House.
● The power of the House to dismiss the government is fictional rather than real till the governments has
majority in the Lok Sabha.
Thus, the Parliament can effectively control the executive and ensure a more responsive government.

Decline of Parliament Functioning :

● In the last two decades, there has been a gradual decline in sessions of the Lok Sabha and State
Legislative Assemblies and time spent on debates.
● The Houses of the Parliament have been plagued by absence of quorum, boycott of sessions by
opposition which deprive the House the power to control the executive through discussion.

Committees of Parliament
Need:
● They play a vital role not merely in law making, but also in the day-to-day business of the House.
● Limited time with the Parliament: As the Parliament meets only during sessions.
● The making of law requires in-depth study of the issue under consideration. This in turn demands
more attention and time.

Functions performed by Parliamentary Committees:

● Studying the demands for grants made by various ministries.
● Looking into expenditure incurred by various departments.
● Investigating cases of corruption.
Since 1983, India has developed a system of parliamentary standing committees.
● There are over twenty such departmentally related committees.
● Standing Committees supervise the work of various departments, their budget, their expenditure
and bills that come up in the House relating to the department.

Joint Parliamentary Committees (JPCs):

● They can be set up for the purpose of discussing a particular bill, like the joint committee to discuss
bill, or for the purpose of investigating financial irregularities.
● Members of these committees are selected from both Houses.

Importance:
● The committee system has reduced the burden on the Parliament. The Parliament has merely
approved the work done in the committees with few occasional alterations.
LEGISLATURE

● Many important bills have been referred to committees.

● No bill can become law, and no budget will be sanctioned unless approved by the Parliament. But the
Parliament rarely rejects the suggestions made by the committees.

42
 Regulation of Parliament by itself:
● Parliament as debating forum: It is through debates that the parliament performs all its vital functions
which must be meaningful and orderly so that the functions of the Parliament are carried out smoothly
and its dignity is intact.
● The Constitution itself has made certain provisions to ensure smooth conduct of business.
● The presiding officer of the legislature is the final authority in matters of regulating the business of the
legislature.
● Other way to control the behaviour of members

Anti-defection law:
⮚ There was an agreement among the parties that a legislator who is elected on one party's ticket
must be restricted from 'defecting' to another party.
⮚ Constitutional Amendment (52nd Amendment Act) in 1985: This is known as anti-defection
amendment. It has also been subsequently modified by the 91st amendment.
⮚ The presiding officer of the House is the authority who takes final decisions on all such cases.
⮚ If it is proved that a member has 'defected', then such member loses the membership of the House
and is also disqualified from holding any political office like ministership, etc.

Interesting points

● States with bicameral legislature: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana,
Uttar Pradesh.
● Bicameral Legislature means Legislature having two Houses.
● Bicameralism in Germany:
⮚ Federal Assembly (Bundestag)
⮚ Federal Council (Bundesrat)
● Defection: A member is considered to be defected if he/she remains absent in the House when
asked by the party leadership to remain present or votes against the instructions of the party or
voluntarily leaves the membership of the party.
● Equality of states in USA: Every state has equal representation in the Senate.
Fourth Schedule of Constitution fix the number of members to be elected from each State in Rajya
Sabha.
LEGISLATURE

43
 6 JUDICIARY
Many times, courts are seen only as arbitrators in disputes between individuals or private parties. But
judiciary performs some political functions also. Judiciary is an important organ of the government. The
Supreme Court of India is one of the very powerful courts in the world. Right from 1950, the judiciary has
played an important role in interpreting and protecting the Constitution.

Need of an Independent Judiciary:

● To protect rule of law and ensure supremacy of law.
● To safeguard rights of the individual, settle disputes in accordance with the law and ensure that
democracy does not give way to individual or group dictatorship.

Rule of law: It implies that all individuals - rich and poor, men or women, forward or backward castes -
are subjected to the same law.

Independence of Judiciary:
It means that:
● The other organs of the government like the executive and legislature must not restrain the
functioning of the judiciary in such a way that it is unable to do justice.
● The other organs of the government should not interfere with the decision of the judiciary.
● Judges must be able to perform their functions without fear or favour.
Independence of the judiciary does not imply arbitrariness or absence of accountability. Judiciary is a part
of the democratic political structure of the country. It is therefore accountable to:
● The Constitution.
● The democratic traditions.
● The people of the country.

Protection of the Independence of Judiciary:

The Indian Constitution has ensured the independence of the judiciary through several measures:
● No involvement of the legislature in the process of appointment of judges:
⮚ To be appointed as a judge: A person must have experience as a lawyer and/or must be well versed
in law.
⮚ Political opinions of the person or his/ her political loyalty should not be the criteria for
appointments to judiciary.
● Security of tenure:
⮚ The judges have a fixed tenure and hold office till reaching the age of retirement.
⮚ Only in exceptional cases, judges may be removed.
JUDICIARY

⮚ It ensures that judges could function without fear or favour.

⮚ The Constitution prescribes a very difficult procedure for removal of judges.
● Not financially dependent on either the executive or legislature:

44
 ⮚ The Constitution provides that the salaries and allowances of the judges are not subjected to the
approval of the legislature.
● The actions and decisions of the judges are immune from personal criticisms.
● Protection against unfair criticism: The judiciary has the power to penalise those who are found guilty
of contempt of court.
● Power to adjudicate without fear of being criticized: Parliament cannot discuss the conduct of the
judges except when the proceeding to remove a judge is being carried out.

Appointment of Judges:
● Appointment of the Chief Justice of India (CJI):
⮚ Over the years, a convention had developed whereby the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court
was appointed as the Chief Justice of India.
⮚ This convention was however broken twice:
o In 1973 A. N. Ray was appointed as CJI superseding three senior Judges.
o In 1975 Justice M.H. Beg was appointed superseding Justice H.R. Khanna.
● Other Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Court:
⮚ Appointed by the President after 'consulting' the CJI: It meant that the final decisions in matters of
appointment rested with the Council of Ministers.
● Status of the consultation with the Chief Justice in appointments:
⮚ It came up before the Supreme Court again and again between 1982 and 1998.
⮚ Initially, the court felt that the role of the Chief Justice was purely consultative.
⮚ Then it took the view that the opinion of the Chief Justice must be followed by the President.
⮚ Finally, the Supreme Court has come up with a novel procedure:
o It has suggested that the Chief Justice should recommend names of persons to be appointed in
consultation with four senior-most judges of the Court.
o The Supreme Court has established the principle of collegiality in making recommendations for
appointments.
o At the moment therefore, in matters of appointment the decision of the group of senior judges of
the Supreme Court carries greater weight.

Removal of Judges:
● Grounds of removal: Proven misbehaviour or Incapacity.
● A motion containing the charges against the judge must be approved by special majority in both
Houses of the Parliament.
● Balance of power: The Executive plays a crucial role while in making appointments whereas the
legislature has the powers of removal.
JUDICIARY

Structure of Judiciary:
The Constitution of India provides for:

45
 ● Single integrated judicial system: India does not have separate State courts like some other federal
countries of the world.
● It is pyramidal with the Supreme Court at the top, High Courts below them and district and
subordinate courts at the lowest level.
● The lower courts function under the direct superintendence of the higher courts.

Fig. 6.1: Structure of Judiciary

Jurisdiction of Supreme Court:

● The Supreme Court of India functions within the limitations imposed by the Constitution.
JUDICIARY

● The functions and responsibilities of the Supreme Court are defined by the Constitution.
● The Supreme Court has specific jurisdiction or scope of powers.

46
 Fig. 6.2: Jurisdiction of Supreme Court

Original Jurisdiction:
● It means cases that can be directly considered by the Supreme Court without going to the lower
courts before that.
● It is called original jurisdiction because the Supreme Court alone has the power to deal with such
cases. Neither the High Courts nor the lower courts can deal with such cases.
● In this capacity, the Supreme Court not just settles disputes but also interprets the powers of Union
and State government as laid down in the Constitution.
● It establishes Supreme Court as an umpire in all disputes regarding federal matters.
● In any federal country, legal disputes are bound to arise:
⮚ Between the Union and the States and
⮚ Among the States themselves.

Writ Jurisdiction:
● Any individual, whose fundamental right has been violated, can directly move the Supreme Court for
remedy. The Supreme Court can give special orders in the form of writs.
JUDICIARY

● The High Courts can also issue writs, but the persons whose rights are violated have the choice of
either approaching the High Court or approaching the Supreme Court directly.
● Through writs, the Court can give orders to the executive to act or not to act in a particular way.

47
Appellate Jurisdiction:
● Supreme Court is the Highest court of appeal:
⮚ A person can appeal to the Supreme Court against the decisions of the High Court.
⮚ High Court must certify that the case is fit for appeal and it involves a serious matter of
interpretation of law or Constitution.
● In criminal cases:
⮚ If the lower court has sentenced a person to death then an appeal can be made to the High Court or
Supreme Court.
⮚ The Supreme Court holds the powers to decide whether to admit appeals even when appeal is
not allowed by the High Court.
⮚ If the Court thinks that the law or the Constitution has a different meaning from what the lower
courts understood, then the Supreme Court will change the ruling and along with that also give
new interpretation of the provision involved.
● The High Courts too, have appellate jurisdiction over the decisions given by courts below them.

Advisory Jurisdiction:
● Advisory jurisdiction: The President of India can refer any matter that is of public importance or that
which involves interpretation of Constitution to Supreme Court for advice.
● The Supreme Court is not bound to give advice on such matters and the President is not bound to
accept such an advice.
● Utility of the advisory powers of the Supreme Court:
⮚ Prevent unnecessary litigation: It allows the government to seek legal opinion on a matter of
importance before acting on it. The government can make suitable changes in its action or
legislations as per advice.

Additional Information:
Article 137: The Supreme Court shall have power to review any judgment pronounced or order
made by it.
Article 144: All authorities, civil and judicial, in the territory of India shall act in aid of the Supreme
Court.

Other Powers:
● Unified nature of Judiciary: Decisions made by the Supreme Court are binding on all other courts within
the territory of India. Orders passed by it are enforceable throughout the country.
● The Supreme Court itself is not bound by its decision and can at any time review it.
● In case of contempt of the Supreme Court, the Supreme Court itself decides such a case.
JUDICIARY

Judicial Activism:
The judicial activism has flourished in India through PIL or Social Action Litigation (SAL.)

48
 Public Interest Litigation (PIL) or Social Action Litigation (SAL):
● In normal course of law:
⮚ An individual can approach the courts only if he/she has been personally aggrieved i.e., a person
whose rights have been violated, or who is involved in a dispute.
● Underwent a change around 1979:
⮚ In 1979, the Court set the trend when it decided to hear a case where the case was filed not by the
aggrieved persons but by others on their behalf.
⮚ As this case involved a consideration of an issue of public interest, it and such other cases came to
be known as public interest litigations. It led to many more such cases involving public interests.
● Judicial activism became popular description of judiciary: As Judiciary began considering many
cases merely based on newspaper reports and postal complaints received by the court.
● Expanded the idea of rights: Courts felt that individuals as parts of the society must have the right to
seek justice wherever rights like clean air, decent living, etc. were violated.
● Takes into consideration of rights of the underprivileged: The judiciary allowed public spirited
citizens, social organisations and lawyers to file petitions on behalf of the deprived.

Impact of Judicial activism on the political system:

● Democratized the Judicial system: It gives access of courts to not just individuals but also to groups.
● It has forced executive accountability.
● Attempted to make the electoral system free and fair: Like the court asked candidates contesting
elections to file affidavits indicating their assets and income so that the people could elect their
representatives based on accurate knowledge.

Negative side to the large number of PILs and the idea of a proactive judiciary:
● It has overburdened the courts.
● Disturbed the balance of power among organs of government:
⮚ The court has been involved in resolving questions which belong to the executive such as reducing
air or sound pollution or investigating cases of corruption etc.
⮚ May create strains on democratic principle: As democratic government is based on each organ of
government respecting the powers and jurisdiction of the others.

Judiciary and Rights:

The Constitution provides two ways in which the Supreme Court can remedy the violation of rights.
● Protection of Fundamental rights: It can restore fundamental rights by issuing writs (Article 32). The
High Courts also have the power to issue such writs (Article 226).
● Judicial Review: The Supreme Court can declare the concerned law as unconstitutional and therefore
JUDICIARY

non-operational (Article 13).

49
Judicial Review:
● It means the power of the Supreme Court (or High Courts) to examine the constitutionality of any
law if the Court arrives at the conclusion that the law is inconsistent with the provisions of the
Constitution, such a law is declared as unconstitutional and inapplicable.
● The term judicial review is nowhere mentioned in the Constitution.
● However, the fact that India has a written Constitution and the Supreme Court can strike down a law
that goes against fundamental rights, implicitly gives the Supreme Court the power of judicial
review.
● In the case of federal relations too, the Supreme Court can use the review powers if a law is
inconsistent with the distribution of powers laid down by the Constitution.
Together, the writ powers and the review power of the Courts make judiciary very powerful.

Judiciary and Parliament:

● The Indian Constitution is based on a delicate principle of limited separation of powers and checks
and balances.
⮚ Parliament: It is supreme in making laws and amending the Constitution.
⮚ Executive: It is supreme in implementing them.
⮚ Judiciary: It is supreme in settling disputes and deciding cases.
● The court has been active in seeking to prevent subversion of the Constitution through political
practice and brought powers of the President and Governor under the purview of the courts.
● Supreme Court actively involved itself in the administration of justice by giving directions to
executive agencies such as it gave directions to CBI to initiate investigations against politicians and
bureaucrats in the hawala case, the Narasimha Rao case, etc.

Tussle between the Parliament and the Judiciary

Major Issues: Over right to property and the Parliament's power to amend the Constitution.
● Immediately after the implementation of the Constitution:
⮚ The Parliament wanted to put some restrictions on the right to hold property for implementing land
reforms.
⮚ The Court held that the Parliament cannot thus restrict fundamental rights.
⮚ The Parliament then tried to amend the Constitution.
⮚ The Court said that a fundamental right cannot be abridged even through an amendment.
● Issues at the centre of the controversy:
⮚ Scope of Right to private property.
⮚ Scope of the Parliament's power to curtail, abridge or abrogate fundamental rights.
⮚ Scope of the Parliament's power to amend the constitution.
JUDICIARY

⮚ The power of Parliament to make laws that abridge fundamental rights while enforcing directive
principles.
● During the period - 1967 and 1973:

50
 ⮚ Apart from land reform laws, laws enforcing preventive detention, laws governing reservations in
jobs, regulations acquiring private property for public purposes etc. were some instances of the
conflict between the legislature and the judiciary.
● Keshavananda Bharati case (1973):
⮚ The Court ruled that there is a basic structure of the Constitution and nobody - not even the
Parliament (through amendment) - can violate the basic structure.
⮚ The Court did two more things:
o The court said that Right to Property (the disputed issue) was not part of basic structure.
o The Court reserved to itself the right to decide whether various matters are part of the basic
structure of the Constitution.
● The Right to property was taken away from the list of fundamental rights in 1979 and this also helped
in changing the nature of the relationship between these two organs of government.

Issues remaining as a bone of contention between the two:

These are about the scope of judiciary intervention “and regulation of” the functioning of the legislatures.
● In the parliamentary system, the legislature has the power to govern itself and regulate the behavior of
its members.
● The legislature can punish a person who it holds guilty of breaching privileges of the legislature.
● Issues:
⮚ About the protection of court available to person breaching parliamentary privileges.
⮚ About the protection from court available to a member of the legislature against whom the
legislature has taken disciplinary action.
● The Constitution provides that the conduct of judges cannot be discussed in the Parliament.
JUDICIARY

Fig. 6.3: Legal Services Authorities

51
 Interesting points

● The constitution of South Africa has incorporated public interest litigation in its bill of rights.
● Legal service day is celebrated on 9th November.
● Unsuccessful Attempt to Remove a Judge:
⮚ In 1991 the first-ever motion to remove a Supreme Court Justice - Justice V. Ramaswami,
was signed by 108 MPs. He was accused of misappropriating funds during his tenure as the
Chief Justice of the Punjab and Haryana High Court.
⮚ A high-profile inquiry commission consisting of Judges of the Supreme Court found him guilty
of willful and gross misuses of office.
⮚ Survived the parliamentary motion recommending removal: The motion got the required
two-thirds majority among the members who were present and voting, but the Congress
party abstained from voting and the motion could not get the support of one-half of the total
strength of the House.

Some Early PILs:

Hussainara Khatoon vs. Bihar case: In 1979, newspapers published reports about 'under trials'
in Bihar. This report prompted an advocate to file a petition.
Sunil Batra vs. Delhi Administration (1980): A prison inmate of the Tihar jail managed to send a
scribbled piece of paper to Justice Krishna Iyer of the Supreme Court narrating physical torture of
the prisoners. The judge got it converted into a petition.
Though later on, the Court abandoned the practice of considering letters.

JUDICIARY

52
 7 FEDERALISM
The map of India has changed dramatically over the years. Over a time, boundaries, names and the number of
States have changed and it has brought to forefront the issue of separation of powers between Union and
states.

Federalism
India as land of immense diversities:
● There are more than 20 major languages and several hundred minor ones.
● It is the home of several major religions.
● There are several million indigenous peoples living in different parts of the country.

Key ideas and concepts associated with federalism:

● Institutional mechanism to accommodate two sets of polities:
⮚ One at the regional level and the other at the national level. Each government is autonomous in its
own sphere.
⮚ There is a system of dual citizenship in some countries. India has only a single citizenship.
● People have two sets of identities and loyalties: They belong to the region as well as the nation and
each level of the polity has distinct powers and responsibilities. For example, one person is Gujarati or
Jharkhandi and Indian as well.
● The details of dual system are generally spelt out in a written constitution which is considered to be
supreme and which is also the source of the power of both sets of government.
⮚ Certain subjects such as defense, currency etc. which concern the nation are the responsibility of
the union government.
⮚ Regional or local matters are the responsibility of the regional or State government.
● There is an independent judiciary to prevent conflicts between the centre and the States.

Secessionist Tendency: If any single unit or State or linguistic group or ideology comes to dominate the
entire federation it could generate a deep resentment among people or its units not sharing the
dominant voice. These situations could lead to demands for secession by the aggrieved units or could
even result in civil wars.

Federalism in the Indian Constitution

Need:
● To give recognition to regional and linguistic diversity.
● To ensure democratic government in which diverse people had to share power nationally and
regionally.
FEDERALISM

The most important feature of the federal system adopted by the Indian Constitution is the principle that
relations between the States and the centre would be based on cooperation. Thus, while recognising
diversity, the Constitution emphasized unity.
The Constitution of India does not even mention the word federation. It describes India as

53
 ● Article 1:
⮚ (1) India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.
⮚ (2) The States and the territories thereof shall be as specified in the First Schedule.

Division of Powers:
● The Constitution created two sets of government:
⮚ One for the entire nation called the union government (central government).
⮚ One for each unit or State called the State government.
● Both of these have a constitutional status and clearly identified area of activity.
● If there is any dispute about which powers come under the control of the union and which under the
States, this can be resolved by the Judiciary on the basis of the constitutional provisions.

Distribution of Powers:
● The Constitution clearly demarcates subjects between union and states.
● The economic and financial powers are centralized in the hands of the central government.
● The States have immense responsibilities but very meagre revenue sources.

FEDERALISM

Fig. 7.1: Distribution of Power

54
 Federalism with Strong Central government:
The framers of the Constitution wanted to create a strong centre to stem disintegration and bring about
social and political change.

Reasons for strong central government:

● Concern of unity: India at the time of independence divided into provinces created by the British and
more than 500 princely states.
● Socio-economic problems: Poverty, illiteracy and inequalities of wealth were some of the problems
that required planning and coordination.

Important provisions for creating a strong central government:

● The very existence of a State including its territorial integrity is in the hands of Parliament.
⮚ The Parliament is empowered to 'form a new State by separation of territory from any State or by
uniting two or more States'.
⮚ It can also alter the boundary of any State or even its name.
● The Constitution has certain very powerful emergency provisions.
⮚ Power becomes lawfully centralized: They can turn the federal polity into a highly centralized
system once emergency is declared.
⮚ Parliament also assumes the power to make laws on state subjects.
● The central government has very effective financial powers and responsibilities during normal
circumstances.
⮚ Control of Central government over revenue generating items: The central government has many
revenue sources, and the States are mostly dependent on the grants and financial assistance from
the centre.
⮚ Adoption of planning as the instrument of Development after independence:
o Planning led to considerable centralisation of economic decision making.
o Planning Commission appointed by the Union government is the coordinating machinery that
controls and supervises the resources management of the States.
o Lopsided distribution: The Union government uses its discretion to give grants and loans to
States.
● Role of Governor:
⮚ He/she has certain powers to recommend dismissal of the State government and the dissolution
of the Assembly.
⮚ The Governor also has the power to reserve a bill passed by the State legislature, for the assent of
the President. This gives the central government an opportunity to delay the State legislation
FEDERALISM

and also to examine such bills and veto them completely.

● Central government legislating on matters in State list:
⮚ This is possible if the move is ratified by the Rajya Sabha.
⮚ The Constitution clearly states that executive powers of the centre are superior to the executive

55
 powers of the States.
⮚ The central government may choose to give instructions to the State government.

Article 257 (1): The executive power of every State shall be so exercised as not to impede or prejudice
the exercise of the executive power of the Union, and the executive power of the Union shall extend to
the giving of such directions to a State as may appear to the Government of India to be necessary for that
purpose.

● Integrated Administrative System:

⮚ The All-India Services are common to the entire territory of India and officers chosen for these
services serve in the administration of the States.
⮚ They are under the control of the central government. States can neither take disciplinary action
nor can they remove these officers from service.
● Articles 33 and 34:
⮚ They authorise the Parliament to protect persons in the service of the union or a state in respect of
any action taken by them during martial law to maintain or restore order.
⮚ The Armed Forces Special Powers Act has been made on the basis of these provisions.

Conflicts in India's Federal System:

From time to time, States have demanded that they should be given more powers and more autonomy. This
leads to tensions and conflicts in the relations between the centre and the States.

Centre-State Relations:
The Constitution is only a framework or a skeleton, its flesh and blood is provided by the actual processes of
politics. Hence federalism in India has to a large extent been influenced by the changing nature of the political
process.

● In the 1950s and early 1960s:

⮚ It was a period of Congress dominance over the centre and States and the relations remained
normal except on the issue of formation of new States.
⮚ The States expected progress with the help of the grants-in-aid from the centre.
● In the middle of the 1960s:
⮚ Increased demand for greater power and autonomy by states: As Congress dominance declined
and opposition parties came to power in many States. The States were protesting at the
unnecessary interference in their governments by the Central government.
FEDERALISM

⮚ The Congress was also not very comfortable with the idea of dealing with governments led by
opposition parties.
● Since the 1990s:
⮚ Coalition government: India have entered into an era of coalition politics especially at the centre. In

56
 the States too, different parties have come to power.
⮚ It resulted in a greater say for the States in respect for diversity and the beginning of a more mature
federalism.

Demands for Autonomy:

'Autonomy' refers to different things for different States and parties.
● More power to states: Sometimes they expect that the division of powers should be changed in favour
of the States and more powers and important powers be assigned to the States. It has been raised by
many States (Tamil Nadu) and many parties (DMK, Akali Dal, CPI-M).
● Financial autonomy: States should have independent sources of revenue and greater control over
the resources. For example - In 1977, the Left Front Government in West Bengal brought out a
document demanding a restructuring of centre-State relations in India.
● The third aspect of the autonomy demands relates to administrative powers of the States. States
resent the control of the centre over the administrative machinery.
● Autonomy demands may also be related to cultural and linguistic issues such as the opposition to
the domination of Hindi (in Tamil Nadu) or demand for advancing the Punjabi language and culture.

Role of Governors and President's Rule:

The role of Governors has always been a controversial issue between the States and the central government.
● The Governor is appointed by the central government and therefore, actions of the Governor are often
viewed as interference by the Central government in the functioning of the State government. When
two different parties are in power at the centre and the State, the role of the Governor becomes even
more controversial.
● Issue with Article 356 which provides for President's rule in any State:
⮚ This provision is to be applied, when 'a situation has arisen in which the Government of the State
cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution.'
⮚ It results in the takeover of the State government by the Union government.
⮚ The President's proclamation has to be ratified by Parliament.
⮚ President's rule can be extended till three years.
● Controversy:
⮚ The Governor has the power to recommend the dismissal of the State government and
suspension or dissolution of State assembly.
⮚ Sometimes State governments were dismissed even when they had a majority in the legislature or
without testing their majority. For example, in Kerala in 1959 etc. In some cases, the Supreme Court
ruled that the constitutional validity of the decision to impose President's rule can be examined.
FEDERALISM

The Sarkaria Commission that was appointed by the central government (1983; it submitted its report
in 1988) to examine the issues relating to centre-State relations, recommended that appointments of
Governors should be strictly non-partisan.

57
Demands for New States
Linguistic States:
● The national movement not only created a pan-Indian national unity; it also generated distinct unity
around a common language, region and culture.
● It was decided that as far as possible states would be created based on common cultural and
linguistic identity.
● It led to the demand for the creation of linguistic States after Independence.
The States Reorganisation Commission: It was set up in December 1953 and recommended the creation
of linguistic States, at least for the major linguistic groups. In 1956, reorganisation of some States took place.
● In 1960: Gujarat and Maharashtra were created.
● In 1966: Punjab and Haryana were separated from each other.
● In 2000: Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar were divided to create three new States:
Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand respectively to meet the demands for a separate State as
well as to meet the need for greater administrative efficiency.
● In 2014: The State of Telangana was formed by dividing Andhra Pradesh.
Some regions and groups are still struggling for separate Statehood like Vidarbha in Maharashtra.

Inter-state Conflicts
Broadly, two types of disputes keep recurring.
Border Dispute:
● States have certain claims over territories belonging to neighboring States.
● Though language is the basis of defining boundaries of the States but often border areas have
populations with more languages. So, it is not easy to resolve this dispute merely on the basis of
linguistic majority.
● Some longstanding border disputes:
⮚ Belgaum dispute between Maharashtra and Karnataka,
⮚ Manipur and Nagaland also have a long-standing border dispute.
⮚ Dispute on Chandigarh City between Haryana and Punjab: In 1985, the then Prime Minister Rajiv
Gandhi reached an understanding with the leadership of Punjab in which Chandigarh was to be
handed over to Punjab. But this has not happened yet.

Water Dispute:
● Rivers are a major resource and therefore disputes over river waters test the patience and cooperative
spirit of the States.
● Cauvery water dispute: This is a major issue between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
FEDERALISM

● Narmada water dispute: It is among Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Special Provisions:
● Though the Constitution provides a division of powers that is common to all the States, but it has some

58
 special provisions for some States given their peculiar social and historical circumstances.
● Most of the special provisions pertain to the north eastern States (Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram etc.)
largely due to their sizeable indigenous tribal population with a distinct history and culture.
● Special provisions also exist for hilly States like Himachal Pradesh and some other States like Andhra
Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra Sikkim and Telangana.

Jammu and Kashmir: It had a special status under Article 370 of Indian Constitution.

History of Jammu and Kashmir:

● It was one of the large princely States which had the option of joining India or Pakistan or remaining
independent.
● In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators from its side to capture Kashmir which forced the
Maharaja Hari Singh to ask for Indian help and acceded to the Indian Union.

Given greater autonomy:

J&K was an exception as most Muslim majority areas in the Western and Eastern parts joined Pakistan.

● According to Article 370, the central government had only limited powers and other powers listed in
the Union list and Concurrent list could be used only with the consent of the State.
● Earlier, there was a constitutional provision that allowed the President, with the concurrence of the
State government, to specify which parts of the Union list should apply to the State.
● The President had issued two Constitutional orders in concurrence with the government of J&K
making large parts of the Constitution applicable to the State. As a result, though J&K had a separate
Constitution and a flag, the Parliament's power to make laws on subjects in the Union List was fully
accepted.
● Other differences between the other States and the State of J&K:
⮚ No emergency due to internal disturbances could be declared in J&K without the concurrence of
the State.
⮚ The Union government could not impose a financial emergency in the State and the Directive
Principles did not apply in J&K.
⮚ Amendments to the Indian Constitution (under Article 368) could apply in concurrence with the
government of J&K.
At present, the special status given under Article 370 no longer exists.
FEDERALISM

● By the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act 2019, the State has been bifurcated into two Union
Territories viz., (i) Jammu and Kashmir and (ii) Ladakh.
● The new arrangement has come into effect from 31 October 2019.

59
 Interesting points

● The names of Mysore changed to Karnataka and Madras became Tamil Nadu.
● Break up of USSR: After 1989, it simply broke up into several independent countries as there was
excessive centralisation and concentration of power. Example- Uzbekistan.
● Canada came close to a break-up between the English-speaking and the French-speaking
regions.
● Federalism in West Indies:
⮚ In 1958, the federation of West Indies came into being which had a weak central government
and the economy of each unit was independent. These features and political competition
among the units led to the formal dissolution of the federation in 1962.
⮚ Later, in 1973 by Treaty of Chiguaramas, the independent islands established joint
authorities in the form of a common legislature, supreme court, a common currency, and, to a
degree, a common market known as the Caribbean Community.
● Federalism in Nigeria:
⮚ Till 1914, Northern and Southern Nigeria were two separate British colonies.
⮚ At the Ibadan Constitutional Conference of 1950, Nigerian leaders decided to form a federal
constitution.
⮚ In the 1960 constitution, both federal and regional governments jointly controlled the Nigerian
police.
⮚ In the military-supervised constitution of 1979, no state was allowed to have any civil police.
⮚ Though democracy was restored in Nigeria in 1999, religious differences along with conflicts
over who will control revenues from the oil resources continue to present problems before the
Nigerian federation.

FEDERALISM

60
 8 LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
In a democracy, it is not sufficient to have an elected government at the centre and at the State level. It is
necessary that even at the local level, there should be an elected government to look after the local affairs.

Local Government:
● Local government is government at the village and district level. It is about government closest to the
common people.
● It is about government that involves the day-to-day life and problems of ordinary citizens.
● Advantage: It is convenient for the people to approach the local government for solving their problems
both quickly and with minimum cost.

Local government and Democracy:

● Democracy is about meaningful participation and accountability. Strong and vibrant local
governments ensure both active participation and purposeful accountability.
● At level of local government: Common citizens can be involved in decision making concerning their
lives, their needs and above all their development.
● Local Government believes that local knowledge and local interest are essential ingredients for
democratic decision making. They are also necessary for efficient and people-friendly
administration.
● Strengthening local government means strengthening democratic processes: As the effect of local
government work has a direct bearing and impact on people's day-to-day life.

Growth of Local Government in India

● In Earliest times:
⮚ It is believed that self-governing village communities existed in the form of 'sabhas' (village
assemblies).
⮚ In the course of time, these village bodies took the shape of Panchayats (an assembly of five
persons) and these Panchayats resolved issues at the village level.
● During India's freedom movement:
⮚ Instrument of decentralization and participatory democracy: Mahatma Gandhi believed that
strengthening village panchayats was a means of effective decentralisation.
⮚ Need of decentralization of decision making: Leaders were concerned about the enormous
concentration of powers in the hands of the Governor General sitting at Delhi.
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

● In Modern times:
⮚ Elected local government bodies: They were created after 1882 when Lord Ripon was the Viceroy
of India. They were called the local boards, but their growth was slow.
⮚ The Indian National Congress urged the government to take necessary steps to make all local
bodies more effective.
⮚ Following the Government of India Act 1919, village panchayats were established in a number of
provinces. This trend continued after the Government of India Act of 1935.

61
The subject of local government in Constitution:
● It was assigned to the States and mentioned in the Directive Principles.
● It is felt that the subject of local government including panchayats did not receive adequate
importance in the Constitution because of following reasons:
⮚ Firstly, the turmoil due to the Partition resulted in a strong unitary inclination in the Constitution.
Nehru himself looked upon extreme localism as a threat to unity and integration of the nation.
⮚ Secondly, there was a powerful voice in the Constituent Assembly led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar which
felt that the faction and caste-ridden nature of rural society would defeat the noble purpose of
local government at the rural level.

Local Governments in Independent India:

Earlier efforts to develop local government bodies:
● Community Development Programme (1952): It sought to promote people's participation in local
development in a range of activities. A three-tier Panchayati Raj system of local government was
recommended for the rural areas.
● Some States (like Gujarat, Maharashtra) adopted the system of elected local bodies around 1960 but in
many States those local bodies did not have enough powers.

Issues with earlier local government:

● They were very much dependent on the State and central governments for financial assistance.
● Many States did not think it necessary to establish elected local bodies.
● Local bodies were dissolved and the local government was handed over to government officers.
● Many States had indirect elections to most local bodies.
● In many States, elections to the local bodies were postponed from time to time.

In late 1980's:
● In 1989, the P.K.Thungon Committee recommended constitutional recognition for the local
government bodies.
● A constitutional amendment to provide for periodic elections to local government institutions, and
enlistment of appropriate functions to them, along with funds, was recommended.

73rd and 74th Amendments:

LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

● In 1989, the central government introduced two constitutional amendments aimed at strengthening
local governments and ensuring an element of uniformity in their structure.
● Later in 1992, the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments were passed by the Parliament.
● The 73rd Amendment is about rural local governments (which are also known as Panchayati Raj
Institutions or PRIs) and the 74th amendment is about urban local government (Nagarpalikas).
● The 73rd and 74th Amendments came into force in 1993.
● Local government is a 'State subject 'and States are free to make their own laws on this subject.

62
 ● But once the Constitution was amended, the States had to change their laws about local bodies in
order to bring these in conformity with the amended Constitution.
● They were given one year's time for making necessary changes in their respective State laws in the
light of these amendments.

73rd Amendment
Three Tier Structure:
● All States have a uniform three tier Panchayati Raj structure.
⮚ At the base is the 'Gram Panchayat' which covers a village or group of villages.
⮚ The intermediary level is the Mandal (also referred to as Block or Taluka). These bodies are called
Mandal or Taluka Panchayats. They need not be constituted in smaller States.
⮚ At the apex is the Zila Panchayat covering the entire rural area of the District.
● It also made a provision for the mandatory creation of the Gram Sabha which would comprise all the
adult members registered as voters in the Panchayat area.
● The role and functions of Gram Sabha are decided by State legislation.

Elections:
● All the three levels of Panchayati Raj institutions are elected directly by the people.
● The term of each Panchayat body is five years.
● If the State government dissolves the Panchayat before the end of its five-year term, fresh elections
must be held within six months of such dissolution.

Reservations:
● For women: One third of the positions in all panchayat institutions are reserved.
● For SC and ST: Reservations are provided at all the three levels, in proportion to their population.
● For OBCs: They can be provided if the States find it necessary.
● Reservations apply not merely to ordinary members in Panchayats but also to the positions of
Chairpersons or 'Adhyakshas' at all the three levels.
● Reservation of one-third of the seats for women is not merely in the general category of seats but
also within the seats reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and backward castes.
● A seat may be reserved simultaneously for a woman candidate and one belonging to the Scheduled
Castes or Scheduled Tribes. Thus, that would have to be a Dalit woman or an Adivasi woman.
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

Transfer of Subjects:
● Twenty-nine subjects, which were earlier in the State list of subjects, are identified and listed in the
Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution. These subjects are to be transferred to the Panchayati Raj
institutions.
● Actual transfer depends upon the State legislation: Each State decides how many of these twenty-
nine subjects would be transferred to the local bodies.

63
 Article 243G: Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats—………, the Legislature of a State
may, by law, endow the Panchayats with such powers and authority……. …with respect to—…...the
matters listed in the Eleventh Schedule.

● The provisions of the 73rd amendment was not made applicable to the areas inhabited by the
Adivasi populations in many States of India. In 1996, a separate Act was passed extending the
provisions of the Panchayat system to these areas.
● More powers to Gram Sabhas: The new Act protect the rights of these communities to manage their
resources in ways acceptable to them. The elected village panchayats have to get the consent of the
Gram Sabha in many respects.

LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

Fig. 8.1: Some Subjects listed in the Eleventh Schedule

State Election Commissioners:

● The State government is required to appoint a State Election Commissioner who would be
responsible for conducting elections to the Panchayati Raj institutions.
● Earlier, this was performed by the State administration under the control of the State government.

64
 ● Autonomous office: The State Election Commissioner is an independent officer and is not linked to
nor is this officer under the control of the Election Commission of India.

State Finance Commission:

● The State government is required to appoint a State Finance Commission once in five years.
● It would examine the financial position of the local governments in the State.
● It would also review the distribution of revenues between the State and local governments on the
one hand and between rural and urban local governments on the other. This innovation ensures that
allocation of funds to the rural local governments will not be a political matter.

74th Amendment:
● Urban area: The Census of India defines an urban area as having:
⮚ A minimum population of 5,000.
⮚ At least 75 per cent of male working population engaged in non-agricultural occupations.
⮚ A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.
⮚ As per the 2011 Census, about 31% of India's population lives in urban areas.
● All the provisions of the 73rd amendment relating to direct elections, reservations, State Election
Commission and State Finance Commission are included in the 74th amendment.
● The Constitution also mandated the transfer of a list of functions from the State government to the
urban local bodies in the Twelfth Schedule of the Constitution.

Implementation of 73rd and 74th Amendments:

● All States have now passed a legislation to implement the provisions of the 73rd and 74th
amendments.
● Today there are more than 600 Zilla Panchayats, about 6,000 block or intermediary Panchayats, and
2,40,000 Gram Panchayats in rural India and over 100 city Corporations, 1400 town Municipalities
and over 2000 Nagar Panchayats in urban India.
● Representatives: More than 32 lakh members are elected to these bodies every five years. Of these, at
least 13 lakhs are women.
● Position of Women:
⮚ Reservation for women at the Panchayats and Nagarpalikas has ensured the presence of a
significant number of women in local bodies.
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

⮚ They even occupy the positions of Sarpanch and Adhyaksha.

⮚ There are at least 200 women Adhyakshas in Zilla Panchayats, another 2000 women who are
Presidents of the block or taluka panchayats and more than 80,000 women Sarpanchas in Gram
Panchayats.
⮚ There are more than 30 women Mayors in Corporations, over 500 women Adhyakshas of Town
Municipalities and nearly 650 Nagar Panchayats headed by women.
● Position of OBCs: Most States have also made a provision to reserve seats for Backward Castes.

65
 ● Position of SC and ST: There are about 6.6 lakh elected members in the urban and local bodies.

Issues with local governments:

● Struggle for power: The dominant social groups earlier controlling the village do not wish to give up
their power.
● In many cases, women were unable to assert their presence or were mere proxies for the male
members of their family who sponsored their election.
● Limited autonomy: Many States have not transferred most of the subjects to the local bodies which
means that the local bodies cannot really function in an effective manner.
● Some people criticize the formation of the local bodies because this has not changed the way in which
decisions are taken at the central and the State level.
● Very little funds of their own: The dependence of local bodies on the State and central governments
for financial support has greatly eroded their capacity to operate effectively. While rural local bodies
raise 0.24% of the total revenues collected, they account for 4% of the total expenditure made by the
government.

Interesting points

● “The independence of India should mean the independence of the whole of India…Independence
must begin at the bottom” - Mahatma Gandhi.
● The Indian population has 16.2 per cent Scheduled Castes and 8.2 per cent Scheduled Tribes.
● The Brazil Constitution has created States, Federal Districts and Municipal Councils and states
are prohibited from interfering in the affairs of the municipal councils.
● Democratic decentralization in Bolivia: It is cited as one of the most successful cases of
democratic decentralisation in Latin America.
⮚ In 1994, the Popular Participation Law decentralised power to the local level, allowing for the
popular election of mayors, dividing the country into municipalities, and crafting a system of
automatic fiscal transfers to the new municipalities.
⮚ Bolivian local governments have been entrusted with building local health and education
facilities, as well as maintenance of this infrastructure.
⮚ In Bolivia, 20% of nationwide tax collections are distributed among municipalities on a per
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

capita basis.

66
 9 CONSTITUTION AS A
LIVING DOCUMENT
India has managed to be governed by the same constitution from last 70 years. The Indian Constitution have
been amended according to the needs of the time. Though many such amendments have already taken
place, the Constitution has remained intact and its basic premises have not changed.

The Constitution is a document that keeps evolving and responding to changing situations.
● The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949.
● Its implementation formally started from 26 January 1950.
● Very robust Constitution: The basic framework of the Constitution is very much suited India.
● The Constitution makers were very farsighted and provided for solutions for future situations.

Factors making Constitution - A living document:

● Our Constitution accepts the necessity of modifications as per changing needs of the society.
● Secondly, in the actual working of the Constitution, there has been enough flexibility of
interpretations. Both political practice and judicial rulings have shown maturity and flexibility in
implementing the Constitution.

These factors have made our Constitution a living document rather than a closed and static rulebook.

Dual role of the Constitution:

● The constitution reflects the dreams and aspirations of the concerned society.
● The constitution is a framework for the democratic governance of the society. In this sense, it is an
instrument that societies create for themselves.

Indian Constitution – Not a static document:

● The Constitution makers placed the Constitution above ordinary law and expected that the future
generations will respect this document.
CONSTITUTION AS A LIVING DOCUMENT

● At the same time, they recognised that in the future, this document may require modifications.
Whenever society would veer toward any opinion, a change in the constitutional provisions would be
required.
● Thus, it is a combination of both the approaches mentioned above: that the constitution is a sacred
document and that it is an instrument that may require changes from time to time.

Amendment of the Constitution:

Article 368: …Parliament may in exercise of its constituent power amend by way of addition,
variation or repeal any provision of this Constitution in accordance with the procedure laid down in
this article.

● Open to change: A constitution that can be very easily changed or modified is often called flexible.
● Resistant to change: Constitutions which are very difficult to amend and described as rigid.

67
The Indian Constitution combines both these characteristics.
● Balance between 'flexible' and 'rigid': The Constitution must be amended if so required but it must be
protected from unnecessary and frequent changes.
● Not free of errors: The Constitution makers were aware that there may be some faults or mistakes in
the Constitution. They wanted the Constitution to be easily amended to remove them.
● Some temporary provisions: It was decided that these could be altered later once the new Parliament
was elected.
● About federal powers: They could not be changed without the consent of the States.
● Some other features were so central to the spirit of the Constitution that the Constitution makers
were anxious to protect these from change. These provisions had to be made rigid.
● These considerations led to different ways of amending the Constitution.

Fig. 9.1: Amendment Procedure in Constitution

CONSTITUTION AS A LIVING DOCUMENT

There are many Articles in the Constitution, which mention that these Articles can be amended by a
simple law of the Parliament.
● Flexible Parts of the Constitution: No special procedure for amendment is required in such cases and
there is no difference at all between an amendment and an ordinary law. For example,
● Article 2: Parliament may by law admit into the union …..new states….
● Article 3: Parliament may by law… b) increase the area of any state….
In above cases, the wording 'by law' indicates that these articles can be modified by the Parliament without
recourse to the procedure laid down in Article 368. Many other articles of the Constitution can be modified
by the Parliament in this simple manner.
● Article 368 provides for amending the remaining parts of the Constitution. Here there are two
methods of amending the Constitution and they apply to two different sets of articles of the
Constitution.

68
 ⮚ Amendment can be made by special majority of the two Houses of the Parliament.
⮚ It requires special majority of the Parliament and consent of half of the State legislatures.

Important points regarding amendments to the Constitution:

● Besides the special majority in the Parliament, no outside agency like a constitution commission or a
separate body is required for amending the Constitution.
● After the passage in the Parliament and in some cases, in State legislatures, no referendum is required
for ratification of the amendment.
● An amendment bill goes to the President for his assent and here the President has no powers to send
it back for reconsideration.
● Important principle: Sovereignty of elected representatives (parliamentary sovereignty) is the basis
of the amendment procedure.

Special Majority:
Amendment to the Constitution requires two different kinds of special majorities:
● Those voting in favour should constitute at least half of the total strength of that House.
● The supporters of the amendment bill must also constitute two-thirds of those who actually take part
in voting.
● Both Houses of the Parliament must pass the amendment bill separately in this same manner (there
is no provision for a joint session).
● Significance: Unless there is sufficient consensus over the proposed amendment, it cannot be passed.
It should be based on broad support among the political parties and parliamentarians.

Ratification by States:
For some Articles of the Constitution, special majority is not sufficient. For example,
● When an amendment aims to modify an Article related to distribution of powers between the States
CONSTITUTION AS A LIVING DOCUMENT

and the central government, or articles related to representation, it is necessary that the States must
be consulted and that they give their consent.
● Ensuring federal nature: Legislatures of half the States have to pass the amendment bill before the
amendment comes into effect.
● It also respects the States and gives them participation in the process of amendment.
● This procedure is somewhat flexible even in its more rigid format: consent of only half the States is
required and simple majority of the State legislature is sufficient.
Therefore, the Indian Constitution can be amended through large-scale consensus and limited participation
of the States.

Reasons for so many amendments:

Till 2019, Constitution of India has been amended 103 times.

69
 Fig. 9.2: Amendments per decade

Fig. 9.3: Years taken for every ten amendment

Brief history of the amendments:

CONSTITUTION AS A LIVING DOCUMENT

● The first graph indicates that the two decades from 1970 to 1990 saw a large number of
amendments.
● On the other hand, the second graph tells that ten amendments took place between a short span of
three years between 1974 and 1976 and again from 2001 to 2003, ten amendments took place.
● The period between 2001 and 2003 was a period marked by coalition politics and was a period when
different parties were in power in different States.
● There is always a criticism about the number of amendments. It is said that there have been far too
many amendments to the Constitution of India.

Contents of Amendments made so far:

Amendments made so far may be classified in three groups.
● In the first group there are amendments, which are of a technical or administrative nature and were
only clarifications, explanations, and minor modifications etc. of the original provisions.

70
 ● They are amendments only in the legal sense and made no substantial difference to the provisions. For
example - 15th amendment that increased the age of retirement of High Court judges from 60 to 62
years or 54th amendment that increased the salaries of judges of High Courts and the Supreme Court.

Additional Information:
In the original Constitution, it was assumed that in our parliamentary government, the President
would normally abide by the advice of the Council of Ministers.
This was only reiterated by a later amendment when Article 74 (1) was amended to clarify that the
advice of the Council of Ministers will be binding on the President. The amendment was only by
way of explanation.

Differing Interpretations:
Several amendments are a product of different interpretations of the Constitution given by the judiciary
and the government of the day.
● When these clashed, the Parliament had to insert an amendment underlining one particular
interpretation as the authentic one.
● Many times, the Parliament did not agree with the judicial interpretation and therefore, sought to
amend the Constitution to overcome the ruling of the judiciary. In the period between 1970 and 1975
this situation arose frequently.
● For example - Issues on the relationship between fundamental rights and directive principles.

Amendments through Political Consensus:

Some amendments have been made as a result of the consensus among the political parties.
● This consensus made it necessary that some changes had to be made in order to reflect the prevailing
political philosophy and aspirations of the society.
● In fact, many of the amendments of the post-1984 period are instances of this trend.
CONSTITUTION AS A LIVING DOCUMENT

● For example - Anti-defection Amendment (52nd amendment), the 61st amendment bringing down
the minimum age for voting from 21 to 18 years, the 73rd and the 74th amendments, etc.

Controversial Amendments:
● Amendments during the period of 1970-1980: They generated a lot of legal and political controversy.
These were the attempts by the ruling party to subvert the Constitution.
● For example - 38th, 39th and 42nd amendments were made in the background of internal emergency
declared in the country from June 1975.
● The 42nd Amendment:
⮚ It was seen as a wide-ranging amendment affecting large parts of the Constitution.
⮚ It was also an attempt to override the ruling of the Kesavananda case.
⮚ Even the duration of the Lok Sabha was extended from five to six years.
⮚ Fundamental Duties were included in the Constitution by this amendment act.

71
 ⮚ It also put restrictions on the review powers of the Judiciary.
⮚ At that time, it was said that this amendment was practically a rewriting of many parts of the original
Constitution.
The new government after 1977 elections thought it necessary to reconsider these controversial
amendments and through the 43rd and 44th amendments, cancelled most of the changes that were
affected by the 38th, 39th and the 42nd amendments.

Basic Structure and Evolution of the Constitution:

The Judiciary advanced the theory of the basic structure of the Constitution in the famous case of
Kesavananda Bharati. This ruling has contributed to the evolution of the Constitution in the following ways:
● It has set specific limits to Parliament's power to amend the Constitution. It says that no amendment
can violate the basic structure of the Constitution.
● It allows Parliament to amend any and all parts of the Constitution (within this limitation).
● It places the Judiciary as the final authority in deciding if an amendment violates basic structure and
what constitutes the basic structure.
The Kesavananda ruling (1973) of the Supreme Court has governed all interpretations of the Constitution.
● In fact, the theory of basic structure is itself an example of a living constitution.
● There is no mention of this theory in the Constitution.
● It has emerged from judicial interpretation. Thus, the Judiciary and its interpretation have practically
amended the Constitution without a formal amendment.
● Since 1973, the Court has, in many cases, elaborated upon this theory of basic structure and given
instances of what constitutes the basic structure of the Constitution of India.
● Examples of how judicial interpretation changed our understanding of the Constitution.
⮚ The decisions of the Supreme Court that the reservations in jobs and educational institutions
cannot exceed fifty per cent of the total seats. This has now become an accepted principle.
⮚ The Supreme Court introduced the idea of creamy layer (in Indira Sawhaney v. Union of India, 1992

CONSTITUTION AS A LIVING DOCUMENT

case) involving reservations for other backward classes.

Constitution as a living document:

● Almost like a living being, this document keeps responding to the situations and circumstances
arising from time to time.
● Durability of the Constitution: Even after so many changes in the society, the Constitution continues
to work effectively because of this ability to be dynamic, to be open to interpretations and the ability
to respond to the changing situation.
● A constitution, which protects democracy and yet allows for evolution of new practices becomes not
only durable but also the object of respect from the citizens.

Protection of democracy and constitution by Constitution itself:

72
 ● In terms of constitutional-legal issues, the most serious question that came up again and again from
1950 was about the supremacy of the Parliament.
● In a parliamentary democracy, the Parliament represents the people and therefore, it is expected to
have an upper hand over both Executive and Judiciary.
● At the same time, there is the text of the Constitution and it has given powers to other organs of the
government.
● Therefore, the supremacy of the Parliament has to operate within this framework.
● Democracy is not only about votes and people's representation. It is also about the principle of rule of
law.
● Democracy is also about developing institutions and working through these institutions. All the
political institutions must be responsible to the people and maintain a balance with each other.

Contribution of the Judiciary:

● During the controversy between the Judiciary and the Parliament:
⮚ The Parliament thought that it had the power and responsibility to make laws (and amendments)
for furthering the interests of the poor, backward and the needy.
⮚ The Judiciary insisted that all this has to take place within the framework provided by the
Constitution and pro-people measures should not bypass legal procedures.
● The Judiciary, in its famous Kesavananda ruling found a way out of the existing complications by
turning to the spirit of the Constitution rather than its letter.
● Acceptance of this doctrine by all other institutions:
⮚ The Court concluded that in reading a text or document, one must respect the intent behind that
document.
⮚ A mere text of the law is less important than the social circumstances and aspirations that have
produced that law or document.
CONSTITUTION AS A LIVING DOCUMENT

Maturity of the Political Leadership:

● After the Supreme Court gave the ruling in the Kesavananda case, some attempts were made to ask
the Court to reconsider its ruling.
● Parliamentary supremacy was asserted through 42nd amendment.
● Minerva Mills Case (1980): The Court had repeated its earlier stand.
● Therefore, even four decades after the ruling in the Kesavananda case, this ruling has dominated our
interpretation of the Constitution.
● Political parties, the government and Parliament accepted the idea of inviolable basic structure.
● Even when there was talk about 'review' of the Constitution, that exercise could not cross the limits set
by the theory of the basic structure.

73
 Interesting points

● The Soviet Union had four Constitutions in its life of 74 years (1918, 1924, 1936 and 1977).
● In 1991, the rule of the Communist Party of Soviet Union came to an end.
● The newly formed Russian federation adopted a new constitution in 1993.
● The US Constitution has been amended only 27 times.
● Two principles dominating the various procedures of amending the constitutions in most modern
constitutions.
⮚ Principle of special majority: For example - The constitutions of U.S., South Africa, Russia.
⮚ People's participation in the process of amending the constitution: For example - In
Switzerland, people can even initiate an amendment.
● In the year 2000, a commission to review the working of the Constitution was appointed by the
Government of India under the chairmanship of a retired Chief Justice of the Supreme Court,
Justice Venkatachaliah.
● Leaders and people share a common vision of India when the Constitution was made. In Nehru's
famous speech at the time of independence, this vision was described as a tryst with destiny.
● France had numerous constitutions in the last two centuries:
⮚ After the revolution and during the Napoleonic period, France underwent continuous
experimentation about a constitution: The post-revolution constitution of 1793 is called the
period of the first French republic.
⮚ Then commenced the second French republic in 1848.
⮚ The third French republic was formed with a new constitution in 1875.
⮚ In 1946, with a new constitution, the fourth French republic came into being.
⮚ Finally, in 1958, the fifth French republic came into being with yet another constitution.

CONSTITUTION AS A LIVING DOCUMENT

74
 10 CONSTITUTION
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE

The Constitution consists of laws and laws are not just about legalistic approach. It has a moral content also
which are closely connected to our deeply held values. For example, a law might prohibit discrimination of
persons on grounds of language or religion. Such a law is connected to the idea of equality.

Political philosophy approach of the Constitution:

● Everyone must need to understand the conceptual structure of the Constitution. People must ask
about the possible meanings of terms used in the Constitution such as 'rights', 'citizenship', 'minority'
etc.
● Every person must attempt to work out a coherent vision of society and polity conditional upon an
interpretation of the key concepts of the Constitution. Everyone must have a better grasp of the set of
ideals embedded in the Constitution.
● The Indian Constitution must be read in conjunction with the Constituent Assembly Debates in
order to refine and raise to a higher theoretical plane, the justification of values embedded in the
Constitution.

Constitution as a Means of Democratic Transformation:

● Experience of state power over the world shows that most states are prone to harming the interests of
at least some individuals and groups. Constitutions provide the basic rules and therefore, prevent
states from turning tyrannical.
● They also provide peaceful and democratic means to bring about social transformation.
● It announces and embody the first real exercise of political self-determination.
● It empowers those who traditionally have been deprived of it.

Nehru on Constituent Assembly:

The demand for a Constituent Assembly represented a collective demand for full self-
determination because only a Constituent Assembly of elected representatives of the Indian
people had the right to frame India's constitution without external interference.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CONSTITUTION

The Constituent Assembly is not just a body of people or a gathering of able lawyers. Rather, it is a
'nation on the move, throwing away the shell of its past political and possibly social structure, and
fashioning for itself a new garment of its own making.' The Indian Constitution was designed to
break the shackles of traditional social hierarchies and to usher in a new era of freedom, equality
and justice.

Need to go back to the Constituent Assembly:

● In short, to get a handle on current constitutional practice, to grasp their value and meaning, we may
have no option but to go back in time to the Constituent Assembly debates and perhaps even further
back in time to the colonial era. Therefore, we need to remember and keep revisiting the political
philosophy underlying our Constitution.
Political Philosophy of our Constitution:
● It is hard to describe this philosophy in one word. It resists any single label because it is liberal,

75
 democratic, egalitarian, secular, and federal, open to community values and committed to building a
common national identity.
● It is committed to freedom, equality, social justice, and some form of national unity.
● There is a clear emphasis on peaceful and democratic measures for putting this philosophy into
practice.

Individual freedom:
● It was the product of continuous intellectual and political activity of well over a century.
● At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Rammohan Roy protested against curtailment of the
freedom of the press by the British colonial state.
● Roy argued that a state responsive to the needs of individuals must provide them the means by which
their needs are communicated. Therefore, the state must permit unlimited liberty of publication.
● Freedom of expression and freedom from arbitrary arrest are an integral part of the Indian
Constitution.
● The Rowlatt Act sought to deny this basic freedom. These and other individual freedoms such as
freedom of conscience are part of the liberal ideology.
● It might be recalled that for over forty years before the adoption of the Constitution, every single
resolution, scheme, bill and report of the Indian National Congress mentioned individual rights, not just
in passing but as a non-negotiable value.

Social Justice:
● The liberal in Indian Constitution do not mean that it is liberal only in the classical western sense.
● Classical liberalism always privileges rights of the individuals over demands of social justice and
community values.
● The liberalism of the Indian Constitution differs from this version in two ways:
⮚ Always linked to social justice: Example - The provision for reservations for Scheduled Castes and

THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CONSTITUTION

Scheduled Tribes in the Constitution. The mere granting of the right to equality was not enough to
overcome age-old injustices suffered by them.
⮚ Special constitutional measures to advance their interests: The constitution makers provided
several special measures to protect the interests of SC and ST such as the reservation of seats in
legislatures. The Constitution also made it possible for the government to reserve public sector jobs
for these groups.

According to K.M Panikkar, Indian liberalism has two streams:

● The first stream began with Rammohan Roy. He emphasised individual rights, particularly the
rights of women.
● The second stream included thinkers like K.C. Sen, Justice Ranade and Swami Vivekananda. They
introduced the spirit of social justice within orthodox Hinduism. For Vivekananda, such a reordering
of Hindu society could not have been possible without liberal principles.

76
 Respect for diversity and minority rights:
● The Indian Constitution encourages equal respect between communities.
● This was not easy in India:
⮚ First because communities do not always have a relationship of equality; they tend to have
hierarchical relationships with one another (as in the case of caste).
⮚ Second, when these communities do see each other as equals, they also tend to become rivals (as
in the case of religious communities).
● Recognition of community-based rights:
⮚ Individuals everywhere belong to cultural communities and every such community has its own
values, traditions, customs, and language shared by its members.
⮚ People are different when they more openly acknowledged the value of communities.
⮚ It is important to ensure that no one community systematically dominates others. This made it
mandatory for our Constitution to recognise community-based rights.
● Constitution respecting different religious communities and their rights: Example - Right of religious
communities to establish and run their own educational institutions. Such institutions may receive
money from the government.

Secularism:
● The term 'secular' was not initially mentioned but the Indian Constitution has always been secular.
● The western conception of secularism means mutual exclusion of state and religion in order to protect
values such as individual freedom and citizenship rights of individuals.

'Mutual exclusion': Both religion and state must stay away from the internal affairs of one another.
They must be strictly separated.

Western Concept of Secularism:

● Purpose behind strict separation: It is to safeguard the freedom of individuals.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CONSTITUTION

● In short, states should neither help nor hinder religions. Instead, they should keep themselves at an
arm's length from them. This has been the prevalent western conception of secularism.

The Constitution makers had to work out an alternative concept of secularism as conditions in India are
different. They departed from the western model in two ways and for two different reasons:
● Rights of Religious Groups:
⮚ Intercommunity equality was as necessary as equality between individuals because a person's
freedom and sense of self-respect was directly dependent upon the status of her community.
⮚ If one community was dominated by another, then its members would also be significantly less free.
⮚ If, on the other hand, their relations were equal, marked by an absence of domination, then its
members would also walk about with dignity, self-respect and freedom.
⮚ The Indian Constitution grants rights to all religious communities such as the right to establish and
maintain their educational institutions.

77
 ⮚ Freedom of religion in India means the freedom of religion of both individuals and communities.
● State's Power of Intervention:
⮚ Separation in India could not mean mutual exclusion: Because religiously sanctioned customs
such as untouchability were so deeply rooted that it was not possible to remove them without active
state intervention.
⮚ Intervention was not always negative: The state could also help religious communities by giving
aid to educational institutions run by them.
⮚ Thus, the state may help or hinder religious communities depending on which mode of action
promotes values such as freedom and equality.
⮚ In India separation between religion and state did not mean their mutual exclusion but rather
principled distance, a rather complex idea that allows the state to be distant from all religions so
that it can intervene or abstain from interference, depending upon which of these two would better
promote liberty, equality and social justice.
There are hitherto three core features which can also be seen as the achievements of our Constitution:
● Our Constitution reinforces and reinvents forms of liberal individualism. This is done in the backdrop
of a society where community values are often indifferent or hostile to individual autonomy.
● Our Constitution upholds the principle of social justice without compromising on individual liberties.
The constitutional commitment to caste-based affirmative action programme shows how much ahead
India was compared to other nations.
● The Constitution upholds its commitment to group rights (the right to the expression of cultural
particularity) against the background of inter-communal strife.

Universal Franchise:
● Indian nationalism always conceived of a political order based on the will of every single member of
society.
● The idea of universal franchise lay securely within the heart of nationalism.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CONSTITUTION

● Constitution of India Bill (1895): The first non-official attempt at drafting a constitution for India, the
author declared that every citizen, i.e., anyone born in India, had a right to take part in the affairs of the
country and be admitted to public office.
● Motilal Nehru Report (1928): It reaffirms this conception of citizenship, reiterating that every person
of either sex who has attained the age of twenty-one is entitled to vote for the House of
Representatives or Parliament.

Federalism:
● The Indian federalism has been constitutionally asymmetric.
● By introducing the Article concerning North-East (Art. 371), the Indian Constitution anticipates the
very important concept of asymmetric federalism.
● Under Article 371A, the privilege of special status was also accorded to the North-Eastern State of
Nagaland.

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 ● India is now a multi-lingual federation as each major linguistic group is politically recognised and all
are treated as equals.
● Thus, the democratic and linguistic federalism of India has managed to combine claims to unity with
claims to cultural recognition.

National Identity:
● The Constitution constantly reinforces a common national identity.
● This common national identity was not incompatible with distinct religious or linguistic identities. The
Indian Constitution tried to balance these various identities.
● Preference was given to common identity under certain conditions which is clarified in the debate
over separate electorates based on religious identity which the Constitution rejects.
● Separate electorates were rejected because they endangered a healthy national life.
● Our Constitution sought to evolve true fraternity. As Sardar Patel put it, the main objective was to
evolve 'one community'.

Procedural Achievements:
● The Indian Constitution reflects a faith in political deliberation:
⮚ Many groups and interests were not adequately represented in the Constituent Assembly.
⮚ But the debates in the Assembly amply show that the makers of the Constitution wanted to be as
inclusive in their approach as possible.
● It reflects a spirit of compromise and accommodation:
⮚ Compromise and accommodation should not always be seen with disapproval. Not all
compromises are bad.
⮚ If one value is partially traded off for another value in an open process of free deliberation among
equals, then the compromise arrived in this manner can hardly be objected to.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CONSTITUTION

Criticisms:
The Indian Constitution can be subjected to three criticisms:
It is unwieldy:
● Assumption: The entire constitution of a country must be found in one compact document.
● A country's constitution is to be identified with a compact document and with other written
documents with constitutional status. It is possible to find important constitutional statements and
practices outside one compact document.
● In the case of India, many such details, practices and statements are included in one single document
and this has made that document somewhat large.
● For example - many countries do not have provisions for Election Commission in the constitution but
in India, many such matters are attended to by the Constitutional document itself.

79
It is unrepresentative:
● Reason: The questions were raised on the formation of the Constituent Assembly as at that time adult
franchise was not granted.
● There is need to distinguish two components of representation - one that might be called voice and
the other opinion.
● Voice component: People must be recognised in their own language or voice, not in the language of
the masters.
● Reading Constituent Assembly debates: A vast range of issues and opinions were mentioned,
members raised matters not only based on their individual social concerns but based on the perceived
interests and concerns of various social sections as well.

It is alien to our conditions:

● Criticism: The Indian Constitution is entirely borrowed article by article from western constitutions
and sits uneasily with the cultural ethos of the Indian people.
● It is true that the Indian Constitution is modern and partly western. But it was never a blind borrowing.
It was innovative borrowing because:
⮚ Many Indians have adopted modern ways of thinking and made these their own:
o Westernisation became a form of protest against the filth in their own tradition.
o Rammohan Roy started this trend and it is continued to this day by Dalits.
o As early as 1841, it was noticed that the Dalit people of northern India were not afraid to use the
newly introduced legal system against their landlords.
o This new instrument of modern law was effectively adopted by the people to address questions
of dignity and justice.
⮚ Hybrid culture began to emerge:
o It emerged when western modernity began to interact with local cultural systems possibly by
creative adaptation.
o It has the character of a different, alternative modernity.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CONSTITUTION

o In non-western societies, different modernities emerged as non-western societies tried to break
loose not only from their own past practices but also from the shackles of a particular version of
western modernity imposed on them.
o Efforts were made to amalgamate western and traditional Indian values.

Limitations:
The Constitution of India is not a perfect and flawless document. There are many limitations to this
Constitution. Some of them are:
● It has a centralised idea of national unity.
● It appears to have glossed over some important issues of gender justice, particularly within the
family.
● It is not clear why in a poor developing country, certain basic socio-economic rights were relegated to
the section on Directive Principles rather than made an integral feature of our fundamental rights.

80
 Interesting points

● The Japanese Constitution of 1947:

⮚ Philosophy is based on Idea of Peace: It is popularly known as the 'peace constitution'.
⮚ Article 9 of the Japanese constitution states that
o Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese
people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force
as means of settling international disputes.
o In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well
as other war potential, will never be maintained.
● Affirmative action programmes began in the U.S. after the 1964 Civil Rights Act.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CONSTITUTION

81
NCERT NOTES
FOR POLITY
11th Standard
Political Theory
CONTENTS
Political Theory: An Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 - 3

Freedom ............................................................................................................................................. 4 - 7

Equality ............................................................................................................................................ 8 - 13

Social Justice ............................................................................................................................... 14 - 18

Rights ............................................................................................................................................ 19 - 21

Citizenship ................................................................................................................................... 22 - 27

Nationalism .................................................................................................................................. 28 - 32

Secularism ................................................................................................................................... 33 - 38

Peace ............................................................................................................................................. 39 - 44

Development ............................................................................................................................... 45 - 49
 POLITICAL THEORY: AN
1 INTRODUCTION
Political theory examines about organization of society, need of government, best form of government etc.
and systematically thinks about the values such as freedom, equality and justice that inform political life. It
clarifies the existing definitions of these concepts by focusing on some major political thinkers of the past
and present. Its objective is to train citizens to think rationally about political questions and assess the
political events of our time.

Difference between human beings and other species:

● Human beings possess reason and the ability to reflect on their actions.
● They can express their innermost thoughts and desires.
● They can share their ideas and discuss what they consider to be good and desirable.

Politics:
● Integral part of any society:
⮚ No society can exist without some form of political organisation and collective decision making.
⮚ Mahatma Gandhi once observed that “politics envelops us like the coils of a snake and there is no
other way out but to wrestle with it.”
● It arises from the fact that there are different visions of what is just and desirable for society.
● It involves the multiple negotiations going on in society through which collective decisions are made.
⮚ What governments do and how they relate to the aspirations of the people?
⮚ How people struggle and influence decision making?
● People may be said to engage in political activity whenever they negotiate with each other and take
part in collective activities which are designed to promote social development.

Thinkers and their ideas:

Plato and Aristotle Discussed whether monarchy or democracy was better.

Rousseau First argued for freedom as a fundamental right of humankind.

Karl Marx Argued that equality was as crucial as freedom.

Mahatma Gandhi Discussed the meaning of genuine freedom or swaraj in his book Hind Swaraj.

Dr. Ambedkar Argued that the scheduled castes must be considered a minority, and as such,
must receive special protection.

Scope of Political theory:

● It deals with the ideas and principles that shape Constitutions, governments, and social life in a
systematic manner.
● It clarifies the meaning of concepts such as freedom, equality, justice, democracy etc.

1
 ● It probes the significance of principles such as rule of law, separation of powers, judicial review, etc. by
examining the arguments advanced by different thinkers in defence of these concepts.
● Though Rousseau or Marx or Gandhi did not become politicians, their ideas influenced generations of
politicians everywhere.
● Political theorists also reflect upon our current political experiences and point out trends and
possibilities for the future.

Relevance of political theory:

● Freedom and Equality:
⮚ Different interpretations: Issues concerning freedom, equality, democracy, arise in many areas of
social life and they are being implemented in different sectors at different paces.
⮚ For example- Although equality may exist in the political sphere in the form of equal rights, it may
not exist to the same extent in the economic or social spheres.
● Freedom Guaranteed in Our Constitution:
⮚ The fundamental rights guaranteed by our Constitution are continually being reinterpreted in
response to new circumstances.
⮚ For example- Right to life has been interpreted by the Courts to include the right to livelihood.
● Emerging Dimensions of Freedom with Changing World:
⮚ For example - Internet commerce is all set to increase in the future and the information people give
about them online to buy goods or services must be protected.
⮚ So even though netizens do not like government control, they recognize that some form of
regulation is necessary to safeguard individual security and privacy.

Political Theory in Practice:

● Political theorists have discussed what is freedom or equality and provided diverse definitions.
● Terms like equality concern our relationships with other human beings and many opinions need to be
understood and harmonised.
● Example - Meaning of equality:
⮚ It means equal opportunity for all but sometimes special treatment may be justified.
⮚ Equality must involve some kind of fairness so that people are not unduly exploited and
disadvantaged by economic factors.
⮚ Equality has so many meanings because it is dependent on the context.
● Political theorists clarify the meaning of political concepts by looking at how they are understood and
used in ordinary language.
● They also debate and examine the diverse meanings and opinions in a systematic manner.
● They engage with everyday opinions, debate possible meanings and thrash out policy options.

Importance of Political Theory:

● Relevant for All Target Groups:

2
 ⮚ Students may choose professions like judges, political leaders etc. in the future and so indirectly it is
relevant for them to study.
● For Citizens:
⮚ To act responsibly, it is helpful to have a basic knowledge of the political ideas and institutions that
shape the world.
⮚ In the information society, it is crucial that people learn to be reasonable and informed if they have to
participate in gram sabhas or offer their views on websites and polls.
⮚ An educated and vigilant citizenry makes those who play politics more public-spirited.
● Modern Human Values:
⮚ Freedom, Equality and Secularism are not abstract issues. People daily encounter discrimination of
various sorts in families, schools, colleges, etc.
⮚ There are prejudices against people who are different from them.
⮚ Political theory encourages to do is examine our ideas and feelings about political things.

● Assets in Global Information Order:

⮚ Political theory exposes us to systematic thinking on justice or equality so that one can polish his
opinions and argue in an informed manner.

Interesting points
● Socrates was described as the 'wisest man' and was known for questioning and challenging
popularly held beliefs about society, religion and politics. For this he was condemned to death by
the rulers of Athens.
● Plato: He was student of Socrates and wrote book 'The Republic' in which he created the
character Socrates and through him examined the question – what is justice?

3
 FREEDOM
2
The struggle for freedom represents the desire of people to be in control of their own lives and destinies and
to have the opportunity to express themselves freely through their choices and activities. Not just individuals
but societies also value their independence and wish to protect their culture and future.

Freedom Focuses On:

● Trying to evolve principles by which one can distinguish between socially necessary constraints and
other restrictions.
● There has also been debate about possible limitations on freedom which may result from the social and
economic structures of a society.

The Ideal of Freedom:

● Case of Nelson Mandela: For freedom and personal struggle against apartheid, he spent twenty-eight
years of his life in jail, often in solitary confinement.
· Case of Aung San Suu Kyi: She remained under house arrest in Myanmar, separated from her children,
unable to visit her husband when he was dying of cancer, because she feared that if she left Myanmar
to visit him in England she would not be able to return.

Freedom:
● Absence of constraints: It is said to exist when external constraints on the individual are absent. An
individual could be considered free if he/she is not subject to external controls or coercion and is able to
make independent decisions and act in an autonomous way.
● Creativity Expansion: It is also about expanding the ability of people to freely express themselves
and develop their potential. It is the condition in which people can develop their creativity and
capabilities.
⮚ A free society would be one which enables all its members to develop their potential with the
minimum of social constraints.
⮚ Allows full development of individual's creativity, sensibilities and capabilities. To be free a society
must widen the area in which individuals, groups, communities or nations, will be able to charter
their own destiny and be what they wish to be.
● Freedom is considered valuable:
⮚ It allows us to make choices and to exercise our judgement.
⮚ It permits the exercise of the individual's powers of reason.
No individual living in society can hope to enjoy total absence of any kind of constraints or
restrictions.

The Sources of Constraints:

FREEDOM

● Restrictions on the freedom of individuals may come from domination and external controls:
⮚ Such restrictions may be imposed by force or they may be imposed by a government through
laws which embody the power of the rulers over the people.

4
 ⮚ This was the form of constraint represented by colonial rulers over their subjects.
⮚ If the government is a democratic one, the members of a state could retain some control over their
rulers. So democracy is means of protecting the freedom of people.
● Result from social inequality:
⮚ Example- caste system, or which result from extreme economic inequality in a society.

Need of Constraints:
● To Reduce Chaos in Society:
⮚ Differences may exist between people regarding their ideas and opinions.
⮚ So long as we are able to respect each other's views and do not attempt to impose our views on
others we may be able to live freely and with minimum constraints.
⮚ In a free society one should be able to hold his views, develop his own rules of living, and pursue his
choices.
● Creation of free society too requires some constraints:
⮚ It requires that everyone be willing to respect differences of views, opinions and beliefs.
⮚ Sometimes a strong commitment to beliefs requires opposing all those who differ from or reject that
view.
⮚ Under such circumstances there is a need of some legal and political restraints to ensure that
differences may be discussed and debated without one group coercively imposing its views on the
other.
People should be ready to tolerate different ways of life, different points of view, and the different
interests, so long as they do not cause harm to others. But such tolerance need not be extended to
views and actions which may put people in danger or foment hatred against them.

Harm Principle: It was given by John Stuart Mill in his essay On Liberty.
● Mill distinguishes between:
⮚ Self-regarding' actions: Actions that have consequences only for the individual actor and
nobody else. The state (or any other external authority) has no business to interfere.
⮚ Other regarding' actions: Actions that also have consequences for others. There is some case
for external interference like state which can constrain a person from acting in a way that
causes harm to someone else.
● Only be constrained in special circumstances: As freedom is at the core of human society and it is
so crucial for a dignified human life. The 'harm caused' must be 'serious'.
● For minor harm: Mill recommends only social disapproval and not the force of law.
Constraining actions by the force of law should only happen when the other regarding actions
cause serious harm to definite individuals otherwise society must bear the inconvenience in the
FREEDOM

spirit of protecting freedom.

5
Constitutional Discussions in India:
● The term used for such justifiable constraints is 'reasonable restrictions'.
● The restrictions may be there, but they must be reasonable, i.e., capable of being defended by reason,
not excessive, not out of proportion to the action being restricted, since then it would impinge on the
general condition of freedom in society.

Negative and Positive Liberty

● Negative Liberty:
⮚ Minimum area of non-interference: It seeks to define and defend an area in which the individual
would be inviolable.
⮚ It is concerned with explaining the idea of 'freedom from'.
⮚ It is the recognition that human nature and human dignity need an area where the person can act
unobstructed by others.
⮚ He argues for an inviolable area of non-interference in which the individual can express himself or herself.
● Positive Liberty:
⮚ It is concerned with explaining the idea of 'freedom to'.
⮚ Positive liberty discussions have a long tradition that can be traced to Rousseau, Hegel, Marx,
Gandhi, Aurobindo, etc.
⮚ It is concerned with looking at the conditions and nature of the relationship between the
individual and society and of improving these conditions such that there are fewer constraints to
the development of the individual personality.
⮚ The individual to develop his or her capability must get the benefit of enabling positive conditions
in material, political and social domains.
⮚ For example - A person must not be constrained by poverty or unemployment and must have
adequate material resources to pursue their wants and needs.
Positive liberty recognizes that one can be free only in society (not outside it) and hence tries to make that
society such that it enables the development of the individual whereas negative liberty is only concerned
with the inviolable area of non-interference and not with the conditions in society.

Freedom of Expression:
It is considered to belong to the minimum area of 'non-interference'.
● John Stuart Mill, a political thinker in the nineteenth century Britain, offered a passionate defence of
freedom of expression, including freedom of thought and discussion. He offered four reasons why
there should be freedom of expression even for those who espouse ideas that appear 'false':
● No idea is completely false: What appears to us as false has an element of truth. If we ban 'false' ideas,
we would lose that element of truth that they contain.
FREEDOM

● Truth does not emerge by itself: It is only through a conflict of opposing views that truth emerges.
Ideas that seem wrong today may have been very valuable in the emergence of what we consider right
kind of ideas.

6
 ● Conflict of ideas is valuable in all times: Truth always runs the risk of being reduced to an unthinking
cliché. It is only when we expose it to opposing views that we can be sure that this idea is trustworthy.
● Uncertainty about actual truth: Very often ideas that were considered false at one point butn turns out
to be true later on. A society that completely suppresses all ideas that are not acceptable today, runs
the danger of losing valuable knowledge.

Banning Creative Freedom:

● A distinction is made between 'negative and positive liberty' and we recognise the need for 'justifiable
constraints' but these have to be supported by proper procedures and important moral arguments.
● Freedom of expression is a fundamental value and for that society must be willing to bear some
inconvenience to protect it from people who want to restrict it.
● The long-term prospects Banning: Once one begins to ban then one develops a habit of banning.
⮚ When constraints are backed by organised social, religious or cultural authority or by the might of
the state, they restrict our freedom in ways that are difficult to fight against.

Liberalism:
● As a political ideology, liberalism has been identified with tolerance as a value.
● Liberals have often defended the right of a person to hold and express his/her opinions and beliefs even
when they disagree with them.
● Liberals tend to give priority to individual liberty over values like equality.
● Historically, liberalism favoured free market and minimal role to the state.
● However, present day liberalism acknowledges a role for welfare state and accepts the need for
measures to reduce both social and economic inequalities.

Interesting points
● Swaraj:
⮚ It incorporates within it two words — Swa (Self) and Raj (Rule).
⮚ It can be understood to mean both the rule of the self and rule over self.
⮚ Swaraj, in the context of the freedom struggle in India referred to freedom as a constitutional
and political demand, and as a value at the social-collective level.
⮚ “Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it.” – Tilak.
⮚ Mahatma Gandhi in his work Hind Swaraj (1909) where states, “It is Swaraj when we learn
to rule ourselves”.
● Long Walk to Freedom is the autobiography of Nelson Mandela.
● Freedom from Fear is the book of Aung San Suu Kyi.
● Voltaire's statement - 'I disapprove of what you say but I will defend to death your right to say it'.
FREEDOM

● The book Ramayana Retold was written by Aubrey Menon.

● The Satanic Verses was novel written by Salman Rushdie.

7
 EQUALITY
3
Equality is a powerful moral and political. It is implicit in all faiths and religions which proclaim all human
beings to be the creation of God. Equality means all human beings should be entitled to the same respect and
consideration because of their common humanity. Today, equality is a widely accepted ideal which is
embodied in the constitutions and laws of many countries.

History of equality:
● In the eighteenth century, the French revolutionaries used the slogan 'Liberty, Equality and
Fraternity' to revolt against the landed feudal aristocracy and the monarchy.
● The demand for equality was also raised during anti-colonial liberation struggles in Asia and Africa
during the twentieth century.
● It continues to be raised by struggling groups such as women or dalits who feel marginalised in our
society.

Social Paradox of Equality:

● The society is a complex world of unequal wealth, opportunities, work situations, and power. Everyone
accepts the ideal of equality but still presence of inequality is everywhere.
● In India one can see slums existing side by side with luxury housing.

Aspects of Equality:
● As a socio- political ideal: It invokes the idea that all human beings have an equal worth regardless of
their colour, gender, race, or nationality.
⮚ The smooth functioning of society requires division of work and functions and people often enjoy
different status and rewards on account of it.
● Differences of treatment:
⮚ May appear acceptable or even necessary. For instance- The positions like prime ministers, or
army generals does not against the notion of equality, provided their privileges are not misused.
⮚ Some inequalities may seem unjust. For instance- It is unfair if a child born in a slum is denied
nutritious food through no fault of his/her own.
⮚ Unacceptable form of inequality: When people are treated differently just because they are born in
a particular religion or race or caste or gender.
⮚ If human beings are able to develop the best in themselves equality has not been undermined.
⮚ The commitment to the ideal of equality does not imply the elimination of all forms of differences. It
suggests that the treatment must not be pre-determined by birth or social circumstance.

Equality of Opportunities:
● The concept of equality implies that all people, as human beings, are entitled to the same rights and
EQUALITY

opportunities to develop their skills and talents, and to pursue their goals and ambitions.
● In a society people may differ with regard to their choices and preferences.
● It is not the lack of equality of status or wealth or privilege that is significant but the inequalities in

8
 people's access to such basic necessities such as education, health care, safe housing, that make for
an unequal and unjust society.

Natural and Social Inequalities:

Natural Inequalities Social Inequalities

It emerges between people as a result of their Socially produced inequalities emerge as a

different capabilities and talents. consequence of inequalities of opportunity or the
exploitation of some groups in a society by others.

They are result of the different characteristics They are created by society.
and abilities with which people are born.

It is generally considered that they cannot be It reflects the values of a society and some of these
altered. may certainly appear unjust.

Disadvantages of natural/socially-produced distinction:

● Not always clear or self-evident: When certain inequalities in the treatment of people have existed
over a long period of time they may appear as justifiable because they are based on natural inequalities.
● They are now seen as distinctions made by society as a result of the differences of power between
people and nations rather than based on their inborn characteristics.
● Some natural differences need no longer be seen as unalterable: For instance, advances in medical
science and technologies have helped many disabled people to function effectively in society.

Three Dimensions of Equality

● Political Equality:
⮚ It is necessary to remove any legal hurdles which might exclude people from a voice in government
and deny them access to available social goods.
⮚ Equal citizenship brings certain basic rights such as the right to vote, freedom of expression,
movement and association and freedom of belief.
⮚ These are considered necessary to enable citizens to develop themselves and participate in the
affairs of the state.
● Social Equality:
⮚ Political equality or equality before the law is an important first step in the pursuit of equality but it
often needs to be supplemented by equality of opportunities.
EQUALITY

⮚ The pursuit of equality requires that people belonging to different groups and communities have a
fair and equal chance to compete for those goods and opportunities.
⮚ It is necessary to minimise the effects of social and economic inequalities and guarantee certain

9
 minimum conditions of life to all the members of the society.
⮚ In India, a special problem regarding equal opportunities comes not just from lack of facilities but
from some of the customs which may prevail in different parts of country, or among different
groups. Like women may not enjoy equal rights of inheritance in some groups.
⮚ Significant role of states: It should make policies to prevent discrimination or harassment of
women in public places or employment, etc.
● Economic Equality:
⮚ They exist in a society if there are significant differences in wealth, property or income between
individuals or classes.
⮚ Measuring degree of economic inequality:
o Measure the relative difference between the richest and poorest groups.
o To estimate the number of people who live below the poverty line.
⮚ With equal opportunities, inequalities may continue to exist between individuals but there is the
possibility of improving one's position in society with sufficient effort.

Danger of Inequalities:
● Inequalities which remain relatively untouched over generations are more dangerous for a society.
● Division of classes: If in a society certain classes of people have enjoyed considerable wealth over
generations.
⮚ Over time such class differences can give rise to resentment and violence.
⮚ Because of the power of the wealthy classes it might prove difficult to reform such a society to make
it more open and egalitarian.

Ways to Promote Equality

Establishing Formal Equality:
● Ending the formal system of inequality and privileges.
● The inequalities all over the world have been protected by customs and legal systems that prohibited
some sections of society from enjoying certain kinds of opportunities and rewards.
● Attainment of equality requires that all such restrictions or privileges should be brought to an end.
● Since many of these systems have the sanction of law, equality requires that the government and the
law of the land should stop protecting these systems of inequality.

Equality Through Differential Treatment:

● Sometimes, it is necessary to treat people differently in order to ensure that they can enjoy equal
rights.
● Certain differences between people may have to be taken into account for this purpose. For instance,
EQUALITY

disabled people may justifiably demand special ramps in public spaces so that they get an equal
chance to enter public buildings.
● Some countries have used policies of affirmative action to enhance equality of opportunity.

10
 Affirmative Action:
● Idea: It is not sufficient to establish formal equality by law and it is necessary to take some more
positive measures to minimise and eliminate entrenched forms of social inequalities.
⮚ It is designed to correct the cumulative effect of past inequalities.
⮚ It can take many forms, from preferential spending on facilities for disadvantaged communities,
such as, scholarships and hostels to special consideration for admissions to educational
institutions and jobs.
⮚ India have adopted a policy of quotas or reserved seats in education and jobs to provide equality of
opportunity to deprived groups.
● Special protection: Certain groups have been victims of social prejudice and discrimination in the
form of exclusion and segregation in the past and been denied equal opportunities.
● Time-bound Special Assistance: Special consideration will enable these communities to overcome
the existing disadvantages and then compete with others on equal terms.

Criticism of positive discrimination:

⮚ Against equality: Any provision of reservations for the deprived in admissions for higher education or
jobs is unfair as it arbitrarily denies other sections of society their right to equal treatment.
⮚ Reverse discrimination: Equality requires that all persons be treated alike and when distinctions
between individuals on the basis of their caste or colour are made it reinforce caste and racial
prejudices.

Reasons for positive discrimination:

⮚ Guiding Principle: Distinction between equality as a guiding principle of state policy and equal rights
of individuals. Individuals have a right to equal consideration for admission to educational institutions
and public sector employment but competition should be fair.
⮚ Different circumstances: People from deprived strata may be at a disadvantage due to historical
reasons. Members of excluded groups such as dalits, women, etc. deserve and need some special help.
⮚ The state must devise social policies which would help to make such people equal and give them a fair
chance to compete with others.
⮚ Any policy that state chooses would have to be justified in terms of their success in making the society
more egalitarian and fair to all.
⮚ While reflecting on the issue of equality, a distinction must also be made between treating everyone in
an identical manner and treating everyone as equal.
⮚ The latter may on occasions need differential treatment but in all such cases the primary consideration
is to promote equality.
EQUALITY

Equality and Women Movements:

● In the nineteenth century, women struggled for equal rights.
● They demanded equal rights as men like the right to vote, the right to work.

11
 ● As they entered the job market, they realised that women required special facilities in order to exercise
these rights.
● They needed sometimes to be treated differently if they are to enjoy the same rights as men.

Other Concepts:
● Feminism: It is a political doctrine of equal rights for women and men.
● Patriarchy: It refers to a social, economic and cultural system that values men more than women and
gives men power over women.
● Socialism:
⮚ It refers to a set of political ideas that emerged as a response to the inequalities present in, and
reproduced by, the industrial capitalist economy.
⮚ The main concern of Socialism is how to minimise existing inequality and distribute resources justly.
⮚ They favour some kind of government regulation, planning and control over certain key areas
such as education and health care.

● Marxism:
⮚ Root cause of entrenched inequality: Private ownership of important economic resources such as
oil, or land, or forests, as well as other forms of property.
⮚ He pointed out that such private ownership also gave them political power which enables them to
influence state policies and laws.
⮚ To tackle inequality in society: To go beyond providing equal opportunities and try and ensure
public control over essential resources and forms of property.

● Liberals:
⮚ They uphold the principle of competition as the most efficient and fair way of distributing resources
and rewards in society.
⮚ Ensure a minimum state intervention in standard of living and equal opportunities for all, this
cannot by itself bring equality and justice to society.
⮚ For them, as long as competition is open and free, inequalities are unlikely to become entrenched
and people will get due reward for their talents and efforts.
⮚ Unlike socialists, liberals do not believe that political, economic and social inequalities are
necessarily linked.

● Seven revolution or Sapta Karanti: The eminent socialist thinker Rammanohar Lohia identified five
kinds of inequalities:
⮚ Inequality between man and woman.
EQUALITY

⮚ Inequality based on skin colour.

⮚ Caste-based inequality.
⮚ Colonial rule of some countries over others.

12
 ⮚ Economic inequality.
● He argued that each of these inequalities had independent roots and had to be fought separately and
simultaneously.
⮚ He added two more revolutions to this list:
o Revolution for civil liberties against unjust encroachments on private life.
o Revolution for non-violence, for renunciation of weapons in favour of Satyagraha.
EQUALITY

13
 SOCIAL JUSTICE
4
Justice concerns our life in society in the way in which public life is ordered and the principles according to
which social goods and social duties are distributed among different members of society.

Justice:
● Different interpretation of Justice:
⮚ In ancient India: Justice was associated with dharma and maintaining dharma or a just social order
was considered to be a primary duty of kings.
⮚ In China: Confucius, the famous philosopher argued that kings should maintain justice by
punishing wrong doers and rewarding the virtuous.
⮚ In fourth century B.C. Athens (Greece): Plato discussed issues of justice in his book The Republic.
Through a long dialogue between Socrates and his young friends, Glaucon and Adeimantus, Plato
examined why we should be concerned about justice. Socrates clarified that we need to understand
clearly what justice means in order to figure out why it is important to be just.
● Contemporary times:
⮚ The understanding of what is just is closely linked to understanding of what is due to each person as
a human being.
⮚ According to the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, human beings possess dignity.
⮚ If all persons are granted dignity then what is due to each of them is that they have the opportunity
to develop their talents and pursue their chosen goals.
⮚ Justice requires that we give due and equal consideration to all individuals.

Principles of Justice
Equal Treatment for Equals:
● Principle of treating equals equally: It is considered that all individuals share certain characteristics as
human beings. So they deserve equal rights and equal treatment.
⮚ It is not a simple matter to decide how to give each person his/her due.
⮚ Some of the important rights which are granted in most liberal democracies today include civil
rights such as the rights of life, liberty, political rights like the right to vote, which enable people to
participate in political processes, and certain social rights which would include the right to enjoy
equal opportunities with other members of the society.
● No discrimination: On grounds of class, caste, race or gender. People should be judged on the basis of
their work and actions and not on the basis of the group to which they belong.

Proportionate Justice:
SOCIAL JUSTICE

● There could be circumstances where treating everybody equally would be unjust.

● It would be fair and just to reward different kinds of work differently if take into account factors such
as the effort required, the skills required, the possible dangers involved in that work, etc.
● Certain kinds of workers in our society are not paid a wage which takes such factors sufficiently into
account. For instance, miners or people in sometimes dangerous may not always get a reward which is

14
 just if we compare it to what some others in society may be earning.
● For justice in society, the principle of equal treatment needs to be balanced with the principle of
proportionality.

Recognition of Special Needs:

● Promoting Social Justice: Society to take into account special needs of people while distributing
rewards or duties.
● In terms of their basic status and rights: As members of the society justice may require that people be
treated equally.
● The Proportionate Justice: It does not necessarily contradict the principle of equal treatment so much
as extend it because the principle of treating equals equally could imply that people who are not equal
in certain important respects could be treated differently.
⮚ People with special needs or disabilities could be considered unequal in some particular respect
and deserving of special help.
● Unequal and non-egalitarian society: If people who enjoy very different standard of living and
opportunities are treated equally in all respects with those who have been deprived of even the basic
minimum needs to live a healthy and productive life.

Balancing principles of Justice:

● Emphasising rewarding merit as the main principle of justice might mean that marginalised sections
would be at a disadvantage in many areas.
● Different groups in the country might favour different policies depending upon which principle of
justice they emphasise.
● It becomes a function of governments to harmonise the different principles to promote a just society.

Need for Just Distribution

● To Achieve Social Justice:
⮚ Governments might have to do more than just ensure that laws and policies treat individuals in a fair
manner.
⮚ It also concerns the just distribution of goods and services, whether it is between nations or
between different groups and individuals within a society.
● Need of redistribution of resources: There are serious economic or social inequalities in a society.
⮚ Within a country social justice would require not only that people be treated equally in terms of the
laws and policies of the society but also that they enjoy some basic equality of life conditions and
SOCIAL JUSTICE

opportunities.
o For example- Different state governments have also taken some measures to redistribute
important resources like land in a more fair manner by instituting land reforms.

15
John Rawls' Theory of Justice
Rawls has argued that there could indeed be a rational justification for acknowledging the need to provide
help to the least privileged members of a society.

Veil of Ignorance:
● It cannot be expected that everyone to put aside their personal interests and think of the good of
society, especially with keeping personal interest in mind of their future generations. Such
perspectives cannot form the basis of a theory of justice for a society.
● Reaching a fair and just decision: John Rawls argues that the only way to arrive at it is if we imagine
ourselves to be in a situation in which we have to make decisions about how society should be
organised although we do not know which position we would ourselves occupy in that society.
● Simply we do not know in which family we would be born like an 'upper' caste or 'lower' caste family,
rich or poor, privileged or disadvantaged. In this case, we will be likely to support a decision about the
rules and organisation of that future society which would be fair for all the members.
● Rawls describes this as thinking under a 'veil of ignorance'.
● Fairness:
⮚ He expects that in such a situation of complete ignorance about our possible position and status in
society, each person would decide in the way they generally do, that is, in terms of their own
interests.
⮚ But since no one knows who he would be, and what is going to benefit him, each will envisage the
future society from the point of view of the worst-off.
⮚ It will be clear to a person who can reason and think for himself, that those who are born privileged
will enjoy certain special opportunities.
● Rational self: It would make sense for each person, acting in his or her own interest, to try to think of
rules of organisation that will ensure reasonable opportunities to the weaker sections. The attempt will
be to see that important resources, like education, health, shelter, etc., are available to all.
⮚ It is of course not easy to erase our identities and to imagine oneself under a veil of ignorance. But
then it is equally difficult for most people to be self-sacrificing and share their good fortune with
strangers.
⮚ Given these human failings and limitations, it is better for us to think of a framework that does not
require extraordinary actions.
⮚ Wearing the imagined veil of ignorance is the first step in arriving at a system of fair laws and
policies.
⮚ Rawls therefore argues that rational thinking, not morality, could lead us to be fair and judge
SOCIAL JUSTICE

impartially regarding how to distribute the benefits and burdens of a society.

o In his example, there are no goals or norms of morality that are given to us in advance and we
remain free to determine what is best for ourselves.
● It is this belief which makes Rawls' theory an important and compelling way to approach the question
of fairness and justice.

16
 Pursuing Social Justice:
“A Just society is that society in which ascending sense of reverence and descending sense of contempt is
dissolved into the creation of a compassionate society” – B.R. Ambedkar.
“Justice implies something which it is not only right to do and wrong not to do; but which some individual
person can claim from us as his moral right.” – J. S. Mill.
● Lacking social justice: If in a society deep and persistent divisions exist between those who enjoy
greater wealth and power and those who are excluded and deprived. A society would be considered
unjust if the relatively deprived have no chance at all to improve their condition however hard they may
work.
● Justice does not require absolute equality and sameness in the way in which people live.
● A just society should provide people with the basic minimum conditions to enable them to live
healthy and secure lives and develop their talents as well as equal opportunities to pursue their chosen
goals in society.
● Basic minimum conditions for a life:
⮚ Various methods of calculating the basic needs of people have been devised by different
governments and by international organisations like the WHO.
⮚ Basic amount of nourishment needed: To remain healthy, housing, supply of clean drinking water,
education and a minimum wage.
o Providing them is considered to be one of the responsibilities of a democratic government.
o However, providing such basic conditions of life to all citizens may pose a heavy burden on
governments, particularly in countries like India which have a large number of poor people.
● Disagreements regarding methods to achieve equality for disadvantaged:
⮚ Promoting open competition through free markets would be the best way of helping the
disadvantaged without harming the better off members of a society.
⮚ Government should take on the responsibility of providing a basic minimum to the poor, if
necessary even through a redistribution of resources.

Free Markets versus State Intervention:

● Supporters of free markets:
⮚ The individuals should be free to own property and enter into contracts and agreements with
others regarding prices and wages and profits.
⮚ They should be free to compete with each other to gain the greatest amount of benefit.
⮚ If markets are left free of state interference the sum of market transactions would ensure overall a
just distribution of benefits and duties in society.
SOCIAL JUSTICE

⮚ Market is neutral and concerned with the talents and skills of people. Those with merit and talent
would be rewarded accordingly while the incompetent would get a lesser reward.
⮚ Now all free-market supporters would not support absolutely unregulated markets. Many would
now be willing to accept certain restrictions such as states could step in to ensure a basic minimum
standard of living to all people. But private agencies should be encouraged to provide basic services

17
 while state policies should try to empower people to buy those services.
⮚ It might also be necessary for the state to give special help to the old and the sick who cannot
compete.
⮚ Role of the state: For fair and just society state's role should only be to maintain a framework of
laws and regulations to ensure that competition between individuals remains free of coercion and
other obstacles.
● Criticism:
⮚ The availability of good quality basic goods and services should be at an affordable cost.
⮚ Private agencies will not enter such areas where they do not find profit.In such situations the
government might have to step in.
⮚ The cost of quality services may put them out of the reach of the poor.
⮚ Private business tends to go only where business would be most profitable.
⮚ It may deny, rather than extend, opportunities for those who are relatively weak and
disadvantaged.

SOCIAL JUSTICE

18
 RIGHTS
5
Rights are claimed not only in relation to our political and public lives but also in relation to our social and
personal relationships. Moreover, rights may be claimed not only for adult human beings but also for children,
unborn foetus, and even animals. The notion of rights is thus invoked in a variety of different ways by
different people.

Rights:
● Entitlement or a justified claim: It denotes what one is entitled to as citizens, as individuals and as
human beings.
⮚ It is something that one considers to be due to him and rest of society must recognise as being a
legitimate claim that must be upheld.
● Ground of claims of rights:
⮚ Source of Self-respect and Dignity:
o Collectively seen as a source of self-respect and dignity because they lead to the fulfilment of
basic needs gives us freedom to pursue our talents and interests or take the right to express
ourselves freely.
o Rights such as the right to a livelihood, or freedom of expression, would be important for all
human beings who live in society and they are described as universal in nature.
⮚ Necessary for well-being:
o They help individuals to develop their talents and skills.
o For example- Right to education helps to develop our capacity to reason, gives us useful skills
and enables us to make informed choices in life.
o However, if an activity is injurious to our health and well-being it cannot be claimed as a right. For
example- prohibited drugs are injurious to one's health so one cannot insist that he has a right to
inhale or inject drugs or smoke tobacco.

Source of Rights:
● In the 17th - 18th centuries:
⮚ Rights were derived from natural law: Rights were not conferred by a ruler or a society, rather one
is born with them and it implies that no state or organisation should take away what has been given
by the law of nature.
⮚ Rights were considered to be given to us by nature or God.
⮚ These rights are inalienable.
⮚ They identified three natural rights of man: the right to life, liberty and property.
⮚ The conception of natural rights has been used widely to oppose the exercise of arbitrary power by
states and governments and to safeguard individual freedom.
● In recent years:
⮚ The term human rights is being used more than the term natural rights because the idea of there
RIGHTS

being a natural law, or a set of norms that are laid down for us by nature, or God, appears
unacceptable today.

19
 ⮚ Rights are increasingly seen as guarantees that human beings themselves seek or arrive at in
order to lead a minimally good life.
● Assumption behind human rights: All persons are entitled to certain things simply because they are
human beings and all persons are equal and no one is born to serve others.
● Equal opportunities to realise full potential: As each of us possesses an intrinsic value. This
conception of a free and equal self is increasingly being used to challenge existing inequalities based
on race, caste, religion and gender.
● Universal Human Rights: The notion of universal human rights has been used by oppressed people all
over the world to challenge laws which segregate them and deny them equal opportunities and rights.
⮚ On 10 December 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
● Expansion of human rights: As societies face new threats and challenges. For instance, world is very
conscious today of the need to protect the natural environment and this has generated demands for
rights to clean air, water, sustainable development.

Legal Rights and the State:

● Need of legal recognition of rights: While claims for human rights appeal to our moral self, the degree
of success of such appeals depends on a number of factors such as the support of governments and
the law.
● A Bill of Rights is enshrined in the constitutions of many countries.
● Fundamental Rights in India: Other laws and policies are supposed to respect the rights granted in the
Constitution.
⮚ Sometimes these may be supplemented by claims which gain importance because of the particular
history and customs of a country. For example- India have a provision to ban untouchability which
draws attention to a traditional social practice in the country.
● Due to importance of the legal and constitutional recognition of our claims that several theorists define
rights as claims that are recognised by the state.
● The legal endorsement certainly gives our rights a special status in society but it is not the basis on
which rights are claimed.
● In most cases the claimed rights are directed towards the state. For example- When one wants to
assert his right to education, he calls upon the state to make provisions for his basic education.
● Constraints upon state actions: Rights ensure that the authority of the state is exercised without
violating the sanctity of individual life and liberty.

Kinds of Rights:
● Political rights:
⮚ It gives to the citizens the right to equality before law and the right to participate in the political
RIGHTS

process and include such rights as the right to vote and elect representatives, the right to contest
elections, etc. They are supplemented by civil liberties.

20
 ⮚ Civil liberties refers to the right to a free and fair trial, the right to express one's views freely, the right
to protest and express dissent.
⮚ Collectively, civil liberties and political rights form the basis of a democratic system of
government.
⮚ They protect well-being of individual by making the government accountable, by giving greater
importance to the concerns of the individual over that of the rulers and by ensuring that all persons
have equal opportunities.
● Economic rights:
⮚ Need: Our rights of political participation can only be exercised fully when our basic needs, of food,
shelter, clothing, health, are met.
⮚ Status: Democratic societies are beginning to recognise these obligations and providing economic
rights.
● Cultural claims of rights:
⮚ The right to have primary education in one's mother tongue, the right to establish institutions for
teaching one's language and culture, are today recognised as being necessary for leading a good
life.
● Kant on Human Dignity:
⮚ For the 18th century German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, every person has dignity and ought to be
so treated by virtue of being a human being.
⮚ For Kant, to treat people with dignity was to treat them morally.
⮚ Kant's views represent, what is called, the moral conception of rights. This position rests upon two
arguments.
o Treating others as we would like to be treated ourselves.
o Make sure that we don't treat the other person as means to our ends.
While some rights, primarily the right to life, liberty, equal treatment, and the right to political participation
are seen as basic rights that must receive priority, other conditions that are necessary for leading a decent
life, are being recognised as justified claims or rights.

Rights and Responsibilities:

Rights not only place obligations upon the state to act in a certain way but they also place obligations upon
each of us.
● Common Good: Not just of our own personal needs but to defend some things as being good for all.
They represent the 'common-good' that need to be protected for ourselves as well as for the future
generations.
● Respecting Rights of Others: In exercising one rights, one cannot deprive others of their rights.
Someone rights must be limited by the principle of equal and same rights for all.
⮚ Balance our rights when they come into conflict.
● Responsibility: Citizens must be vigilant about limitations which may be placed on their rights. There is
a need to be extremely cautious about giving governments powers which could be used to curtail the
RIGHTS

rights of individuals.

21
 CITIZENSHIP
6
● Citizenship can be defined as full and equal membership of a political community.
● In the contemporary world, states provide a collective political identity to their members as well as
certain rights such as people call themselves as Indians, or Japanese etc.
● More than the relationship between states and their members:
⮚ It is also about citizen-citizen relations and involves certain obligations of citizens to each other
and to the society.
⮚ They include not just the legal obligations imposed by states but also a moral obligation to
participate in, and contribute to, the shared life of the community.
⮚ Citizens are also considered to be the inheritors and trustees of the culture and natural resources of
the country.

Importance of Citizenship for Stateless:

● Condition of the thousands of people in the world who have the bad fortune to be forced to live as
refugees or illegal migrants because no state is willing to grant them membership.
● Such people are not guaranteed rights by any state and generally live in precarious conditions.
● For them full membership of a state of their choice is a goal for which they are willing to struggle such
as Palestinian refugees in the Middle East.

Precise Nature of The Rights:

● It may vary from state to state but in most democratic countries today they would include some
political rights like the right to vote, civil rights like the freedom of speech or belief, and some socio-
economic rights which could include the right to a minimum wage, or the right to education.
● Equality of rights and status is one of the basic rights of citizenship.

History of such rights:

● Some of the earliest struggles were fought by people to assert their independence and rights against
powerful monarchies.
● Many European countries experienced such struggles, some of them violent, like the French
Revolution, 1789.
● In the colonies of Asia and Africa, demands for equal citizenship formed part of their struggle for
independence from colonial rulers.
● Struggles to achieve full membership and equal rights continue even now in many parts of the world
such as the Dalit Movement in India whose purpose is to change public opinion and to influence
government policy to ensure them equal rights and opportunities.
CITIZENSHIP

Full and Equal Membership:

● Need: If jobs, facilities like medical care or education etc. are limited, demands may be made to restrict
entry to 'outsiders' even though they may be fellow citizens.
⮚ India granted to its citizens freedom of movement which is of particular importance for workers.

22
 ⮚ Markets for skilled and unskilled workers have developed in different parts of our country.
● Division between 'insiders' and 'outsiders':
⮚ A demand may develop to restrict certain jobs to those who belong to the state, or those who know
the local language.
⮚ Resistance could even take the form of organised violence against 'outsiders'.
● Resolving disputes:
⮚ A basic principle of democracy is that such disputes should be settled by negotiation and discussion
rather than force. This is one of the obligations of citizenship.
⮚ The right to protest is an aspect of the freedom of expression guaranteed to citizens in India
provided protest does not harm the life or property of other people or the State.
⮚ Citizens are free to try and influence public opinion and government policy by forming groups,
holding demonstrations or by approaching the courts.
o The courts may give a decision on the matter, or they may urge the government to address the
issue. It may be a slow process.

Equal Rights:
Issues: Whether full and equal membership means that all citizens, rich or poor, should be guaranteed
certain basic rights and a minimum standard of living by the state.
● Urban Poor: Dealing with the problem of the poor in towns is one of the urgent problems facing the
government today.
⮚ Significant contribution by slum dwellers to economy: Through their labour as they may be
hawkers, petty traders, scavengers, or domestic workers, etc.
⮚ Viewed as unwelcome visitors: They may be blamed for straining the resources of the city or for
spreading crime and disease.
⮚ Shocking conditions of slums: Many people may be crammed into small rooms with no private
toilets, running water, or sanitation. Life and property are insecure in a slum.
⮚ Low Welfare Expenditure:
o On services such as sanitation or water supply poor and migrants.
o Awareness about the condition of the urban poor is growing among governments, N.G.O's and
other agencies, and among the slum-dwellers themselves.
o For instance, a national policy on urban street vendors was framed in January 2004. The policy
was intended to provide recognition and regulation for vendors to enable them to carry on their
profession without harassment so long as they obeyed government regulations.
⮚ Awareness for their rights:
⮚ They are beginning to organise to demand the rights.
CITIZENSHIP

⮚ They have sometimes even approached the courts.

⮚ Even a basic political right like the right to vote may be difficult for them to exercise because to be
included in the list of voters a fixed address is required and squatters and pavement dwellers may
find it difficult to provide this.

23
Issue of Tribal People and Forest Dwellers:
● These people are dependent on access to forests and other natural resources to maintain their way of
life.
● Threat to their way of life:
⮚ Pressure of increasing populations and the search for land and resources.
⮚ Pressures from commercial interests wanting to mine the resources which may exist in forests or
coasts.
● Governments are struggling with the problem of how to protect these people and their habitat
without at the same time endangering development of the country. This is an issue that affects all
citizens, not just tribal people.
● Equal rights for citizens need not mean that uniform policies have to be applied to all people since
different groups of people may have different needs.

Conclusion:
● Need of new interpretations of rights of citizenship: Due to changes in the world situation, the
economy and society. The formal laws regarding citizenship only form the starting point.
● Concept of equal citizenship: Providing equal rights and protection to all citizens should be one of the
guiding principles of government policies.

Citizen and Nation

● Concept of nation state:
⮚ One of the earliest assertions regarding the sovereignty of the nation state and democratic rights of
citizens was made by the revolutionaries in France in 1789.
⮚ Nation states claim that their boundaries define not just a territory but also a unique culture and
shared history.
⮚ The national identity may be expressed through symbols like a flag, national anthem, national
language etc.
● National identity:
⮚ The national identity of a democratic state is supposed to provide citizens with a political identity
that can be shared by all the members of the state.
⮚ Most countries tend to define their identity in a way which makes it easier for some citizens to
identify with the state than others.
⮚ It may also make it easier for the state to extend citizenship to some people and not others.
⮚ Assimilation into the national culture easier for some groups. For example- France is a country
which claims to be both secular and inclusive. People retain their personal beliefs and practices in
CITIZENSHIP

their private lives. It is not always simple to define what is public and what is private.
● Criteria for Granting Citizenship:
⮚ In countries such as Israel, or Germany, factors like religion, or ethnic origin, may be given priority
when granting citizenship.

24
 Background - India Scenario:
● National Movement: The movement for independence was a broad based one and deliberate
attempts were made to bind together people of different religions, regions and cultures.
● Provide full and equal citizenship to groups: Such as the SC and ST, many women who had not
previously enjoyed equal rights, some remote communities in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands who
had had little contact with modern civilization etc.

Citizenship in India:
● The provisions about citizenship in the Constitution can be found in Part Two and in subsequent laws
passed by Parliament.
● Essentially democratic and inclusive notion of citizenship.
⮚ Citizenship can be acquired by birth, descent, registration, naturalisation, or inclusion of territory.
● The rights and obligations of citizens are listed in the Constitution.
● There is also a provision that the state shall not discriminate against citizens on grounds only of
religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth, or any of them.
● The rights of religious and linguistic minorities are also protected.
● Struggles and controversies: The dalit movement or struggles of people displaced by development
projects, represent only a few of the struggles where people feel that they are being denied full rights of
citizenship.
● The Supreme Court gave an important decision regarding the rights of slum-dwellers in Olga Tellis
Case against Bombay Municipal Corporation in 1985. It said, “Article 21 of the Constitution which
guaranteed the right to life included the right to livelihood.”

Universal Citizenship:
● Assumption: Full membership of a state should be available to all those who ordinarily live and work in
the country as well as to those who apply for citizenship.
● Wanted Unwanted visitors out: Each state fixes criteria for the grant of citizenship. These would
generally be written into the Constitution and laws of the country.
● Problem of stateless people or refugees:
⮚ Borders of states are still being redefined by war or political disputes. They may lose their homes,
political identities, and security, and be forced to migrate.
⮚ If no state is willing to accept them and they cannot return home. They may be forced to live in
camps, or as illegal migrants.
⮚ The U.N. has appointed a High Commissioner for Refugees to try to help them.
● Difficulty in Refugee Policy:
CITIZENSHIP

⮚ It poses a difficult humanitarian and political problem for many states.

⮚ Many countries may not want to accept unmanageable number of people or expose the country to
security risks.
⮚ India prides itself on providing refuge to persecuted peoples. As it did with the Dalai Lama and his

25
 followers in 1959. Only a relatively few of them are eventually granted citizenship.
⮚ Such problems pose a challenge to the promise of democratic citizenship which is that the rights
and identity of citizen would be available to all people in the contemporary world.

Global Citizenship:
● Interconnected world:
⮚ Tele-Communication: New means of communication such as the internet, and television, and cell
phones, have brought a major change in understanding world.
⮚ Developed sympathies and shared concerns: As new modes of communication have put us into
immediate contact with developments in different parts of the globe.
● Supporters of global citizenship:
⮚ Work towards global citizenship: Although a world community and global society does not yet
exist, people already feel linked to each other across national boundaries.
⮚ Failure of states in some sphere: The concept of national citizenship assumes that our state can
provide us with the protection and rights but states today are faced with many problems which they
cannot tackle by themselves.
o It might make it easier to deal with problems which extend across national boundaries and which
therefore need cooperative action by the people and governments of many states.
● Supporting states:
⮚ Equal citizenship within a country can be threatened by the socio-economic inequalities or other
problems which might exist.
⮚ Such problems can ultimately only be solved by the governments and people of that particular
society.

Martin Luther King:

⮚ He was a black leader of Civil Rights Movements against inequalities that existed between black
and white populations in USA.
⮚ Such inequalities were maintained by a set of laws called Segregation Laws through which the
black people were denied many civil and political rights.
⮚ King gave many arguments against the prevailing laws of segregation:
o In terms of self-worth and dignity every human person in the world is equal regardless of one's
race or colour.
o Segregation is like 'social leprosy' on the body politic because it inflicts deep psychological
wounds on the people who suffer as a result of such laws. King argued that the practice of
segregation diminishes the quality of life for the white community also.
CITIZENSHIP

o They create artificial boundaries between people and prevent them from cooperating with
each other for the overall benefit of the country.
⮚ He gave a call for peaceful and non-violent resistance against the segregation laws.
⮚ He said in one of his speeches: “We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into

26
 physical violence.”

Citizenship, Equality and Rights:

⮚ A widely accepted formulation of this relationship was provided by the British sociologist, T. H.
Marshall (1893-1981) in his book Citizenship and Social Class (1950).
⮚ The key concept in Marshall's idea of citizenship is that of 'equality'. This implies two things:
o Quality of the given rights and duties improves.
o Quantity of people upon whom they are bestowed grows.
⮚ Marshall sees citizenship as involving three kinds of rights: civil, political and social.
o Civil rights protect the individual's life, liberty and property.
o Political rights enable the individual to participate in the process of governance.
o Social rights give the individual access to education and employment.
CITIZENSHIP

27
 7 NATIONALISM
Nationalism is a powerful force in the world but it is difficult to arrive at agreement regarding the definition of
terms like nation or nationalism.

Nationalism:
● During the last two centuries or more, nationalism has emerged as one of the most compelling of
political creeds which has helped to shape history.
● United people as well as divided them: It helped to liberate them from oppressive rule as well as been
the cause of conflict and bitterness and wars.
● Phases of Nationalism:
⮚ In the nineteenth century Europe, it led to the unification of a number of small kingdoms into
larger nation-states. Such as the present day German and Italian states.
⮚ A large number of new states were also founded in Latin America.
⮚ Along with the consolidation of state boundaries, local dialects and local loyalties were also
gradually consolidated into state loyalties and common languages.
⮚ The people of the new states acquired a new political identity which was based on membership of
the nation-state.
⮚ Similar process of consolidation has taken place in India in the last century or more.
● Contributed to the Break-Up of Large Empires: Such as the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires
in the early twentieth century in Europe as well as the break-up of the British, French, Dutch and
Portuguese empires in Asia and Africa.
● Redrawing State Boundaries:
⮚ Since 1960, even apparently stable nation-states have been confronted by nationalist demands put
forward by groups or regions which include demands for separate statehood.
⮚ Today, in many parts of the world there are nationalist struggles that threaten to divide existing
states. Such as the Quebecois in Canada, the Basques in northern Spain, the Kurds in Turkey and
Iraq and the Tamils in Sri Lanka.
⮚ Arab nationalism today may hope to unite Arab countries in a pan Arab union.

Nations and Nationalism:

● It is commonly believed that nations are constituted by a group who share certain features such as
descent, or language, or religion or ethnicity.
● Many nations do not have a common language or common religion such as India has a large number of
languages which are spoken in different regions and by different communities.
● Nation Forming Diverse Groups of Society:
NATIONALISM

⮚ Different from the family: Which is based on face-to-face relationships with each member having
direct personal knowledge of the identity and character of others.
⮚ Different from tribes and clans and other kinship groups: Ties of marriage and descent link
members to each other so that even if one do not personally know all the members one can trace the
links that bind them.

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 ⮚ As a member of a nation: People may never come face to face with most of our fellow nationals nor
need to share ties of descent with them. Yet nations exist, are lived in and valued by their members.
● Incorporating nation:
⮚ A nation is to a great extent an 'imagined' community, held together by the collective beliefs,
aspirations and imaginations of its members.
⮚ It is based on certain assumptions which people make about the collective whole with which they
identify.

Some of The Assumptions About the Nation:

Shared Beliefs: A nation is constituted by belief.
● Nations are not things which exist independent of the beliefs that people have about them.
● Speak of a people as a nation: Not to make a comment about their physical characteristics or
behaviour.
● It refers to the collective identity and vision for the future of a group which aspires to have an
independent political existence.
● A nation exists when its members believe that they belong together.

History: It embody a sense of continuing historical identity.

● Nations perceive themselves as stretching back into the past as well as reaching into the future.
● They articulate for themselves a sense of their own history by drawing on collective memories,
legends, historical records, to outline the continuing identity of the nation.
● For example- Nationalists in India invoked its ancient civilisation and cultural heritage and other
achievements to claim that India has had a long and continuing history as a civilisation and that this
civilisational continuity and unity is the basis of the Indian nation.

Territory: Nations identify with a particular territory.

● Imagine as one people: Sharing a common past and living together on a particular territory over a long
period of time gives people a sense of their collective identity.
● Feeling of homeland: The territory they occupied and the land on which they have lived has a special
significance for them and they claim it as their own.
● Nations characterise the homeland in different ways: For example- as motherland, or fatherland, or
holy land.
⮚ The Jewish people in spite of being dispersed and scattered in different parts of the world always
claimed that their original homeland was in Palestine, the 'promised land'.
NATIONALISM

● Also cause of conflict: Since more than one set of people may lay claim to the same territory.

Shared Political Ideals: A shared vision of the future and the collective aspiration to have an
independent political existence that distinguishes groups from nations.
● Members of a nation share a vision of the kind of state they want to build.

29
 ● They affirm a set of values and principles such as democracy, secularism and liberalism.
● Political identity: These ideals represent the terms under which they come together and are willing to
live together.
● In a democracy, it is shared commitment to a set of political values and ideals that is the most desirable
basis of a political community or a nation-state.
● Within it, members of political community are bound by a set of obligations which arise from the
recognition of the rights of each other as citizens.
● A nation is strengthened when its people acknowledge and accept their obligations to their fellow
members.
Common Political Identity: Many people believe that a shared political vision about the state and society is
not enough to bind individuals together as a nation. They seek instead a shared cultural identity, such as a
common language, or common descent. But this can pose a threat to democratic values in ways like:
● Internally diverse religions:
⮚ They have survived and evolved through a dialogue within the community.
⮚ There exists within each religion a number of sects who differ significantly in their interpretation of
the religious texts and norms.
⮚ If these differences are ignored and forge an identity on the basis of a common religion this is likely
to create a highly authoritative and oppressive society.
● Most societies are culturally diverse:
⮚ They have people belonging to different religions and languages living together in the same
territory.
⮚ No equal treatment: Imposing a single religious or linguistic identity as a condition belonging to a
particular state would necessarily exclude some groups.
⮚ It might restrict the religious liberty of the excluded group or disadvantage those who do not speak
the national language.
Due to above reasons, it is desirable to imagine the nation in political rather than cultural terms. Democracies
need to emphasise and expect loyalty to a set of values that may be enshrined in the Constitution of the
country rather than adherence to a particular religion, race or language.

Right to Self-Determination:
● Nations, unlike other social groups, seek the right to govern themselves and determine their future
development.
● In making this claim, a nation seeks recognition and acceptance by the international community of its
status as a distinct political entity or state.
NATIONALISM

● Most often these claims come from people who have lived together on a given land for a long period of
time and who have a sense of common identity.
● It also linked to the desire to form a state in which the culture of the group is protected if not privileged.
● Issues of Protection of Culture and Self-Determination:
⮚ Notion of One Culture, One State: It gain acceptability in the nineteenth century in Europe. It was

30
 employed while reordering state boundaries after World War I.
⮚ The Treaty of Versailles established a number of small, newly independent states but it proved
virtually impossible to satisfy all the demands for self-determination.
⮚ It led to mass migration of population across state boundaries.
⮚ Not possible to ensure one ethnic community in newly created states. Most states had more than
one ethnic and cultural community living within its boundaries. These communities constituted a
minority within the state were often disadvantaged.
● Granted Political Recognition: To various groups who saw themselves as distinct nations and wanted
the opportunity to govern themselves and determined their own future.
● Self-Determination and National Liberation Movements:
⮚ Nationalist movements in Asia and Africa maintained that political independence would provide
dignity and recognition to the colonised people and also help them to protect the collective
interests of their people.
⮚ Most national liberation movements were inspired by the goal of bringing justice and rights and
prosperity to the nation.
⮚ However, it proved almost impossible to ensure that each cultural group, some of whom claimed to
be distinct nations, could achieve political independence and statehood.
⮚ As a result, migration of populations, border wars, and violence have continued to plague many
countries in the region.
● Dilemma in Self-Determination:
⮚ For Strong and United State: More and more people are beginning to realise that the solution does
not lie in creating new states but in making existing states more democratic and equal.
⮚ They need to ensure that people with different cultural and ethnic identities live and co-exist as
partners and equal citizens within the country.
⮚ A nation-state which does not respect the rights and cultural identity of minorities within the state
would find it difficult to gain the loyalty of its members.

Nationalism and Pluralism:

● Once the idea of one-culture-one state was abandoned, it becomes necessary to consider ways by
which different cultures and communities can survive and flourish within a country.
● Many democratic societies today have introduced measures for recognising and protecting the
identity of cultural minority communities living within their territory.
● Kinds of Group Rights include:
⮚ Constitutional protection for the language, cultures and religion, minority groups etc.
NATIONALISM

⮚ Sometimes identified communities also have the right to representation as a group in legislative
bodies and other state institutions.
⮚ Justification of Such Rights: They provide equal treatment and protection of the law for members
of these groups as well as protection for the cultural identity of the group.
● Group Identity Recognition: Different groups need recognition as a part of the national community.

31
 The national identity has to be defined in an inclusive manner which can recognise the importance and
unique contribution of all the cultural communities within the state.
● Self-Determination and Independent Statehood:
⮚ Right to national self-determination does not include the right to independent statehood.
⮚ It would be impossible and undesirable to grant independent statehood to every group that sees
itself as a distinct cultural group, or nation.
⮚ It might lead to the formation of a number of states too small to be economically and politically
viable and it could multiply the problems of minorities.
⮚ The right has now been reinterpreted to mean granting certain democratic rights for a nationality
within a state.
⮚ The claims of identity should not be allowed to lead to divisions and violence.
● Multiple identities: In a democracy the political identity of citizen should encompass the different
identities which people may have. It would be dangerous if intolerant and homogenising forms of
identity and nationalism are allowed to develop.

Tagore's critique of Nationalism:

“Patriotism cannot be our final spiritual shelter; my refuge is humanity. I will not buy glass for the price of
diamonds, and I will never allow patriotism to triumph over humanity as long as I live.”- Rabindranath
Tagore.
● He was against colonial rule and asserted India's right to independence. He made a distinction
between opposing western imperialism and rejecting western civilisation.
● While Indians should be rooted in their own culture and heritage, they should not resist learning freely
and profitably from abroad.
● He was very critical of the narrow expressions of nationalism that he found at work in parts of our
independence movement.

Interesting points

Demand for self-determination in Basque:

● Basque is a hilly and prosperous region in Spain.
● It is recognised by the Spanish government as an 'autonomous' region within the Spanish federation
but the leaders of Basque Nationalist Movement want a separate country.
⮚ Reasons for their demand:
o Their culture is very different from the Spanish culture.
NATIONALISM

o They have their own language that does not resemble Spanish at all.
o The hilly terrain makes the Basque region geographically distinct.
o Since the Roman days, the Basque region has its own autonomy.
o It has own unique systems for justice, administration and finance.

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 8 SECULARISM
When different cultures and communities exist within the same country, a democratic state needs to ensure
equality for each of them. The concept of secularism may be applied to provide this. In India, the idea of
secularism is ever present in public debates and discussions. Secularism is challenged not only by clerics and
religious nationalists but by some politicians, social activists and even academics.

Secularism:
● It is a normative doctrine which seeks to realise a secular society, i.e., one devoid of either inter-
religious or intra-religious domination.
● It promotes freedom within religions, and equality between, as well as within, religions.
A state committed to the ideal of secularism needs to maintain some specific policy related to religion
and religious communities.

Inter-religious Domination:
● In India, the Constitution declares that every Indian citizen has a right to live with freedom and
dignity in any part of the country.
● Many forms of exclusion and discrimination continue to persist. For example- More than 2,700 Sikhs
were massacred in 1984 riots.
● Members of one community are targeted and victimised on account of their religious identity. Some
incidents are instances of religious persecution.
● Secularism is first and foremost a doctrine that opposes all such forms of inter-religious domination.

Intra-religious Domination:
● Separation and loss are endemic to the human condition.
● Religion, art and philosophy are responses to some sufferings. Secularism is not anti-religious.
● Deep-rooted problems of religion:
⮚ When religion is organised, it is frequently taken over by its most conservative faction, which does
not tolerate any dissent.
⮚ Religious fundamentalism in parts of the US has become a big problem and endangers peace both
within the country and outside.
⮚ Many religions fragment into sects which leads to frequent sectarian violence and persecution of
dissenting minorities.
Religious domination cannot be identified only with interreligious domination. It takes another conspicuous
form, namely, intra-religious domination. As secularism is opposed to all forms of institutionalised religious
domination, it challenges not merely interreligious but also intra-religious domination.
SECULARISM

Secular State
Need of secular state:
● Religious discrimination can be prevented by working together for mutual enlightenment and
education. Individual examples of sharing and mutual help can also contribute towards reducing

33
 prejudice and suspicion between communities. But these are not enough.
● In modern societies, states have enormous public power and their functioning is bound to make a
crucial difference to the outcome of any struggle to create a society less ridden with inter-community
conflict and religious discrimination.
● For this reason, we need to see what kind of state is needed to prevent religious conflict and to promote
religious harmony.

Preventing domination of any religious group by state:

● State must not run by head of any particular religion: If we value peace, freedom and equality,
religious institutions and state institutions must be separated.
⮚ Theocratic states such as the Papal states of Europe in medieval times lacking separation between
religious and political institutions, are known for their oppressions and reluctance to allow freedom
of religion to members of other religious groups.
● Little scope for internal dissent or religious equality: Many non-theocratic states continue to have a
close alliance with a particular religion such as the state in England in the sixteenth century was not run
by a priestly class but clearly favoured the Anglican Church and its members.

To be truly secular:
● A state must not only refuse to be theocratic but also have no formal or legal alliance with any religion.
● A secular state must be committed to principles and goals which are at least partly derived from non-
religious sources.
● These ends should include peace, religious freedom, freedom from religiously grounded oppression,
discrimination and exclusion.
● To promote these ends, the state must be separated from organised religion and its institutions for the
sake of some of these values.
● The nature and extent of separation may take different forms, depending upon the specific values and
the way in which these values are spelt out.

The Western Model of Secularism:

● It is best represented by the American state.
● Clear Separation: Neither theocratic nor do they establish a religion. In most commonly prevalent
conceptions separation of religion and state is understood as mutual exclusion: the state will not
intervene in the affairs of religion and religion will not interfere in the affairs of the state.
● Independent jurisdiction: Each has a separate sphere and no policy of the state can have an
exclusively religious rationale. No religious classification can be the basis of any public policy.
SECULARISM

● State cannot aid any religious institution: It cannot give financial support to educational institutions
run by religious communities. Nor can it hinder the activities of religious communities, as long as they
are within the broad limits set by the law of the land. For example, if a religious institution forbids a
woman from becoming a priest, then the state can do little about it.

34
 ● Interpretation of Liberty: Interprets freedom and equality in an individualist manner. Liberty is the
liberty of individuals and Equality is equality between individuals. There is no scope for the idea that a
community has the liberty to follow practices of its own choosing. There is little scope for community-
based rights or minority rights.
● Focused on intrareligious domination: The history of western societies tells us that most western
societies were marked by a great deal of religious homogeneity.
⮚ While strict separation of the state from the church is emphasised to realise among other things,
individual freedom, issues of inter-religious (of minority rights) equality are often neglected.
● No place for the idea of state supported religious reform: Separation of state from church/ religion
entails a relationship of mutual exclusion.

The Indian Model of Secularism:

Indian secularism is fundamentally different from Western secularism and does not focus only on church-
state separation and the idea of inter-religious equality is crucial.
● Inter-religious tolerance:
⮚ Indian secularism arose in the context of deep religious diversity and it predated the advent of
Western modern ideas and nationalism.
⮚ There was already a culture of inter-religious 'tolerance' in India.
⮚ Tolerance is compatible with religious domination and may allow some space to everyone but such
freedom is usually limited.
⮚ Tolerance allows you to put up with people whom you find deeply repugnant but this is not a great
virtue in times of peace where people are struggling for equal dignity.
● Result of an interaction between Indian idea of religious diversity and western idea:
⮚ Western modernity brought to the fore hitherto neglected and marginalised notions of equality in
Indian thought.
⮚ It helped us to focus on equality within the community and also ushered ideas of inter-community
equality to replace the notion of hierarchy.
⮚ It resulted in equal focus on intra-religious and interreligious domination.
⮚ For example-Indian secularism equally opposed the oppression of women within Hinduism and
the discrimination against women within Indian Islam or Christianity.
● Deals with religious freedom of minorities: An individual has the right to profess the religion of his or
her choice and religious minorities also have a right to exist and to maintain their own culture and
educational institutions.
● Compatible with state-supported religious reform: For example- the Indian constitution bans
untouchability and the Indian state has enacted several laws abolishing child marriage.
SECULARISM

● India remained secular despite state-initiated reforms:

⮚ The secular character of the Indian state is established by virtue of the fact that it is neither
theocratic nor has it established any one or multiple religions.
⮚ It has adopted a very sophisticated policy in pursuit of religious equality which allows it either to

35
 disengage with religion in American style or engage with it if required.
● State may engage with religion negatively to oppose religious tyranny. This is reflected in such actions
as the ban on untouchability.
● State may choose a positive mode of engagement. The Indian Constitution grants all religious
minorities the right to establish and maintain their own educational institutions.
● Cannot be captured by the “equal respect for all religions”: Secularism is much more than mere
peaceful coexistence or toleration.
● Allows for principled state intervention in all religions. Such intervention betrays disrespect to some
aspects of every religion. For example, religiously sanctioned caste-hierarchies are not acceptable
within Indian secularism. The secular state does not have to treat every aspect of every religion with
equal respect.

Criticisms of Indian Secularism

Anti-religious:
● Criticism: It is often argued that secularism is anti-religious.
● Secularism is against institutionalised religious domination which is not the same as being anti-
religious.
● Argument- Secularism threatens religious identity:
⮚ Secularism promotes religious freedom and equality and it clearly protects religious identity rather
than threatens it.
⮚ Of course, it does undermine some forms of religious identity: like violent, fanatical, and those,
which foster hatred of other religions.
⮚ The real question is whether what is undermined is intrinsically worthy or unworthy.

Western Import:
● Criticism: Secularism is linked to Christianity, that it is western and, therefore, unsuited to Indian
conditions.
● Strange complaint: There are millions of things in India like parliamentary democracy that have their
origins in the west.
● A secular state must have ends of its own: Western states became secular when they challenged the
control of established religious authority over social and political life. The western model of secularism
is not, therefore, a product of the Christian world.
● Idea of separation can be interpreted differently by different societies:
⮚ The mutual exclusion of religion and state is also not the defining feature of all secular states.
⮚ A secular state may keep a principled distance from religion to promote peace between
SECULARISM

communities and it may also intervene to protect the rights of specific communities.
● Indian secularism not an implant of West: For example- the idea of Church-state separation is central
in west whereas the idea of peaceful coexistence of different religious communities has been
important in India.

36
 Minoritism:
● Criticism: It is true that Indian secularism advocates minority rights.
● Voting as a democratic procedure is insufficient for fundamental interest: A person has a prior right
to the satisfaction of his or her significant interests. The most fundamental interest of minorities must
not be harmed and must be protected by constitutional law. The Indian Constitution provides minority
rights as long as these rights protect their fundamental interests.
● Minority rights are necessary special privileges: Minority needs to be treated with the same respect
and dignity with which all others are being treated. These need not be nor should be viewed as special
privileges.

Interventionist:
● Criticism: Secularism is coercive and it interferes excessively with the religious freedom of
communities but this misreads Indian secularism.
● Rejecting the idea of separation as mutual exclusion: Indian secularism rejects non-interference in
religion but it does not follow that it is excessively interventionist.
● Follows the concept of principled distance: It allows for non-interference and besides, interference
need not automatically mean coercive intervention.
● Indian secularism permits state-supported religious reforms but this should not be equated with a
change imposed from above with coercive intervention.
● Not reforming Personal laws of all religious communities:
⮚ Dilemma faced by India: A secularist might see the personal laws (laws concerning marriage,
inheritance etc.) as manifestations of community specific rights that are protected by the
Constitution Or see these laws as an affront to the basic principles of secularism on the ground that
they treat some members unequally.
⮚ Personal laws can be seen as manifestations of freedom from inter-religious domination or as
instances of intra-religious domination.
⮚ Personal laws can be reformed in such a way that they continue to exemplify both minority rights
and equality between men and women.
⮚ State must act as facilitator. Such reform should neither be brought about by State or group
coercion nor should the state adopt a policy of total distance from it. The state must support liberal
and democratic voices within every religion.

Vote Bank Politics:

Criticism: Secularism encourages the politics of vote banks. This is not entirely false but it needs to put in
perspective.
SECULARISM

● Politicians are bound to seek votes: The real question is what precisely the vote is sought for i.e. to
promote solely his self-interest or for the welfare of the group in question.
⮚ If secular politicians who sought the votes of minorities manage to fulfill their aspirations then this is
a success of the secular project.

37
 ● New injustice: If the welfare of the group in question is sought at the cost of the welfare and rights of
other groups.
⮚ There is nothing wrong with vote bank politics but only with a form of vote bank politics that
generates injustice.

Impossible Project:
● Criticism: Secularism cannot work because it tries to do too much to find a solution to an intractable
problem.
● Problem: People with deep religious differences will never live together in peace.
● An empirically false claim: Coexistence under conditions of inequality is indeed possible. Everyone
could find a place in a hierarchically arranged order. This will not work when equality is increasingly
becoming a dominant cultural value.
● Indian secularism mirrors the future of the world: Due to migration of people from the former colonies
to the west and the increased movement of people across the globe are beginning to resemble India in
the diversity of cultures and religions which are present in their societies.

Interesting Points:
● Secularism in Turkey:
⮚ Mustafa Kemal Ataturk implemented secular state in Turkey after World War I.
⮚ It was not about principled distance from organised religion and it involved active intervention in
and suppression of religion.
⮚ He came to power after the First World War and was determined to put an end to the institution of
Khalifa in the public life of Turkey.
⮚ He set out in an aggressive manner to modernise and secularise Turkey. Such as the Fez cap was
banned by the Hat Law.
⮚ The Western (Gregorian) calendar replaced the traditional Turkish calendar.
⮚ In 1928, the new Turkish alphabet (in a modified Latin form) was adopted.
● Nehru on Secularism:
⮚ Equal protection by the State to all religions' and does not favour one at the expense of others and
does not itself adopt any religion as the state religion.
⮚ Secularism did not mean hostility to religion.
⮚ Nehru was not in favour of a complete separation between religion and state.
⮚ Secularism for him meant a complete opposition to communalism of all kinds.
● Theocratic: A state governed directly by a priestly order.
SECULARISM

38
 PEACE
9
The word peace is commonly used and cited as a cherished value in a wide variety of documents including
textbooks, constitutions, charters and treaties. Over the years, the meaning and value of peace has been
assessed fairly differently.

Meaning of Peace:
● Negative Connotation: Many important thinkers of the past wrote about peace in negative terms.
⮚ The nineteenth century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche glorified war. He believed that
only conflict could facilitate the growth of civilisation.
⮚ The Italian social theorist, Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923), argued that people who were able and
willing to use force to achieve their goals constituted the governing elites in most societies.
● Advocates of peace:
⮚ It occupied a central place in the original teachings of almost all religions.
⮚ The modern era too has witnessed ardent advocates of peace, both in the spiritual and secular
domains.
⮚ The contemporary preoccupation with peace can be traced to the atrocities of the twentieth
century such as Nazism, world wars etc.
● War period:
⮚ Germany 'carpet-bombed' London during the Second World War and the British responded by
sending 1000-bomber raids to attack German cities.
⮚ The war ended with the USA dropping atom bombs on the Japanese cities, Hiroshima and
Nagasaki.
⮚ High casualties: At least 1,20,000 people died immediately from the two attacks and many more
died later due to the effects of nuclear radiation.
● The post-war decades:
⮚ They were marked by intense rivalry between two superpowers–the capitalist USA and the
communist USSR—for world supremacy.
⮚ Since nuclear weapons had become the new currency of power, both countries began to make and
stockpile them on a large scale.
⮚ The Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962: It was a particularly dark episode in this unfolding
military competition. It began when American spy planes discovered Soviet nuclear missiles in
neighbouring Cuba and the USA responded by organising a naval blockade of Cuba and
threatening military action against the USSR, if the missiles were not removed. It had brought
humanity perilously close to the brink of total destruction.
Humanity has learnt to value peace after paying a huge price for its absence. The spectre of tragic conflict
continues to haunt us.

The Meaning of Peace:

PEACE

● Not the Absence of War: Peace is often defined as the absence of war but this is misleading. War is
usually equated with armed conflict between countries but sometimes internal issues represented a

39
 violation or cessation of peace. While every war leads to absence of peace, every absence of peace
need not take the form of war.
● Peace as Absence of Violent Conflict of All Kinds such as war, riot, massacre, etc. But this is also not
completely true. Social institutions and practices that reinforce entrenched inequalities of caste, class
and gender can also cause injury in subtle and invisible ways.
o If any challenge is made to these hierarchies by oppressed classes it may also breed conflict and
violence. 'Structural violence' of this kind may produce large-scale evil consequences.

Forms of Structural Violence:

● The traditional caste system: It treated certain groups of people as untouchable.
● Patriarchy: It entails a form of social organisation that results in the systematic subordination of, and
discrimination against, women. Its manifestations include selective abortion of female foetuses, child
marriage, dowry-related crimes, rape etc.
● Colonialism: The ongoing Palestinian struggle against Israeli domination shows that it has not
disappeared completely. Even the former colonies of European imperialist countries are yet to recover
completely from the forms of manifold exploitation they suffered during the colonial era.
● Racism and communalism: It involve the stigmatisation and oppression of an entire racial group or
community. Racial discrimination still continues covertly in the West. Communalism may be seen as
the South Asian counterpart of racism where the victims tend to be minority religious groups.
⮚ The psychological and tangible harm suffered by the victims of violence often creates grievances
that persist over generations. Sometimes they may give rise to fresh bouts of conflict when
provoked by some incident or even remark.
A just and lasting peace can be attained only by articulating and removing the latent grievances and
causes of conflict through a process of dialogue.

Eliminating Violence:
● Several age-old spiritual principles (e.g., compassion) and practices (e.g., meditation) are geared
precisely to the facilitation of such an endeavour.
● Modern healing techniques and therapies like psychoanalysis can perform a similar function. Violence
does not originate merely within the individual psyche; it is also rooted in certain social structures.

Peace:
● The elimination of structural violence necessitates the creation of a just and democratic society.
● Peace, understood as the harmonious coexistence of contented people, would be a product of such a
society.
● Peace is not an end-state, but a process involving an active pursuit of the moral and material resources
needed to establish human welfare in the broadest sense of the term.
PEACE

40
 Violence as Option for Peace:
● Assertion: Violence can sometimes be a necessary prelude to bringing about peace. Tyrants and
oppressors can be prevented from continuing to harm the populace only by being forcibly removed.
● Resort to violence is Self-defeating: Once deployed, it tends to spin out of control, leaving behind a
trail of death and destruction.
● Pacifists take a moral stand against the use of violence even for attaining just ends. They too recognise
the need to fight oppression but through the mobilisation of love and truth to win the hearts and
minds of the oppressors.
● Potential of militant but non-violent form of resistance: Civil disobedience is a major mode of such
struggle and it has been successfully used to make a dent in structures of oppression. For example-
Gandhi's deployment of satyagraha during the Indian Freedom Movement.

Peace and the State:

● Argument: Division of world into separate sovereign states is an impediment to the pursuit of peace.
As each state sees itself as an independent and supreme entity, it tends to protect its own perceived
self-interest.
● Each state has consolidated instruments of coercion and force: While the state was expected to use
its force, its army or its police, to protect its citizens, in practice these forces could be deployed against
its own members to suppress dissent.
● Long-term solution to such problems: It lies in making the state more accountable through
meaningful democratisation and reining it in via an effective system of civil liberties.
● The struggle for democracy and human rights is thus closely linked to the safeguarding of peace.

Approaches to The Pursuit of Peace:

Different strategies have been used for the pursuit and maintenance of peace. These have been shaped by
three distinct approaches.
● Accords centrality to states, respects their sovereignty and treats competition among them as a
fact of life:
⮚ Main concern: The proper management of competition and with the containment of possible
conflict through inter-state arrangements like 'balance of power'.
⮚ Such a balance deterred potential aggressors and prevent the outbreak of a large-scale war.
● Stresses the positive presence and possibilities of interdependence:
⮚ Despite granting the deep-rooted nature of interstate rivalry it underscores the growing social and
economic cooperation among nations which is expected to temper state sovereignty and promote
international understanding.
⮚ Consequently, global conflict would be reduced, leading to better prospects of peace.
⮚ For example- Post-World War II Europe secured durable peace by graduating from economic
PEACE

integration to political unification.

● Envisages the emergence of a supra-national order:

41
 ⮚ It considers the state system to be a passing phase of human history and sees the fostering of a
global community as the surest guarantee of peace.
⮚ The seeds of such a community are found in the expanding interactions and coalitions across state
boundaries that involve diverse non-governmental actors like multinational corporations and
people's movements.
⮚ Criticism: The ongoing process of globalisation is further eroding the already diminished primacy
and sovereignty of the state and thereby creating conditions conducive to the establishment of
world peace.

UN embody all three approaches:

● The Security Council, which gives permanent membership and veto power (the right to shoot down a
proposal even if it is supported by other members) to five dominant states, reflects the prevalent
international hierarchy.
● The Economic and Social Council promotes inter-state cooperation in several spheres.
● The Commission on Human Rights seeks to shape and apply transnational norms.

Contemporary challenges:
● Failure of UNO in preventing and eliminating threats to peace:
⮚ Dominant states have asserted their sovereignty and sought to shape regional power structures
and the international system according to their own perceptions and priorities.
⮚ To fulfill their needs, they have even resorted to direct military action against and occupation of
foreign territories. For example- The recent US intervention in Afghanistan.
● Rise of terrorism:
⮚ It is partly a response to the self-serving and ham-handed conduct of the aggressive states.
⮚ Terrorists currently pose a great threat to peace through an adroit and ruthless use of modern
weapons and advanced technology more generally. For example- The demolition of the WTO by
Islamic militants on 11 September 2001.
⮚ The use of biological/chemical/nuclear weapons of mass destruction by these forces remains a
frightening possibility.
● Failure of global community:
⮚ It has failed in curbing rapacity of the domineering powers and the guerrilla tactics of the terrorists.
⮚ It has also often served as a mute spectator of genocide — the systematic massacre of an entire
group of people.
⮚ For example- Rwanda witnessed the murder of nearly half a million Tutsis by Hutus during 1994.
Despite the availability of intelligence before the killing began, there was no international
intervention. The UN refused to authorise its peace-keeping operation in Rwanda to stop the
carnage.
PEACE

42
 Peace Is Not A Lost Cause:
● Non-Militarisation: After World War II, countries like Japan and Costa Rica decided not to maintain
military forces.
● Nuclear-weapon free zone: There are six such zones which have been achieved or are in the process of
acceptance, covering the Antarctic territory, Latin America and the Caribbean, South-East Asia, Africa,
the South Pacific, and Mongolia.
● End of Cold War: The disintegration of the USSR in 1991 put a full stop to the era of military (especially
nuclear) rivalry between the superpowers and removed a major threat to international security.
● Peace movements:
⮚ There has been rise of numerous popular initiatives aimed at fostering peace.
⮚ The devastation caused by the two World Wars galvanised the movement.
⮚ It has since gathered momentum and gained a large following across geographical and political
barriers.
⮚ The movement is sustained by people from diverse walks of life and includes workers, writers,
scientists, teachers, media persons, priests and statesmen.
⮚ It has achieved depth by forging mutually beneficial linkages with other movements such as those
championing the empowerment of women and protection of the environment.
⮚ The movement has also created a body of knowledge called Peace Studies and effectively used
new channels of communication such as the internet.

Mahatama Gandhi on Non-Violence:

● A non-violent act is thought to be one that does not cause physical injury. Gandhi changed this
meaning in two fundamental ways.
⮚ For him, non-violence meant not just refraining from causing physical harm, mental harm or loss
of livelihood. It also meant giving up even the thought of harming someone. Gandhi's notion of
violence was close to 'structural violence'.
⮚ Give the idea of nonviolence a positive meaning. Not causing harm was not enough. Ahimsa
required an element of conscious compassion. Gandhi was opposed to passive spiritualism. For him
non-violence meant a positive and active pursuit of well-being and goodness.
● In 1990, Iraq invaded oil rich neighbour Kuwait and justified the war by asserting that Kuwaiti
territory had been an Iraqi province arbitrarily cut off by imperialism and by accusing Kuwait of slant
drilling into Iraq's oil supplies.
● Pacifism preaches opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes. It covers a spectrum of
views ranging from a preference for diplomacy in resolving international disputes to absolute
opposition to the use of violence, or even force, in any circumstance.
● “All wrong-doing arises because of mind. If mind is transformed can wrong-doing remain?” – Gautam
Buddha.
PEACE

“I object to violence because when it appears to do good, the good is only temporary; the evil it does is
permanent” – Mahatma Gandhi.

43
 Interesting points

● Nuclear-weapon free zone: The zone where the use, development or deployment of nuclear weapons
is banned through an internationally recognised treaty.
● The Khmer Rouge Regime in Cambodia:
⮚ It was a horrific example of the counter-productive nature of revolutionary violence.
⮚ An outcome of the insurrection led by Pol Pot, the regime sought to institute a communist order
geared to the liberation of the oppressed peasantry.

PEACE

44
 DEVELOPMENT
10
Development understanding could mechanically follow a model which has been previously used in our own,
or other countries, or could plan keeping in mind the good of the society as a whole as well as the rights of
those people whose lives may be directly affected by development projects.
● In the broadest sense of the term, development conveys the ideas of improvement, progress, well-
being and an aspiration for a better life.
● Through its notion of development, a society articulates what constitutes its vision for the society as a
whole and how best to achieve it.
● It is also often used in a narrower sense to refer to more limited goals such as increasing the rate of
economic growth or modernising the society.
Development has unfortunately often come to be identified with achieving pre-set targets, or completing
projects like dams, or factories, hospitals, rather than with realising the broader vision of development which
the society upholds.

Controversy in study of development:

● Issues such as whether the rights of people have been respected in the course of development.
● Whether the benefits and burdens of development have been justly distributed.
● Whether decisions regarding development priorities have been democratically made.
The models of development which have been adopted in different countries have become the subject of
debate and criticism and alternative models have been put forward.

The Challenge of Development:

● The concept of development gained importance after the second half of the twentieth century.
Countries were often described as 'underdeveloped' or 'developing' in their comparison with the richer
countries in Western Europe and the United States.
● In the 1950s and 1960s:
⮚ Political independence: Most countries of Asia and Africa had achieved independence from
colonial rule.
⮚ Reason for their backwardness: Under colonial rule their resources had been used not for their own
benefit but for the benefit of their colonial masters.
⮚ Urgent task: To solve the pressing problems of poverty, malnourishment, unemployment, illiteracy
etc.
⮚ Method to Achieve Development: With Independence, new nations could reorganise their
resources and formulate policies to overcome their backwardness and move towards achieving the
standards of their former colonial masters.
DEVELOPMENT

Concept of Development is Dynamic:

● In the initial years the focus was on catching up with the west in terms of economic growth and
modernisation of societies through faster economic growth through industrialisation, modernisation
of agriculture and extending and modernising education.

45
 ● Many countries embarked upon ambitious projects of development, often with the help of loans and
aid from the developed countries.
● In India:
⮚ A series of Five-Year Plans for development were made starting from the 1950s and included a
number of mega projects such as the Bhakra Nangal Dam, setting up steel plants in different parts
of the country, mining, fertilizer production etc.
⮚ It was hoped that a multipronged strategy would have an impact on the economy and significantly
increase the wealth of the country.
⮚ It was also hoped that the emerging prosperity would gradually 'trickle down' to the poorest
sections of society and help to reduce inequality.
⮚ New educational institutions like the IIT were set up and in collaboration with advanced countries in
order to have access to their knowledge became a top priority.
⮚ It was believed that the process of development would make the society more modern and forward
looking and set it on the path of growth.

Criticisms of Development models:

Critics of development have pointed out that the kind of development models which have been adopted in
many countries has proved very costly for the developing countries.

The Social Costs of Development:

This model of development has had high social costs.
● Large scale displacement: A large number of people have been displaced due to the construction of
big dams, industrial etc. which results in loss of livelihood and increases impoverishment.
⮚ If rural agricultural communities are displaced from their traditional occupations and regions they
end up at the margins of society.
● Loss of traditional skills acquired over an extended period.
● Loss of culture: They lose a whole way of community life due to relocation.
● Movement against displacement:
⮚ For example- 'Narmada Bachao Andolan' led a movement against the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the
river Narmada for many years.
⮚ Supporters of this big dam: It will generate electricity, help irrigate large areas of land and also
provide drinking water to the desert areas of Kutch and Saurashtra.
⮚ Opposition: Almost one million people have been displaced and have lost their lands through
submergence, or construction.
DEVELOPMENT

Environmental Costs of Development:

Development has indeed caused a high degree of environmental degradation in many countries.
● The 'tsunami' effect that hit the South and South-East Asian coasts in 2004 extended due to
destruction of mangroves and the building of commercial enterprises along the shoreline.

46
 ● Global warming: The ice in the Arctic and Antarctic is melting because of increased emission of
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
● In the short term, indiscriminate use of resources tends to adversely affect the under-privileged
more sharply.
● Energy intense Development Model:
⮚ Most of the energy generated currently is from non-renewable sources like coal.
⮚ Large tracts of the Amazon rainforests are being deforested in order to provide for the increased
consumer needs.

Assessing Development:
● Not only negative results: Some countries have had some success in increasing their rate of economic
growth and even in reducing poverty.
● Negatives:
⮚ Inequalities have not been seriously reduced and poverty continues to be a problem in the
developing world.
⮚ A country may have high rates of growth but that doesn't necessarily translate into a fair
distribution of its benefits.
⮚ When economic growth and redistribution do not go together, the benefits are likely to be cornered
by those who are already privileged.
Development is now being viewed in broader terms as a process which should improve the quality of life of
all the people.
● Basic needs approach: Development should be a process which allows more and more people to make
meaningful choices and the pre-condition for this is the fulfilment of basic needs like food, education,
health and shelter.
● Alternative Ways of Measuring Development: For example- Human Development Report which is
annually brought out by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). This report ranks
countries on the basis of their performance in social indicators like literacy and education levels, life
expectancy and maternal mortality rates. This measure is called the Human Development Index.
● Freedom from want or deprivation is the key to effectively exercising one's choices and pursuing one's
desires.

Alternative Conceptions of Development:

There is a need to think of alternative ways of understanding and pursuing development which are equitable
and sustainable.
DEVELOPMENT

Right Claims:
● One of the issues which has been raised is regarding the protections that affected people can claim
from the State and the society as a whole.
● In a democracy people need to have a right be consulted in decisions directly affecting them.

47
 ● Understanding resources as common to humanity include future generations also.
● Negotiating the competing demands of different sections of a population as well as achieving a
balance between the claims of the present and future is the task of democracies.

Democratic Participation:
● If everyone in a society has a common stake in achieving a better life, then everyone needs to be
involved in formulating the plans of development and in devising ways of implementing them.
● Reasons for democratic participation:
⮚ Person knows best about their specific needs.
⮚ Being an active part of the decision-making process is empowering.
⮚ Both democracy and development are concerned with realising the common good.
⮚ In democratic countries, the right of people to participate in decision-making is emphasized.
● Ensuring participation:
⮚ Increasing powers of local bodies: To allow local decision-making bodies to take decisions about
development projects in the local area.
⮚ People have to be consulted on issues affecting them and it should be possible to reject projects
which can adversely affect the community.
⮚ It allows people to direct resources towards their needs.
● A decentralised approach to development makes it possible to use various kinds of technologies —
traditional and modern — in a creative manner.

Development and Lifestyle:

● An alternative model of development would also try to move away from the high cost, ecologically
wasteful, technology driven notion of development.
● Development should not be measured not only in numbers but by the quality of life enjoyed by people
in terms of happiness and harmony and satisfaction of essential needs.
● Efforts should be made to use environment friendly methods:
⮚ To conserve natural resources and use renewable sources of energy. For example- rainwater
harvesting, solar and bio-gas plants, micro-hydel projects, etc.
⮚ Such activities have to take place at a local level and therefore demand higher involvement from
people.
⮚ Small projects: Opponents of big dams have advocated a series of small dams which require much
less investment, cause minimal displacement etc.
● Changing lifestyles to scale down need for non-renewable resources:
DEVELOPMENT

⮚ Possibility of alternative lifestyles could mean increasing avenues for freedom and creativity by
opening up alternative visions of the good life.
⮚ Any such policy would call for a high degree of co-operation between governments and people
across countries.
⮚ An agreement is possible if development is understood as a process of enhancing one's freedoms

48
 and taking people as active participants in deciding development goals.
⮚ In the process, our notions of rights, freedom and justice would be extended.

● Environmentalism:
⮚ Environmentalists maintain that human beings should learn to live in harmony with the rhythms
of the ecosystem and not manipulate the natural environment to serve their immediate interests.
⮚ The roots of environmentalism can be traced back to the nineteenth-century revolt against
industrialisation.
⮚ Some well-known environmental groups include Green Peace and the World Wildlife Fund and
Chipko Movement emerged to protect the Himalayan forests in India.
● Ken Saro-Wiwa:
⮚ Oil had been found in the region of Ogoni in Nigeria in the 1950s.
⮚ Ken Saro-Wiwa, an Ogoni by birth, was recognised as an author, journalist and television producer
in the 1980s.
⮚ He observed and reacted to the exploitation around him as the oil and gas industry took riches from
beneath the feet of the poor Ogoni farmers and in return left the land polluted and the people
disenfranchised.
⮚ He led a non-violent struggle with the launch of the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni
People (MOSOP) in 1990.
DEVELOPMENT

49
NCERT NOTES
FOR POLITY
12th Standard
Contemporary World Politics
CONTENTS
The Cold War Era ........................................................................................................................... 1 - 8

The End of Bipolarity ................................................................................................................... 9 - 16

US Hegemony in World Politics ............................................................................................ 17 - 24

Alternative Centres of Power ................................................................................................ 25 - 34

Contemporary South Asia ...................................................................................................... 35 - 41

International Organisations .................................................................................................... 42 - 50

Security in the Contemporary World .................................................................................. 51 - 57

Environment and Natural Resources ................................................................................... 58 - 65

Globalization ............................................................................................................................... 66 - 69
 THE COLD WAR ERA
1
The Cold War referred to the competition, the tensions and a series of confrontations between the United
States and the Soviet Union, backed by their respective allies.
The Cold War along with power rivalries, military alliances, and balance of power was accompanied by a real
ideological conflict, a difference over the best and the most appropriate way of organizing political,
economic, and social life all over the world.
The western alliance, headed by the US, represented the ideology of liberal democracy and capitalism
while the eastern alliance, headed by the Soviet Union, was committed to the ideology of socialism and
communism.
The end of the Second World War was a major landmark in contemporary world politics, amongst other
outcomes it set the stage for the beginning of the Cold War.

End of the Second World War:

● The war had involved almost all the major powers of the world and spread out to regions outside
Europe including Southeast Asia, China, Burma (now Myanmar) and parts of India's northeast.
● The world war ended when the United States dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, causing Japan to surrender.
● In 1945, the Allied Forces, led by the US, Soviet Union, Britain, and France declared victory over the
Axis Powers led by Germany, Italy and Japan, ending the Second World War (1939- 1945).
● Some opinions say that the US decision to drop atomic bombs was in fact a strategy to show the
Soviet Union that US was the supreme power and stop it from making gains in Asia and elsewhere.
● However, others have argued that supporters have argued that it was necessary to stop further loss of
lives and end the war quickly.

Results after end of the Second World War:

● The consequence of the end of the Second World War was the rise of two new powers on the global
stage. With the defeat of Germany and Japan, the devastation of Europe and in many other parts of
the world, the United States and the Soviet Union became the greatest powers in the world with the
ability to influence events anywhere on earth.
● Concept of deterrence: Destruction caused by the use of atom bombs is too costly for any country to
bear. When two rival powers are in possession of nuclear weapons capable of inflicting death and
destruction unacceptable to each other, a full-fledged war is unlikely.
⮚ In this sense, the concept of deterrence was also a reason of a Cold War instead of a full-fledged
war.
⮚ The Cold War - despite being an intense form of rivalry between great powers - remained a 'cold'
and not hot or shooting war.
⮚ The deterrence relationship prevents war but not the rivalry between powers.

The Emergence of Two Power Blocs:

After the second world war two world power blocs, led by the US and the USSR arose.

1
Concept of Power Blocs:
● The two superpowers (US and USSR) were keen on expanding their spheres of influence in different
parts of the world.
● They came out with the alliance system, under which a state was supposed to remain tied to its
protective superpower to limit the influence of the other superpower and its allies in the surrounding
regions.
● The smaller states got the promise of protection, weapons, and economic aid against their local rivals,
mostly regional neighbors with whom they had rivalries.
● The alliance systems led by the two superpowers threatened to divide the entire world into two camps.
This division happened first in Europe.
● Most countries of western Europe sided with the US and those of eastern Europe joined the Soviet
camp. That is why these were also called the 'western' and the 'eastern' alliances.

Fig. 1.1: Map showing the way Europe was divided into rival alliances during the Cold War

Reasons for establishment of Alliance System:

● Material Reasons: Superpowers could gain access to vital resources, such as oil and minerals, territory
to establish military establishments, economic support, in that many small allies together could help
pay for military expenses.
● Ideological Reasons: The subscription of allies, to a particular ideology of either communism or
capitalism, proved that a particular ideology was superior and hence the superpower was winning.

Impacts:
● Formation of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): The western alliance was formalized into
an organization, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), established in April 1949.

2
 ⮚ NATO was an association of twelve states which declared that armed attack on any one of them in
Europe or North America would be regarded as an attack on all of them.
● Warsaw Pact: The eastern alliance, came to be known as the Warsaw Pact, established in 1955.
⮚ Its principal function was to counter NATO's forces in Europe.
⮚ Europe became the main arena of conflict between the superpowers.
● In East and Southeast Asia and in West Asia (Middle East), the United States built an alliance system
called, Southeast Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and the Central Treaty Organisation
(CENTO).
● The Soviet Union and communist China responded by having close relations with regional countries
such as North Vietnam, North Korea and Iraq.

Resistance to the Alliance System:

● The Cold War threatened to divide the world into two alliances. Under these circumstances, many of
the newly independent countries, were worried that they would lose their freedom.
● Communist China quarreled with the USSR towards the late 1950s, and, in 1969, they fought a brief
war over a territorial dispute.
● Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) also emerged as a new organization which gave the newly
independent countries a way of staying out of the alliances.

Benefits of smaller states for Superpowers:

The smaller states were helpful for the superpowers in gaining access to:
● Vital resources, such as oil and minerals,
● Territory, from where the superpowers could launch their weapons and troops,
● Locations from where they could spy on each other
● Economic support, in that many small allies together could help pay for military expenses.
● They were also important for ideological reasons. The loyalty of allies suggested that the superpowers
were winning the war of ideas as well, that liberal democracy and capitalism were better than
socialism and communism, or vice versa.

Arenas of the Cold War:

Arenas refer to the areas where crisis and war occurred or threatened to occur between the alliance
systems but did not cross certain limits. Certain such instances include:
● Confrontations happened in Korea (1950 - 53), Berlin (1958 - 62), the Congo (the early 1960s),
Vietnam and Afghanistan.
● Many lives were lost in these arenas however it did not lead to a full-scale nuclear war.

Impacts of these crises:

● Mutual suspicions led the alliances to arm themselves to constantly prepare for war.
● Huge stocks of arms were considered necessary to prevent wars from taking place.

3
 ● The two sides understood that war might occur in spite of restraint.

Efforts at reducing Cold War crises:

● Non-aligned countries played a role in reducing Cold War conflicts and averting some grave crises.
⮚ Jawaharlal Nehru — one of the key leaders of the NAM — played a crucial role in mediating
between the two Koreas.
● In the Congo crisis, the UN Secretary-General played a key mediatory role.
● Most importantly, it was the realization on the part of the superpowers, that maximum restraint should
be followed in International Affairs and war to be avoided as far as possible.

Realization about Arms Control:

● Since the Cold War did not eliminate rivalries between the two alliances, for the time being therefore,
the US and USSR decided to collaborate in limiting or eliminating certain kinds of nuclear and non-
nuclear weapons.
● Thus, a system of 'arms control' was to be established.
● Starting in the 1960s, the two sides signed three significant agreements within a decade. These were:
⮚ Limited Test Ban Treaty
⮚ Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
⮚ Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty

Fig. 1.2: Arms Control Activities

4
 ● Thereafter, the superpowers held several rounds of arms limitation talks and signed several more
treaties to limit their arms.

Cuban Missile Crisis:

● In April 1961, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was worried that the United States of
America (USA) would invade communist-ruled Cuba and overthrow Fidel Castro, the president of the
nation.
● Cuba was an ally of the Soviet Union.
● Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of the Soviet Union, decided to convert Cuba into a Russian base.

● In 1962, Khrushchev placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. The installations could be used to target the US
at their home. The US became aware of it and wanted to counter it.
● The US President, John F. Kennedy, and his advisers were reluctant to do anything that might lead to
full-scale nuclear war between the two countries.
● Kennedy ordered American warships to intercept any Soviet ships heading to Cuba as a way of
warning the USSR of his seriousness. This came to be known as the Cuban Missile Crisis.
The prospects of this clash made the whole world nervous due to the confrontation between two nuclear
armed superpowers and the destructive capabilities with them.

Fig. 1.3 The Cold War Timeline

5
Challenge to Bipolarity (NAM):
Bipolarity is a term used to describe the system of world order during Cold War, where Global Influence
was spread between two states of US and USSR.
● Non-Alignment, came as an alternative structure and provided newly decolonized countries an
alternative, of not joining any power bloc.
This, came in the form of Non-Aligned Movement (NAM):
● The roots of NAM went back to the friendship between three leaders Yugoslavia's Josip Broz Tito,
India's Jawaharlal Nehru, and Egypt's leader Gamal Abdel Nasser supported by Indonesia's
Sukarno and Ghana's Kwame Nkrumah.
● These five leaders came to be known as the five founders of NAM.

Evolution of NAM:
● Three major factors contributed to the formation of NAM:
⮚ Cooperation among these five countries.
⮚ Growing Cold War tensions and its widening arenas
⮚ The dramatic entry of many newly decolonized African countries into the international arena.
● The first non-aligned summit was held in Belgrade in 1961, which led to its formal establishment
(attended by 25 member states). Over the years, the membership of NAM has expanded.
● As non-alignment grew into a popular international movement, countries of various different political
systems and interests joined it.
● The latest meeting, the 18th summit, was held in Azerbaijan in 2019. It included 120 member states
and 17 observer countries.

Purpose of NAM:
● Due to the membership of varied political systems, the movement became less homogeneous and it
became more difficult to define that what exactly NAM stood for.
● NAM was easier to define in terms of what it was not. It was not about being a member of an alliance.
● Non-Alignment is not isolationism since isolationism means remaining aloof from world affairs.
⮚ In comparison, the non-aligned countries, including India, played an active role in mediating
between the two rival alliances in the cause of peace and stability.
● Non-alignment is also not neutrality which refers principally to a policy of staying out of war.
⮚ States practicing neutrality are not required to help end a war. They do not get involved in wars and
do not take any position on the appropriateness or morality of a war.
● They also worked to prevent war between others and tried to end wars that had broken out.

New International Economic Order:

● A majority of Non-Aligned countries were categorized as the Least Developed Countries (LDCs).
● Economic development was also vital for the independence of the new countries.
● To remain free of influence in true sense, a country needs to be economically developed.

6
 ● This realization led to the idea of a New International Economic Order (NIEO).
● Linked to this idea, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) brought
out a report in 1972 entitled Towards a New Trade Policy for Development.
● The report proposed a reform of the global trading system so as to:
⮚ Give the LDCs control over their natural resources exploited by the developed Western countries
⮚ Obtain access to Western markets so that the LDCs could sell their products and, therefore, make
trade more beneficial for the poorer countries.
⮚ Reduce the cost of technology from the Western countries.
⮚ Provide the LDCs with a greater role in international economic institutions.
Gradually, NAM started giving more importance to economic issues and slowly became an economic
pressure group. Although, by 1980s NIEO faded due to opposition from developed countries.

India in NAM during the Cold War:

India's response to Cold War was two-fold:
● Staying away from the two alliances.
● Raising voice against the newly decolonized countries becoming part of these alliances.
Also, as a leader of NAM, India's policy was not that of fleeing away from world affairs but involved active
participation in world affairs to ease out the rivalries. India played an active role, in preventing differences
to rise to a full-scale war. India also tried to involve other international organizations, which were not part
of the alliance system to partner in this pursuit.

Positive impacts of NAM on India:

● India could take a stand on global issues based on its own interests.
● India could tilt the balance in favor of one superpower if neglected by the other. Hence it could not be
bullied easily.

Criticism of India's NAM Policy:

● India's policy was unprincipled that is in the name of national interest, India did not speak upon some
crucial international issues.
● India's policy was inconsistent, while criticizing others for joining alliances, India itself signed a Treaty
of Friendship in August 1971 with the USSR for 20 years.
⮚ Government of India however holds that India needed diplomatic and possibly military support
during the Bangladesh crisis and hence signed the treaty.
With time and circumstances NAM has lost some of its' earlier relevance, however apart from being a
movement it was based upon the core ideas that small nations could become powerful if united and
democratization of international order to bridge inequalities.

Interesting Points:
A brief about the founding fathers of NAM:

7
● Josip Broz Tito (1892-1980): Fought against Germany in World War II; communist; maintained some
distance from the Soviet Union; forged unity in Yugoslavia.
● Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964): First Prime Minister of India (1947-64); made efforts for Asian unity,
decolonization, nuclear disarmament; advocated peaceful coexistence for securing world peace.
● Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-70): Ruled Egypt from 1952 to 1970; espoused the causes of Arab
nationalism, socialism and anti-imperialism; nationalized the Suez Canal, leading to an international
conflict in 1956.
● Sukarno (1901-70): First President of Indonesia (1945- 67); led the freedom struggle; espoused the
causes of socialism and anti-imperialism; organised the Bandung Conference; overthrown in a military
coup
● Kwame Nkrumah (1909-72): First Prime Minister of Ghana (1952- 66); led the freedom movement;
advocated the causes of socialism and African unity; opposed neocolonialism; removed in a military
coup.
● Fat Man' and 'Little Boy': bombs dropped by the US on Hiroshima (the bomb was codenamed 'Little
Boy') and Nagasaki (code-named 'Fat Man'). The yield of Little Boy and Fat Man were 15 and 21
kilotons respectively.
● Division of Countries:

Fig. 1.4: First, second and Third world Countries

8
 THE END OF BIPOLARITY
2
The Berlin Wall, which had been built at the height of the Cold War and was its greatest symbol, was
toppled by the people in 1989. This dramatic event was followed by an equally dramatic and historic
chain of events that led to the collapse of the 'second world' and the end of the Cold War. Germany,
divided after the Second World War, was unified. One after another, the eight East European countries
that were part of the Soviet bloc replaced their communist governments in response to mass
demonstrations. The Soviet Union stood by as the Cold War began to end, not by military means but as a
result of mass actions by ordinary men and women. Eventually the Soviet Union itself disintegrated and
resultantly an end to the bipolar world.

The Soviet System:

● The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) came into being after the socialist revolution in Russia
in 1917.
● The revolution was inspired by the ideals of socialism, as opposed to capitalism, and the need for an
egalitarian society. This was perhaps the biggest attempt in human history to abolish the institution
of private property and consciously design a society based on principles of equality.
● To do so, the makers of the Soviet system gave primacy to the state and the institution of the party.
● The Soviet political system centered around the communist party, and no other political party or
opposition was allowed.
● The economy was planned and controlled by the state.

Evolution of USSR:
● Eastern European countries which were liberated during the Second World War by USSR, now came
under its control.
● This group of countries came to be known as the Second World or 'Socialist Bloc' (with USSR as the
leader)
● The Warsaw Pact, a military alliance, held them together. The Soviet Union became a great power
after the Second World War.

Strengths of the Soviet System:

● The Soviet economy was then more developed than the rest of the world except for the US.
● Complex communications network, vast energy resources including oil, iron and steel, machinery
THE END OF BIPOLARITY

production, and developed transport sector existed.

● A vast and well diversified consumer goods industry existed.
● The Soviet state ensured a minimum standard of living for all citizens, and the government
subsidized necessities including health, education, childcare and other welfare schemes.
● There was no unemployment.
● Land and productive assets were owned and controlled by the Soviet state.

9
Weaknesses of the Soviet System:
● The Soviet system became very bureaucratic and authoritarian.
● Lack of democracy and the absence of freedom of speech.
● The one-party system represented by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union had tight control over
all institutions and was unaccountable to the people.
● The party did not recognize the urge of diverse people of 15 republics that formed the Soviet Union to
let them manage their own affairs. Under USSR Russia dominated everything, and people from other
regions felt neglected and often suppressed.
● The arms race between US and USSR, costed a lot to the Soviet Economy.
● It lacked behind the West in technology, infrastructure (e.g., transport, power), and most importantly,
in fulfilling the political or economic aspirations of citizens.
● Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 weakened their system further.
● Though wages continued to grow, productivity and technology fell considerably behind that of the
West. This led to shortages in all consumer goods. Food imports increased every year.
● The Soviet economy was faltering in the late 1970s and became stagnant.

Disintegration of the Soviet Union:

● Mikhail Gorbachev become General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1985
and sought to reform the system.
● He started to normalize relations with the west and democratize the soviet system.
● When people from various Eastern European Countries started to protest against their own
governments, the central government did not intervene.
● Gorbachev, initiated policies of economic and political reforms, rooting for democratization. This led
to internal opposition from party leaders, and ultimately led to a coup in 1991.
● The people had learned about democracy and freedom, hence opposed the coupe and old-style
communist party rule.
● Boris Yeltsin emerged as a National Hero in opposing the coup. His winning of a popular election in his
republic led to the shaking off centralized control.
● Power began to shift from the Soviet centre to the republics, especially in the more Europeanized part
of the Soviet Union, which saw themselves as sovereign states.
● In December 1991, under the leadership of Yeltsin, Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, three major republics THE END OF BIPOLARITY
of the USSR, declared that the Soviet Union was disbanded.
● The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was banned. Capitalism and democracy were adopted as
the bases for the post-Soviet republics.
● Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was formed.
● Russia was accepted as the successor state of the Soviet Union. It inherited the Soviet seat in the UN
Security Council.
● Russia accepted all the international treaties and commitments of the Soviet Union. It took over as the
only nuclear state of the post-Soviet space and carried out some nuclear disarmament measures with

10
 the US.

Reasons of disintegration:
● Internal weaknesses: the internal weaknesses of Soviet political and economic institutions, which
failed to meet the aspirations of the people, were responsible for the collapse of the system.
● Economic stagnation: Economic stagnation for many years led to severe consumer shortages and a
large section of Soviet society began to doubt and question the system and to do so openly.
● Arms and Space race with USA: The Soviet economy used much of its resources in maintaining a
nuclear and military arsenal and the development of its satellite states in Eastern Europe and within
the Soviet system (the five Central Asian Republics in particular). This led to a huge economic burden
that the system could not cope with.
● Awareness about Democratic Ideas: ordinary citizens became more knowledgeable about the
economic advance of the West. They could see the disparities between their system and the systems
of the West.
⮚ After years of being told that the Soviet system was better than Western capitalism, the reality of
its backwardness came as a political and psychological shock.
● Administrative and political Nature: The Soviet Union had become stagnant in an administrative and
political sense as well.
⮚ The Communist Party that had ruled the Soviet Union for over 70 years was not accountable to the
people. Ordinary people were alienated by slow and stifling administration, rampant corruption,
the inability of the system to correct mistakes it had made, the unwillingness to allow more
openness in government, and the centralisation of authority in a vast land.
⮚ The party bureaucrats gained more privileges than ordinary citizens. People did not identify with
the system and with the rulers, and the government increasingly lost popular backing.
● Gorbachev's reforms: Gorbachev promised to reform the economy, catch up with the West, and
loosen the administrative system. when Gorbachev carried out his reforms and loosened the system,
he set in motion forces and expectations that few could have predicted and became virtually
impossible to control.
⮚ There were sections of Soviet society which felt that Gorbachev should have moved much faster
and were disappointed and impatient with his methods. They did not benefit in the way they had
hoped, or they benefited too slowly.
THE END OF BIPOLARITY

⮚ Especially members of the Communist Party and those who were served by the system felt that
their power and privileges were eroding, and Gorbachev was moving too quickly.
⮚ Gorbachev lost support on all sides and divided public opinion. Even those who were with him
became disillusioned as they felt that he did not adequately defend his own policies.
● The rise of nationalism: The rise of nationalism and the desire for sovereignty within various
republics including Russia and the Baltic Republics (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), Ukraine,
Georgia, and others proved to be the final and most immediate cause for the disintegration of the
USSR. Gorbachev's reforms speeded up and increased nationalist dissatisfaction to the point that

11
 the government and rulers could not control it.

Consequences of Disintegration:
The collapse of the second world of the Soviet Union and the socialist systems in eastern Europe had
profound consequences for world politics.
● It meant the end of Cold War confrontations. The ideological dispute between capitalist and socialist
system was over. Heavy militarization and arms race during the cold war period, disintegration of
Soviet meant a possible new peace and an end to this trend.
● The US became the sole superpower in a unipolar world. The capitalist economy was now the
dominant economic system internationally.
● Institutions like the World Bank and International Monetary Fund became powerful advisors to
erstwhile communist countries since they gave them loans for their transitions to capitalism.
● Politically, the notion of liberal democracy emerged as the best way to organize political life.
● Emergence of many new countries was there, with their independent choices and aspirations.
● The international system saw many new players emerge, each with its own identity, interests, and
economic and political difficulties.

THE END OF BIPOLARITY

Fig. 2.1: Timeline of disintegration of the Soviet Union

Tensions and Conflicts Post Disintegration:

● In Russia, two republics, Chechnya and Dagestan, have had violent secessionist movements.
⮚ Subsequently the Russian Government's response to suppress Chechen rebels involved military

12
 bombings and many human right violations.
● Tajikistan witnessed a civil war that went on for ten years till 2001.
● In Azerbaijan's province of Nagorno-Karabakh, some local Armenians want to secede and join
Armenia.
● In Georgia, the demand for independence came from two provinces, resulting in a civil war.
⮚ Countries and provinces are fighting over river waters.
● All this has led to instability, making life difficult for the ordinary citizen.
● Czechoslovakia split peacefully into two, with the Czechs and the Slovaks forming independent
countries.
● Balkan republics of Yugoslavia broke apart with several provinces like Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia
and Herzegovina declaring independence.
⮚ Ethnic Serbs opposed this, and a massacre of non-Serb Bosnians followed.
⮚ The NATO intervention and the bombing of Yugoslavia followed the inter-ethnic civil war

Fig. 2.2: Map of Central, Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States

Shock-Therapy in Post-Communist Regimes:

THE END OF BIPOLARITY

The collapse of communism was followed in most of these old communist countries by a painful process
of transition from an authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist system.
The model of transition in Russia, Central Asia and east Europe that was influenced by the World Bank
and the IMF came to be known as 'shock therapy'.

Features of Shock Therapy:

● Total shift to a capitalist economy.
● Private ownership was to be the dominant pattern of ownership of property.

13
 ● Privatisation of state assets and corporate ownership patterns were to be immediately brought in.
● Collective farms were to be replaced by private farming and capitalism in agriculture.
● Ruled out any alternate or 'third way', other than state-controlled socialism or capitalism.
● Complete switch to free trade.
● The free trade regime and foreign direct investment (FDI) were to be the main engines of change
● Openness to foreign investment, financial opening up or deregulation, and currency convertibility.
● A breakup of the existing trade alliances among the countries of the Soviet bloc.
● Linked directly to the West and not to each other in the region.

Consequences of Shock Therapy:

Economic Consequences:
● In Russia, the large state-controlled industries were put up for sale to the private individuals and
companies at throwaway prices (also termed as the Largest Garage Sale in History).
● Due to market-controlled restructuring of the markets, instead of government policies led to the virtual
disappearance of entire industries.
● The value of the Ruble, the Russian currency, declined dramatically.
● Very high rates on inflation. End of collective farm systems led to the problem of food security in
Russia.
● The old trading structure broke down with no alternative in its place. The real GDP of Russia in 1999
was below what it was in 1989.

Social Consequences:
● System of Social Welfare was destroyed.
● The withdrawal of government subsidies pushed large sections of the people into poverty.
● Middle classes suffered loss of incomes, and the intellectuals migrated outside.
● A mafia emerged in most of these countries and started controlling many economic activities.
● Social and economic disparities between rich and poor emerged.

Political Consequences:
● Building of Democratic Institutions was not given adequate attention.
● Constitutions were drafted in hurry, rendering faulty political systems in some instances. THE END OF BIPOLARITY
● A judicial culture and independence of the judiciary was yet to be established in most of these
countries.
However, most of these economies, especially Russia, started reviving in 2000. The reason for the revival
for most of their economies was the export of natural resources like oil, natural gas and minerals.
Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are major oil and gas producers. Other
countries have gained because of the oil pipelines that cross their territories for which they get rent.
Some amount of manufacturing has restarted.

14
 India and Post-Communist Countries:
● India has maintained good relations with all the post-communist countries.
● But the strongest relations are still those between Russia and India, forming an important part of
India's Foreign Policy.

Indo-Russian Relations:
● Indo-Russian relations enjoy historical links and deep trust. Even the popular culture has linkages, like
Bollywood enjoys considerable popularity in Russia and other post-soviet nations.
● Russia and India share a vision of a multipolar world order.

Multipolar World Order:

Multipolarity means, the co-existence of several powers in the international system, collective security (in
which an attack on any country is regarded as a threat to all countries and requires a collective response),
greater regionalism, negotiated settlements of international conflicts, an independent foreign policy
for all countries, and decision making through bodies like the UN that should be strengthened,
democratized, and empowered.

● More than 80 bilateral agreements have been signed between India and Russia as part of the Indo-
Russian Strategic Agreement of 2001.
● India stands to benefit from its relationship with Russia on issues like Kashmir, energy supplies,
sharing information on international terrorism, access to Central Asia, and balancing its relations
with China.
● Oil Resources with Russia have helped India in circumstances of oil crisis within the country.
● Also, energy resources, with the republics of Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan are being looked forward
to by India.
● Russia is important for India's nuclear energy plans and assisted India's space industry by giving, for
example, the cryogenic rocket when India needed it. Russia and India have collaborated on various
scientific projects.

India-USSR Relations During the Cold war:

During the Cold War era, India and the USSR enjoyed a special relationship which led to say that India was
THE END OF BIPOLARITY

part of the Soviet camp. It was a multi-dimensional relationship:

● Economic: The Soviet Union assisted India's public sector companies. It gave aid and technical
assistance for steel plants like Bhilai, Bokaro, Visakhapatnam, and machinery plants like Bharat
Heavy Electricals Ltd., etc.
⮚ The Soviet Union accepted Indian currency for trade when India was short of foreign exchange.
● Political: The Soviet Union supported India's positions on the Kashmir issue in the UN.
⮚ It also supported India during its major conflicts, like war with Pakistan in 1971. India too
supported Soviet foreign policy in some crucial but indirect ways.

15
 ● Military: India received most of its military hardware from the Soviet Union at a time when few other
countries were willing to part with military technologies. The Soviet Union entered into various
agreements allowing India to jointly produce military equipment.
Culture: Hindi films and Indian culture were popular in the Soviet Union. A large number of Indian
writers and artists visited USSR.

Important Personalities:
● Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924): Founder of the Bolshevik Communist party; leader of the Russian
Revolution of 1917 and the founder-head of the USSR during the most difficult period following the
revolution (1917-1924); an outstanding theoretician and practitioner of Marxism and a source of
inspiration for communists all over the world.
● Joseph Stalin (1879-1953): Successor to Lenin and led the Soviet Union during its consolidation
(1924-53); began rapid industrialisation and forcible collectivisation of agriculture; credited with
Soviet victory in the Second World War; held responsible for the Great Terror of the 1930s,
authoritarian functioning and elimination of rivals within the party.
● Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971): Leader of the Soviet Union (1953-64); denounced Stalin's
leadership style and introduced some reforms in 1956; suggested “peaceful coexistence” with the
West; involved in suppressing popular rebellion in Hungary and in the Cuban missile crisis.
● Leonid Brezhnev (1906-82): Leader of the Soviet Union (1964- 82); proposed Asian Collective
Security system; associated with the détente phase in relations with the US; involved in suppressing
a popular rebellion in Czechoslovakia and in invading Afghanistan.
● Mikhail Gorbachev (Born 1931): Last leader of the Soviet Union (1985-91); introduced economic
and political reform policies of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness); stopped the
arms race with the US; withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan and eastern Europe; helped in the
unification of Germany; ended the Cold War; blamed for the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
● Boris Yeltsin (1931-2007): The first elected President of Russia (1991- 1999); rose to power in the
Communist Party and was made the Mayor of Moscow by Gorbachev; later joined the critics of
Gorbachev and left the Communist Party; led the protests against the Soviet regime in 1991; played a
key role in dissolving the Soviet Union; blamed for hardships suffered by Russians in their transition
from communism to capitalism.
THE END OF BIPOLARITY

16
 US HEGEMONY IN WORLD POLITICS
3
End of Cold War left the US without any serious rival in the world. The era since then has been described
as a period of US dominance or a unipolar world. US hegemony began in 1991 after Soviet power
disappeared from the international scene.

Beginning of the New World Order:

There are two more observations regarding the start of this new world order, in terms of US hegemony.
● Firstly, some aspects of US hegemony started right after the end of Second World War in 1945.
● Secondly, the clarity about US's hegemonic behavior to the world came much later than 1991.
The major landmark events which, played a role in establishing US hegemony are as follows:

The First Gulf War:

● In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait and annexed it.
● Despite diplomatic efforts, Iraq did not retreat from Kuwait, thus mandating the liberation of Kuwait
through force by the United Nations (UN).
● Then US President George H.W. Bush hailed this the emergence of a 'new world order'.
● A massive coalition force from 34 countries fought against Iraq and defeated it in what came to be
known as the First Gulf War. However, the UN operation, which was called 'Operation Desert
Storm', was overwhelmingly American, as majority of forces were from the US.
● The US used 'smart bombs' in this war which led to many calling this a 'computer war'.
● The war was provided widespread television coverage, which also made it a 'video game war'.
● The First Gulf War revealed the vast technological gap that had opened up between the US military
capability and that of other states.
● It is believed that the US may actually have made a profit from the war. According to many reports, the
US received more money from countries like Germany, Japan and Saudi Arabia than it had spent on
the war.

US Involvement in Kosovo:
● During the presidency of Bill Clinton (1993-2001), the US was generally more engaged in its domestic
US HEGEMONY IN WORLD POLITICS

issues.
● However, in 1999, in response to Yugoslavian actions against the predominantly Albanian population
in the province of Kosovo.
● The air forces of the NATO countries, led by the US, bombarded targets around Yugoslavia for well
over two months.
● Forcing the downfall of the government of Slobodan Milosevic and the stationing of a NATO force in
Kosovo.

US actions against Al-Qaeda:

● US embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Tanzania were bombed in 1998 by the Al-Qaeda (a terror
organisation influenced by extremist Islamist ideas).

17
 ● Within a few days of this bombing, President Clinton ordered Operation “Infinite Reach”, a series of
cruise missile strikes were done on Al-Qaeda terrorist targets in Sudan and Afghanistan.
● The US did not bother about the UN sanction or provisions of international law in this regard.
● It was alleged that some of the targets were civilian facilities unconnected to terrorism.

9/11 and the Global War on Terror:

● On 11 September 2001, nineteen hijackers from Arab countries took control of four American
commercial aircrafts and flew them into important buildings in the US. These attacks have come to be
known as “9/11”. Nearly three thousand persons were killed.
● In terms of loss of life, 9/11 was the most severe attack on US soil since the founding of the country in
1776. The US response to 9/11 was swift and ferocious.
● The US presidency under George W. Bush launched 'Operation Enduring Freedom' under its 'Global
War on Terror' against all those suspected to be behind this attack mainly Al-Qaeda and the Taliban
regime in Afghanistan. The Taliban regime was easily overthrown.
● The US forces made arrests all over the world, often without the knowledge of the government of the
persons being arrested, transported these persons across countries and detained them in secret
prisons.
● Some of them were brought to Guantanamo Bay, a US Naval base in Cuba, where the prisoners did not
enjoy the protection of international law or the law of their own country or that of the US. Even the UN
representatives were not allowed to meet these prisoners.

The Iraq Invasion:

● On 19 March 2003, the US launched its invasion of Iraq under the codename 'Operation Iraqi
Freedom'.
● More than forty other countries joined in the US-led 'coalition of the willing' after the UN refused to
give its mandate to the invasion.
● The purpose of the invasion was to prevent Iraq from developing weapons of mass destruction

US HEGEMONY IN WORLD POLITICS

(WMD).
● However, as no evidence of WMD has been unearthed in Iraq, it is speculated that the invasion was
motivated by other objectives, such as controlling Iraqi oilfields and installing a regime friendly to the
US.
● Although the government of Saddam Hussein fell swiftly, the US has not been able to 'pacify' Iraq.
● Instead, a full-fledged insurgency against US occupation was ignited in Iraq.
● It is now widely recognized that the US invasion of Iraq was, in some crucial respects, both a military
and political failure.

18
 Hegemony:
Politics is about power. This power is in the form of military domination, economic power, political clout
and cultural superiority. Sometimes, the international system dominated by a sole superpower, or hyper-
power, is called a 'unipolar' system. This appears to be a misapplication of the idea of 'pole' derived from
physics. It may be more appropriate to describe an international system with only one centre of power by
the term 'hegemony'.
● The roots of the word hegemony lie in classical Greek. The word implies the leadership or
predominance of one state and was originally used to denote the preponderant position of Athens
vis-à-vis the other city-states of ancient Greece.
● Thus, the first meaning of hegemony relates to the relations, patterns and balances of military
capability between states.
● It is this notion of hegemony as military preponderance that is especially germane to the current
position and role of the US in world politics.

Hegemony as Hard Power:

● Hard Power relates to the military dominance of a country. Current position and power of the US in
world politics, largely stems out from its formidable military power.
● No other power is even remotely a match for US military capabilities. The US spends more on its
military capability than the next 12 powers combined. They spend a large amount on military research
and development.
● Thus, the military dominance of the US is not just based on higher military spending, but on a
qualitative gap, a technological chasm that no other power can at present conceivably span.
● However, from the invasion of Iraq, a weakness in US military ecosystem can be observed:
⮚ Imperial powers through history have used military forces to accomplish only four tasks: to
conquer, deter, punish and police.
⮚ As the Iraq invasion shows, the American capacity to conquer is formidable. Similarly, the US
US HEGEMONY IN WORLD POLITICS

capability to deter and to punish is self-evident.

⮚ Where US military capability has thus far been shown to have serious weaknesses is in policing
an occupied territory.

Commands
● Most armed forces in the world divide their areas of operation into various 'commands' which are
assigned to different commanders.
● US armed forces worked in six Commands.
● commands of the US military are not limited to the area of the United States; it extends to include the
whole world

19
 Fig. 3.1: US Command Structure

Hegemony as Structural Power:

● This notion of hegemony relates to world economy. The basic idea is that an open world economy
requires a hegemon or dominant power to support its creation and existence.
● The hegemon must possess both the ability and the desire to establish certain norms for order and
must sustain the global structure.
● The hegemon usually does this to its own advantage but often to its relative detriment, as its
competitors take advantage of the openness of the world economy without paying the costs of
maintaining its openness.
● In the contemporary sense, this role is played by the US in providing global public goods.
● By public goods we mean those goods that can be consumed by one person without reducing the
amount of the good available for someone else. Various examples include:
⮚ Sea lanes of communication (SLOCs), that is the sea routes commonly used by merchant ships.

US HEGEMONY IN WORLD POLITICS

o Free trade in an open world economy would not be possible without open SLOCs.
o Today the multi-oceanic US Navy is playing this role of ensuring freedom of navigation in the
international waters.
⮚ Another example is the Internet, which is the direct outcome of a US military research project that
began in 1950.
o Even today, the Internet relies on a global network of satellites, most of which are owned by the
US government.
● Also, The US also enjoys a lion's share of the world economy and the world trade.
⮚ There is not a single sector of the world economy in which an American firm does not feature in the
“top three” list.

20
 ⮚ The Bretton Woods system, set up by the US after the Second World War, still constitutes the basic
structure of the world economy.
⮚ Thus, we can regard the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Trade
Organisation (WTO) as the products of American hegemony.
● Another example is the academic degree called the Master's in Business Administration (MBA).
⮚ The idea of MBA is uniquely American, the first business school in the world, the Wharton School
at the University of Pennsylvania, was established in 1881.
⮚ The first MBA courses were initiated around 1900 in the US, outside the US it was established only
in 1950.

Hegemony as Soft Power:

● This third sense of hegemony is about the capacity to 'manufacture consent'. Here, hegemony implies
class ascendancy in the social, political, and particularly ideological spheres.
● Hegemony arises when the dominant class or country can win the consent of dominated classes, by
persuading the dominated classes to view the world in a manner favourable to the ascendancy of the
dominant class.
● The behaviour of the weaker countries is influenced in ways that favour the interests of the most
powerful country.
● The predominance of the US in the world today is based not only on its military power and economic
prowess, but also on its cultural presence.
● All ideas of the good life and personal success, most of the dreams of individuals and societies across
the globe, are dreams churned out by practices prevailing in 20thcentury America.
● America is the most seductive, and in this sense the most powerful, culture on earth.
● During the Cold War, the US found it difficult to score victories against the Soviet Union in the realm of
hard power. It was in the area of structural power and soft power that the US scored notable victories.
● Although the Soviet centrally planned economy provided an alternate model of internal economic
organisation, the world economy throughout the Cold War years remained a world capitalist economy.
● Hence, soft power goes hand in hand and is often more effective than hard power.
US HEGEMONY IN WORLD POLITICS

Constraints on American Power:

American power and hegemony are not however without any constraints. Some constraints on its powers
include:
● Firstly, in the institutional architecture of the American state, division of powers between the three
branches of government places significant brakes upon the unrestrained and immoderate exercise of
America's military power by the executive branch.
● Secondly, at times the domestic public opinion in the US is also deeply skeptical of political and
military methods of the American government, which in the long run, is a huge constraint on US
military action overseas.
● Thirdly, its allies in the NATO could moderate the global American power.

21
Overcoming Hegemony:
Currently, the US enjoys world hegemony. However, it needs to be seen that how this hegemony can be
overcome.

Strategies to deal with Hegemony:

● Some people argue that it is strategically more prudent to take advantage of the opportunities for
economic growth, trade, investments and technology transfer that hegemony creates. Hence, instead
of opposing the hegemonic power, a nation should stay in it and extract the maximum benefits. This is
called the Bandwagon Strategy.
● Another strategy open to states is to 'hide'. This implies staying as far removed from the dominant
power as possible. China, Russia, the European Union—all of them, in different ways, are seeking to
stay below the radar, to not to antagonize the US.
● However, this strategy is not viable for big states like China, India, and Russia or huge agglomerations
such as the EU being able to hide for any substantial length of time.

Role of Non-State Actors:

Non-State Actors are the organizations, which are not affiliated, directed or funded through governments.
● Some people believe that resistance to American hegemony may not come from other states, but
rather from non-state actors.
● These challenges will emerge in the economic and cultural fields and will come from a combination of
non-governmental organisations (NGOs), social movements, and public opinion.
● These various actors may well form links across national boundaries, including with Americans, to
criticise and resist US policies.

Major Hurdles in Overcoming Hegemony:

● Firstly, there exists no government at the global level, to regulate activities. Thus, international politics
is 'politics without government'.
● Secondly, although there are some rules and norms called the laws of war that restrict, but do not

US HEGEMONY IN WORLD POLITICS

prohibit, war. Also, only a few states will entrust their security to international law alone.
● Thirdly, in the short term no other power is anywhere near balancing the US militarily.
● Fourthly, a military coalition against the US is even less likely given the differences that exist among
big countries like China, India, and Russia that have the potential to challenge US hegemony.

India's Relationship with the US:

● During the Cold War years, India's closest friendship was with the Soviet Union.
● After the collapse of the Soviet Union, India suddenly found itself friendless in an increasingly hostile
international environment.
● However, during these years India liberalized its economy and integrated with the global economy.
● This policy and India's impressive economic growth rates in recent years have made the country an

22
 attractive economic partner for a number of countries including the US.
● In the recent years, two new factors have emerged in the Indo-US relations. These factors relate to the
technological dimension and the role of the Indian-American diaspora.
● These two factors are interrelated. Consider the following facts:
⮚ The US absorbs about 65 percent of India's total exports in the software sector.
⮚ 35 percent of the technical staff of Boeing is estimated to be of Indian origin.
⮚ 300,000 Indians work in Silicon Valley.
⮚ 15 percent of all high-tech start-ups are by Indian Americans.

Debate on direction of Indo-US relations in the phase of US global hegemony:

Three major viewpoints have emerged in this regard:
● Under this view International politics is seen through the prism of military power, a certain section
believes that India should maintain its aloofness from the US and focus on increasing its own
comprehensive national power.
● Another view holds convergence of Indo-US interests as an opportunity. It advocates a strategy that
would allow India to take advantage of US hegemony and the mutual convergences to establish the
best possible options for itself. Opposing the US, it argues, is a futile strategy that will only hurt India in
the long run.
● A third view advocates that India should take the lead in establishing a coalition of countries from the
developing world. Over time, this coalition would become more powerful and may succeed in weaning
the hegemon away from its dominating ways.
However, India-US relations are too complex to be managed by a single strategy. India needs to develop an
appropriate mix of foreign policy strategies to deal with the US.

A Historical Perspective about Hegemony and Balance of Power in World Politics:

As opposed to hegemony, the logic of balance of power postulates that in the absence of world
government, every state must ensure its own security and, in extreme circumstances, its own survival.
Thus, states are acutely aware of power distribution in the international political system and would not
US HEGEMONY IN WORLD POLITICS

normally allow a single state to become so powerful as to pose a mortal threat to other states.

This balance of power logic of international politics, as outlined above, is amply supported by history.

● By convention, 1648 is regarded as the year in which the sovereign territorial state emerged as the
principal actor in world politics.
● In the over three and a half centuries since then, there have been only two previous occasions when a
single state succeeded in gaining preponderance in the system to a similar degree as the US
predominates the system today:
⮚ France from 1660 to 1713 in the context of European continental politics.
⮚ Britain with its global maritime empire from 1860 to 1910.

23
● However, History also tells us that although at its height hegemony seems formidable, it does not last
forever. To the contrary, balance of power politics over time reduces the relative power of the hegemon.
● In 1660, France under Louis XIV was unchallenged; by 1713, England, Habsburg Austria and Russia
were contesting French power.
● In 1860, the high noon of the Victorian period, Pax Britannica looked secure forever. By 1910, it was
clear that Germany, Japan and the US had emerged as contenders to British power.
· Thus, twenty years from now, another great power, or may be a coalition of great powers could well
emerge just as US capabilities are declining in relative terms.

US HEGEMONY IN WORLD POLITICS

24
 ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF POWER
4
After the end of the bipolar structure of world politics in the early 1990s, it became clear that alternative
centres of political and economic power could limit America's dominance. Thus, in Europe, the
European Union (EU) and, in Asia, the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), have
emerged as forces to reckon with. While evolving regional solutions to their historical enmities and
weaknesses, both the EU and the ASEAN have developed alternative institutions and conventions that
build a more peaceful and cooperative regional order and have transformed the countries in the region
into prosperous economies. The economic rise of China has made a dramatic impact on world politics.

European Union (EU):

The European Union is a political and economic union, of 27 member states located primarily in Europe.

Historical Background to the formation of EU:

● Question of Europe: Towards the end of the Second World War, a dilemma occurred as to how
Europe should be reintegrated after the war, should it go back to old rivalries or be reconstituted on
positive principles of international relations. This came to be known as the Question of Europe.
● In 1945, the European states confronted the ruin of their economies and the destruction of the
assumptions and structures on which Europe had been founded.
● Post 1945, America extended massive financial help for reviving Europe's economy under what was
called the 'Marshall Plan'.
● Under the Marshall Plan, the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was
established in 1948 to channel aid to the west European states.
● It became a forum where the western European states began to cooperate on trade and economic
issues.

Formation of the EU:

● The Council of Europe was established in 1949, as another step forward in political cooperation.
ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF POWER

● The process of economic integration of European capitalist countries proceeded step by step, leading
to the formation of the European Economic Community in 1957.
● This process acquired a political dimension with the creation of the European Parliament.
● The collapse of the Soviet bloc put Europe on a fast track and resulted in the establishment of the
European Union in 1992.
● The foundation was thus laid for a common foreign and security policy, cooperation on justice and
home affairs, and the creation of a single currency.

25
 ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF POWER
Fig. 4.1: Timeline of European Integration

Evolution of EU:
· The European Union has evolved over time from an economic union to an increasingly political one.
● The EU has started to act more as a nation state. While the attempts to have a Constitution for the EU
have failed, it has its own flag, anthem, founding date, and currency.
· It also has some form of a common foreign and security policy in its dealings with other nations.
● The European Union has tried to expand areas of cooperation while acquiring new members,
especially from the erstwhile Soviet bloc.

26
 Fig. 4.2: European Union Map

(United Kingdom is currently not part of EU)

Problems in the functioning of EU:

● People in many countries are not very enthusiastic in giving the powers to the EU, powers that were
exercised by the government of their country.
● There are reservations about including some new countries within the EU.
ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF POWER

● In many areas its member states have their own foreign relations and defence policies that are often
at odds with each other.
● There is also a deep-seated 'Euroskepticism' in some parts of Europe about the EU's integrationist
agenda.
● Denmark and Sweden have resisted the Maastricht Treaty and the adoption of the euro, the common
European currency. This limits the ability of the EU to act in matters of foreign relations and defence.
● Britain's former prime minister, Margaret Thatcher, kept the UK out of the European Market.
(BREXIT)

Scope and Achievements of EU:

● The EU has economic, political and diplomatic, and military influence.

27
 ● The EU is amongst the world's biggest economies.
● Its currency, the euro, can pose a threat to the dominance of the US dollar.
● Its share of world trade is much larger than that of the United States allowing it to be more assertive
in trade disputes with the US and China.
● It also functions as an important bloc in international economic organisations such as the World
Trade Organisation (WTO).
● One current and one previous member of the EU, France and Britain, hold permanent seats on the UN
Security Council.
● The EU also includes several non-permanent members of the UNSC.
● This has enabled the EU to influence some US policies such as the current US position on Iran's
nuclear programme.
● Its use of diplomacy, economic investments, and negotiations rather than coercion and military force
has been effective as in the case of its dialogue with China on human rights and environmental
degradation.
● Militarily, the EU's combined armed forces are the second largest in the world. Its total spending on
defence is second after the US.
● Two EU member states, Britain and France, also have nuclear arsenals of approximately 550 nuclear
warheads.
● It is also the world's second most important source of space and communications technology.
● As a supranational organisation, the EU can intervene in economic, political and social areas.

Association of South East Nations (ASEAN):

ASEAN is a regional grouping of ten South-East Asian countries.

Historical Background to the formation of ASEAN:

● Before and during the Second World War, this region of Asia suffered at the hands of European and
Japanese colonialism.
● Problems of nation building, poverty and backwardness along with the problem of selecting a camp

ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF POWER

during bipolar world, were the challenges faced by the regional nations.
● Efforts at Asian and Third World unity, such as the Bandung Conference and the Non-Aligned
Movement, were ineffective in establishing the conventions for informal cooperation and interaction.

Formation of ASEAN:
● The Bangkok Declaration was signed in 1967 leading to establishment of ASEAN.
● ASEAN was established by five countries of this region — Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,
Singapore and Thailand.

Objectives of ASEAN:
● Accelerate economic growth and through that 'social progress and cultural development'.

28
 ● Promote regional peace and stability based on the rule of law and the principles of the United Nations
Charter.

Features of ASEAN:
● ASEAN countries have celebrated what has become known as the 'ASEAN Way', a form of interaction
that is informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative.
● The respect for national sovereignty is critical to the functioning of ASEAN.
● ASEAN was and remains principally an economic association.
● While the ASEAN region as a whole is a much smaller economy compared to the US, the EU, and Japan,
its economy is growing much faster than all these.
● It is the only regional association in Asia that provides a political forum where Asian countries and the
major powers can discuss political and security concerns.
● ASEAN's strength lies in its policies of interaction and consultation with member states, with
dialogue partners, and with other non-regional organisations.

Evolution of ASEAN:
● Over the years, Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar (Burma) and Cambodia joined
ASEAN taking its strength to ten.
● With some of the fastest growing economies in the world, ASEAN broadened its objectives beyond
the economic and social spheres.
● The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was established in 1994, to carry out coordination of security and
foreign policy.
● In 2003, ASEAN agreed to establish an ASEAN Community comprising three pillars, namely:
⮚ The ASEAN Security Community: The ASEAN security community was based on the conviction
that outstanding territorial disputes should not escalate into armed confrontation. By 2003,
ASEAN had several agreements in place by which member states promised to uphold peace,
neutrality, cooperation, non-interference, and respect for national differences and sovereign
rights.
ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF POWER

⮚ The ASEAN Economic Community: The objectives of the ASEAN Economic Community are to
create a common market and production base within ASEAN states and to aid social and
economic development in the region. The Economic Community would also like to improve the
existing ASEAN Dispute Settlement Mechanism to resolve economic disputes. ASEAN has
focused on creating a Free Trade Area (FTA) for investment, labour, and services. The US and
China have already moved fast to negotiate FTAs with ASEAN.
⮚ The ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community.
● ASEAN is rapidly growing into a very important regional organisation.
● Its Vision 2020 has defined an outward-looking role for ASEAN in the international community.
● This builds on the existing ASEAN policy to encourage negotiation over conflicts in the region.
● Thus, ASEAN has mediated the end of the Cambodian conflict, the East Timor crisis, and meets

29
 annually to discuss East Asian cooperation.
● The current economic strength of ASEAN, especially its economic relevance as a trading and
investment partner to the growing Asian economies such as India and China, makes this an attractive
proposition.

India and ASEAN:

● During the Cold War years, Indian foreign policy did not pay adequate attention to ASEAN.
● But in recent years, India has tried to make amends.
● It signed trade agreements with three ASEAN members, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand.
● The ASEAN-India FTA came into effect in 2010.

The Rise of Chinese Economy:

China's economic success since 1978 has been linked to its rise as a great power. China has been the
fastest growing economy since the reforms first began there. It is projected to overtake the US as the
world's largest economy by 2040. Its economic integration into the region makes it the driver of East
Asian growth, thereby giving it enormous influence in regional affairs. The strength of its economy,
together with other factors such as population, land mass, resources, regional location and political
influence, adds to its power in significant ways.

Evolution of Chinese Power:

● After the inception of the People's Republic of China in 1949, following the communist revolution
under the leadership of Mao, its economy was based on the Soviet model.
● The economically backward communist China chose to sever its links with the capitalist world.
● The model was to create a state-owned heavy industries sector from the capital accumulated from
agriculture.
● As it was short of foreign exchange that it needed in order to buy technology and goods on the world
market, China decided to substitute imports by domestic goods.
● This model allowed China to use its resources to establish the foundations of an industrial economy

ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF POWER

on a scale that did not exist before.
● Employment and social welfare were assured to all citizens. It moved ahead of most developing
countries in educating its citizens and ensuring better health for them.
● The economy grew at a rate of 5-6 percent. An annual growth of 2-3 percent in population meant that
economic growth was insufficient to meet the needs of a growing population.
● China ended its political and economic isolation with the establishment of relations with the United
States in 1972.
● Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the 'four modernisations' (agriculture, industry, science and technology
and military) in 1973.
● By 1978, the then leader Deng Xiaoping announced the 'open door' policy and economic reforms in
China.

30
 ● The policy was to generate higher productivity by investments of capital and technology from
abroad.
● China followed its own path in introducing a market economy by opening it step by step.
● The privatisation of agriculture in 1982 was followed by the privatisation of industry in 1998.
● Trade barriers were eliminated only in Special Economic Zones (SEZs) where foreign investors could
set up enterprises.

Impacts of these Policies:

● Privatisation of agriculture led to a remarkable rise in agricultural production and rural incomes.
● High personal savings in the rural economy led to an exponential growth in rural industry.
● The Chinese economy, including both industry and agriculture, grew at a faster rate.
● The new trading laws and the creation of Special Economic Zones led to a phenomenal rise in foreign
trade.
● China has become the most important destination for foreign direct investment (FDI) anywhere in
the world.
● It has large foreign exchange reserves that now allow it to make big investment in other countries.
● Regionally and globally, China has become an economic power to reckon with.
● The integration of China's economy and the inter-dependencies that this has created has enabled
China to have considerable influence with its trade partners.
However, certain shortcomings are also observed such as:
● Unemployment has risen in China with nearly 100 million people looking for jobs.
● Female employment and conditions of work are as bad as in Europe of the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries.
● Environmental degradation and corruption have increased besides a rise in economic inequality
between rural and urban residents and coastal and inland provinces.

The integration of China's economy and the inter-dependencies that this has created has enabled China to
have considerable influence with its trade partners. Hence, its outstanding issues with Japan, the US,
ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF POWER

ASEAN, and Russia have been tempered by economic considerations. It hopes to resolve its differences
with Taiwan, which it regards as a renegade province, by integrating it closely into its economy. Fears of
China's rise have also been mitigated by its contributions to the stability of the ASEAN economies after the
1997 financial crisis. Its more outward looking investment and aid policies in Latin America and Africa are
increasingly projecting it as a global player on the side of developing economies.

India-China Relations:
India and China were great powers in Asia before the advent of Western imperialism. China had
considerable influence and control on the periphery of its borders based on its unique tributary system. At
different times in China's long history of dynastic rule, Mongolia, Korea, parts of Indo-China, and Tibet
accepted China's authority. Various kingdoms and empires in India also extended their influence beyond

31
their borders. In both cases this influence was political, economic and cultural.
● There was limited political and cultural interaction between the two in history.
● However, both countries built on a relationship during the mid-20th century.
● For a brief the slogan of 'Hindi-Chini bhaibhai' was popular.

Concerns in the Relation:

● Differences arose from the Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1950 and the final settlement of the Sino-
Indian border.
● China and India were involved in a border conflict in 1962 over competing territorial claims principally
in Arunachal Pradesh and in the Aksai Chin region of Ladakh.
● The conflict of 1962 had long-term implications for India–China relations.
● Diplomatic relations between the two countries were downgraded until 1976.

Positive evolution:
● Relations between the two countries began to improve slowly. China's policy became more pragmatic
and less ideological.
● A series of talks to resolve the border issue were also initiated in 1981.
● Rajiv Gandhi's visit to China in December 1988 provided the impetus for an improvement in
India–China relations.
● Their relations now have a strategic as well as an economic dimension.
● Both view themselves as rising powers in global politics, and both would like to play a major role in the
Asian economy and politics.
● Both governments have taken measures to contain conflict and maintain 'peace and tranquility' on
the border.
● They have also signed agreements on cultural exchanges and cooperation in science and
technology and opened four border posts for trade.
● With India– China trade growing at 30 per cent per year since 1999, a more positive perspective on
relations with China has emerged.

ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF POWER

● At the global level, India and China have adopted similar policies in international economic institutions
like the World Trade Organisation.
● China was seen as contributing to the buildup of Pakistan's nuclear programme. China's military
relations with Bangladesh and Myanmar were viewed as hostile to Indian interests in South Asia.
However, none of these issues is likely to lead to conflict between the two.
● One sign of this is that the talks to resolve the boundary question have continued without interruption
and military-to-military cooperation is increasing.
● Indian and Chinese leaders and officials visit Beijing and New Delhi with greater frequency, and both
sides are now becoming more familiar with each other.
● Increasing transportation and communication links, common economic interests and global
concerns should help establish a more positive and sound relationship between the two most

32
 populous countries of the world.

Alternative Centres of Power:

Japan:
● Japan has very few natural resources and imports most of its raw materials. Even then it progressed
rapidly after the end of the Second World War. Japan is the only nation that suffered the destruction
caused by nuclear bombs.
● Japan became a member of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in
1964.
● In 2017, it is the third largest economy in the world. It is the only Asian member of the G-7. It is the
eleventh most populous nation in the world.
● It is the second largest contributor to the regular budget of the UN, contributing almost 10 per cent of
the total.
● Japan has a security alliance with the US since 1951.
⮚ Although Japan's military expenditure is only one per cent of its GDP, it is the seventh largest in the
world.
⮚ As per Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, “the Japanese people forever renounce war as a
sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international
disputes.”

South Korea:
● The Korean peninsula was divided into South Korea (Republic of Korea) and North Korea
(Democratic People's Republic of Korea) at the end of the Second World War along the 38th Parallel.
● The Korean War during 1950-53 and dynamics of the Cold War era further intensified the rivalries
between the two sides.
● Both the Koreas finally became Members of the UN on 17 September 1991. Meanwhile, South Korea
emerged as a centre of power in Asia.
● Between the 1960s and the 1980s, it rapidly developed into an economic power, which is termed as
ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF POWER

"Miracle on the Han River". Signaling its all-round development, South Korea became a Member of
the OECD in 1996.
● In 2017, its economy is the eleventh largest in the world and its military expenditure is the tenth
largest.
● According to the Human Development Report 2016, the HDI rank of South Korea is 18.
⮚ The major factors responsible for its high human development include "successful land reforms,
rural development, extensive human resources development and rapid equitable economic
growth."
⮚ Other factors are export orientation, strong redistribution policies, public infrastructure
development, effective institutions and governance.
● The South Korean brands such as Samsung, LG and Hyundai have become renowned in India.

33
Numerous agreements between India and South Korea signify their growing commercial and cultural
ties.

ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF POWER

34
 CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA
5
Along with the region where India exists, South Asia today has attained worldwide prominence. When
India and Pakistan joined the club of nuclear powers, this region suddenly became the focus of global
attention. The focus was on the various kinds of conflict in this region: there are pending border and
water sharing disputes between the states of the region. Besides, there are conflicts arising out of
insurgency, ethnic strife and resource sharing. This makes the region very turbulent. At the same time,
many people in South Asia recognise the fact that this region can develop and prosper if the states of the
region cooperate with each other.

Defining South Asia:

● South Asia usually includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
● Geographical features like the Himalayas, Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal provide a
natural insulation to this region.
● This insulation has caused the development of linguistic, social and cultural distinctiveness of the
subcontinent.
● The boundaries of the region are not as clear in the east and the west, as they are in the north and the
south. Afghanistan and Myanmar are often included in discussions of the region as a whole. China is
an important player but is not considered to be a part of the region.
● South Asia stands for diversity in every sense and yet constitutes one geo-political space.

Differences in the region's political systems:

● Sri Lanka and India have successfully operated a democratic system since their independence from
the British.
● Bangladesh remained a democracy in the post-Cold War period.
● Pakistan has been run by a civilian government again since 2008.
● In 2008, Nepal emerged as a democratic republic.
● Bhutan became a constitutional monarchy in 2008.
● In June 2005, the parliament of the Maldives voted unanimously to introduce a multiparty system.

South Asia and Democracy:

CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA

● Despite the mixed record of the democratic experience, the people in all these countries share the
aspiration for democracy.
● Originally it was believed that democracy could only flourish in prosperous countries of the world.
● However, the experience in South Asia and the success of democracy here, has widened the meaning
of democracy on the world stage.

The Military and Democracy in Pakistan:

● After Pakistan framed its first constitution, General Ayub Khan took over the administration of the
country and soon got himself elected. However, he had to leave office due to popular disaffection.

35
 ● General Yahya Khan took over the office under military rule. During his rule, East Pakistan broke away
from Pakistan in 1971 and emerged as independent Bangladesh.
● After this, an elected government under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to power in
Pakistan from 1971 to 1977.
● The Bhutto government was removed by General Zia-ul-Haq in 1977 in a takeover. However, he
faced protests and an elected democratic government was established once again in 1988 under the
leadership of Benazir Bhutto.
● In 1999 the army again stepped in under General Pervez Musharraf. In 2001, General Musharraf got
himself elected as the President.
● Pakistan continued to be ruled by the army, though the army rulers have held some elections to give
their rule a democratic image.
● However, since 2008, democratically elected leaders have been ruling Pakistan.

Causes of unstable democracy in Pakistan:

● Social dominance of the military, clergy, and landowning aristocracy has led to the frequent
overthrow of elected governments and the establishment of military government.
● Pakistan's conflict with India has made the promilitary groups more powerful.
● The lack of genuine international support for democratic rule in Pakistan. The United States and other
Western countries have encouraged the military's authoritarian rule in the past, for their own reasons.
● As they fear what they call 'global Islamic terrorism' and that the Pakistani nuclear arsenal may fall in
wrong hands, the military regimes in Pakistan are seen as protectors of Western Interests.

Democracy in Bangladesh:
Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan from 1947 to 1971. It consisted of the partitioned areas of Bengal
and Assam from British India. The people of this region resented the domination of western Pakistan and
the imposition of the Urdu language.
Democracy was attained in Bangladesh from the following process:
● Soon after the partition of India and Pakistan, they began protests against the unfair treatment meted
out to the Bengali culture and language.
● They also demanded fair representation in administration and a fair share in political power.
● Sheikh Mujibur Rahman led the popular struggle demanding regional autonomy. CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA
● In the 1970 elections in the then Pakistan, the Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib won all the seats in
East Pakistan and secured a majority in the proposed constituent assembly for the whole of Pakistan.
● However, the Government dominated by west Pakistan arrested him and refused to convene the
assembly. This was followed by suppression of people by the Pakistani army, leading them to
migrate into India. Thus, creating a huge refugee problem for India.
● The Indian government supported their demand for Independence both militarily and financially,
leasing to a war between India and Pakistan in 1971.
⮚ The war ended with surrender of the Pakistani forces and the formation of an independent

36
 Bangladesh.
● Bangladesh drafted its constitution declaring faith in secularism, democracy and socialism.
● In 1975, Sheikh Mujib got the constitution amended to shift from the parliamentary to presidential
form of government. He also abolished all parties except his own, the Awami League. This led to
conflicts and tensions.
● In a dramatic and tragic development, he was assassinated in a military uprising in August 1975.
● The new military ruler, Ziaur Rahman, formed his own Bangladesh National Party and won elections in
1979. He was assassinated and another military takeover followed under the leadership of Lt Gen H.
M. Ershad.
● The people of Bangladesh soon rose in support of the demand for democracy. Students were in the
forefront. Ershad was forced to allow political activity on a limited scale. He was later elected as
President for five years.
● Mass public protests made Ershad step down in 1990. Elections were held in 1991. Since then
representative democracy based on multi-party elections has been working in Bangladesh.

Monarchy and Democracy in Nepal:

Nepal was a Hindu kingdom in the past and then a constitutional monarchy in the modern period for
many years. Throughout this period, political parties and the common people wanted a better form of
government. But the king with the help of army kept control on the affairs, and resisted democracy.

· Due to popular protest, however a democratic constitution was laid down in 1990.
● Subsequently, in the following years Maoists gained influence in Nepal, leading to a violent conflict
between the Maoist guerrillas and the armed forces of the king.
● In 2002, the king abolished the parliament and dismissed the government, thus ending even the
limited democracy that existed in Nepal.
● This was followed by mass pro-democracy protests, forcing the king to restore the House of
Representatives in 2002. The largely non-violent movement was led by the Seven Party Alliance
(SPA), the Maoists and social activists.
● However today, Nepal's transition to democracy is almost complete. In 2008, Nepal became a
democratic republic after abolishing the monarchy. In 2015, it adopted a new constitution.
CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA

Ethnic Conflict and Democracy in Sri Lanka:

After its independence, politics in Sri Lanka (it was then known as Ceylon) was dominated by the
interests of the majority Sinhala community. They were hostile to the Tamils, who had migrated to Sri
Lanka from India. As for them Sri Lanka belonged to the Sinhalese only.
● This gave rise to militant Tamil nationalism. From 1983 onwards, a militant organisation, called
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) has been fighting an armed struggle with the army of Sri
Lanka and demanding 'Tamil Eelam' or a separate country for the Tamils of Sri Lanka.
● There was also a considerable pressure from Indian Tamils, to protect the interests of the Sri Lankan

37
 Tamils.
● In 1987, the government of India for the first time got directly involved in the Sri Lankan Tamil
question. India signed an accord with Sri Lanka and sent troops to stabilise relations between the Sri
Lankan government and the Tamils.
● Eventually, leading the Indian Army into a fight with the LTTE. However, Indian Army's presence was
not liked by Sri Lankan people. They saw this as an attempt by India to interfere in the internal affairs
of Sri Lanka.
● In 1989, the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) pulled out of Sri Lanka without attaining its objective.
● The Sri Lankan crisis continued to be violent. However, international actors, particularly the
Scandinavian countries such as Norway and Iceland tried to bring the warring groups back to
negotiations.
● Finally, LTTE was vanquished in 2009, bringing end to this violence.
● In spite of the conflict, Sri Lanka has registered good economic growth and human development.
● Sri Lanka was one of the first developing countries to successfully control the rate of growth of
population, the first country in the region to liberalise the economy, and it has had the highest per
capita gross domestic product (GDP) for many years right through the civil war.
● Despite the ravages of internal conflict, it has maintained a democratic political system.

India-Pakistan Conflicts:
● Soon after the partition, India and Pakistan got into a conflict on the issue of Kashmir, with both sides
claiming it.
● The war in 1947-48 resulted in the division of the province into Pakistan-occupied Kashmir and the
Indian province of Jammu and Kashmir divided by the Line of Control.
● In 1971 war, India won against Pakistan but the Kashmir issue remained unsettled.

Other issues of Conflict:

● Both nations have a conflict over the control of Siachen Glacier, and acquisition of Arms.
● Both nations have also now acquired nuclear weapons and delivery systems to deploy such arms
against each other.
● The Indian government blames the Pakistan government for inciting low-key violence by helping the
Kashmiri militants with arms, training, money and protection to carry out terrorist strikes against India. CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA
● The Indian government also believes that Pakistan had aided the pro Khalistani militants with arms
and ammunition during the period 1985-1995.
● Pakistan is also alleged to be involved in various anti-India campaigns in India's northeast.
● The government of Pakistan, in turn, blames the Indian government and its security agencies for
fomenting trouble in the provinces of Sindh and Balochistan.
● India and Pakistan also have had problems over the sharing of river waters.
⮚ In 1960, with the help of the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the Indus Waters Treaty with
regards to sharing of water of Indus basin rivers.

38
 ⮚ There are still some minor differences about the interpretation of the Indus Waters Treaty and the
use of the river waters.
● The two countries are not in agreement over the demarcation line in Sir Creek in the Rann of Kutch.
● India and Pakistan are holding negotiations on all these issues.

India and its other Neighbours

India-Bangladesh Relations:
Various dimensions to assess this relationship are as follows:

Disputes:
● Various disputes from the perspective of India include, sharing of Ganga and Brahmaputra river
waters, illegal immigration to India, support for anti-Indian Islamic fundamentalist groups, Refusal
to allow Indian troops to move through its territory to northeastern India, and its decision not to export
natural gas to India or allow Myanmar to do so through Bangladeshi territory.
● From the perspective of Bangladesh, they felt that the Indian government behaves like a regional bully
over the sharing of river waters, encouraging rebellion in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, trying to extract
its natural gas and being unfair in trade.

Cooperation:
● The two countries could not resolve their boundary dispute for a long while. In 2015, they exchanged
certain enclaves.
● Despite their differences, India and Bangladesh do cooperate on many issues.
● Economic relations have improved considerably in the last 20 years.
● Bangladesh is a part of India's Look East (Act East since 2014) policy that wants to link up with
Southeast Asia via Myanmar.
● On disaster management and environmental issues, the two states have cooperated regularly.
● Efforts are on to broaden the areas of cooperation further by identifying common threats and being
more sensitive to each other's needs.

India-Nepal Relations:
CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA

● Nepal and India enjoy a very special relationship that has very few parallels in the world. A treaty
between the two countries allows the citizens of the two countries to travel to and work in the other
country without visas and passports.
● However, concerns against Nepal-China relationship, the Nepal Government's inaction against anti
Indian elements and the Maoist influence in Nepal remain from India's perspective.
● From the perspective of Nepal, their allegations of India's interference in their internal affairs and
preventing it from accessing the sea through Indian territory remain points of concern.
However, despite these concerns, it remains a stable and peaceful relationship. Trade, scientific
cooperation, common natural resources, electricity generation and interlocking water management

39
 grids hold the two countries together.

India-Sri Lanka Relations:

● The concerns in this relation are primarily based upon the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. Leaders of India
have been particularly concerned about the fate of Tamils in Sri Lanka.
● However, after the 1987 intervention, the Indian Government has followed a policy of disengagement
on Sri Lanka's internal matters. Although, the signing of a free trade agreement, and India's aid for
post tsunami reconstruction have brought the two countries closer.

India-Bhutan Relations:
● India and Bhutan enjoy a warm relation, free of major conflicts. India's involvement in big hydroelectric
projects in Bhutan from the nations' biggest source of development aid and Bhutan's efforts to weed
out guerrillas and militants from Northeastern India, have proven to be mutually beneficial.

India-Maldives Relations:
● India's ties with the Maldives remain warm and cordial. In November 1988, when some Tamil
mercenaries from Sri Lanka attacked the Maldives, the Indian air force and navy reacted quickly to the
Maldives' request to help stop the invasion, also apart from that India has contributed towards the
island's economic development, tourism and fisheries.

Other Aspects of Regional Relations:

● The smaller states in the region are suspicious of India's intentions and see it as a regionally-dominant
power, given its size and power but at the same time India also doesn't like political instability in
these nations, as it believes this can help some outside power gain influence in the region.
● However, other regional states have also had conflicts amongst themselves. Nepal and Bhutan, as
well as Bangladesh and Myanmar, have had disagreements in the past over the migration of ethnic
Nepalese into Bhutan and the Rohingyas into Myanmar, respectively.
● The major conflicts and differences, although, remain between India and the others, partly because of
the geography of the region, in which India is located centrally and is therefore the only country that
borders the others.
CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA
Peace and Cooperation:
Despite various conflicts, nations of the South Asian region recognize the importance of cooperation and
friendly relationships. Various measures have been undertaken to maintain such relations:

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC):

● It began in 1985, as a regional initiative to evolve cooperation through multilateral means.
● Unfortunately, due to persisting political differences, SAARC has not had much success.

40
 South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA):
● The Agreement was signed in 2004 and came into effect on 1 January 2006.
● SAFTA aims at lowering trade tariffs.
● But some of our neighbours fear that SAFTA is a way for India to 'invade' their markets and to
influence their societies and politics through commercial ventures and a commercial presence in
their countries.
● India thinks that there are real economic benefits for all from SAFTA and that a region that trades
more freely will be able to cooperate better on political issues.
● Some in India think that SAFTA is not worth the trouble since India already has bilateral agreements
with Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
Even outside powers like China and USA play a role in this region. India-China relations have improved by
the China's strategic partnership with Pakistan remains a major irritant. Similarly, after Globalization
due to economic linkages and the presence of huge South Asian diaspora in USA, even it has become a
stakeholder in regional peace here.

Interesting Facts:
CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA

Fig. 5.1: Timeline of South Asia since 1947

41
 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
6
The collapse of the Soviet Union, put up new challenges for the world like rise of US power etc. This brought
to the picture the role of International Organisations in such a scenario. The potential reform of the United
Nations Security Council is an interesting case of the reform process and its difficulties.

The Need of International Organisations:

● UN is generally regarded as the most important international organisation in today's world. In the
eyes of many people all over the world, it is indispensable and represents the great hope of humanity
for peace and progress. Dag Hammarskjold rightly described UN 'The United Nations was not
created to take humanity to heaven, but to save it from hell.'
● International organisations help with matters of war and peace. They also help countries cooperate to
make better living conditions for us all.
● An international organisation is not a super-state with authority over its members. It is created by and
responds to states. It comes into being when states agree to its creation. Once created, it can help
member states resolve their problems peacefully.
● An international organisation can help produce information and ideas about how to cooperate.
● It can provide mechanisms, rules and a bureaucracy, to help members have more confidence that
costs will be shared properly, that the benefits will be fairly divided, and that once a member joins an
agreement it will honour the terms and conditions of the agreement.

Formation and Evolution of the UN:

● After the First World War, the League of Nations was created, as an origanisation which could prevent
another such war. However, despite its initial success, it could not prevent the Second World War
(1939-45).
● The UN was founded in 1945 immediately after the Second World War, by 51 states who signed the
UN charter, it was a successor to the League of Nations.
● The UN's objective is to prevent international conflict and to facilitate cooperation among states.
● Furthermore, the UN was intended to bring countries together to improve the prospects of social and
economic development all over the world.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

42
 Fig. 6.1: Founding of the United Nations

· By 2011, the UN had 193 member states. These included almost all independent states.
● In the UN General Assembly, all members have one vote each.
● In the UN Security Council, there are five permanent members. These are: the United States, Russia,
the United Kingdom, France and China (as they constituted the victors and the most powerful nations
after the Second World War).
● The UN's most visible public figure, and the representative head, is the Secretary-General.
● The present Secretary-General is António Guterres. He is the ninth Secretary-General of the UN.
● The UN consists of many different structures and agencies.
⮚ War and peace and differences between member states are discussed in the General Assembly as
well as the Security Council.
⮚ Social and economic issues are dealt with by many agencies including the World Health
Organisation (WHO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations
Human Rights Commision (UNHRC), the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR),
the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), among others.

43
 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

Fig. 6.2: UN System

Reforms of the UN After the Cold War:

To serve the needs of changing environment, an organization like the UN needs reform and improvement.
Post-cold war, the world has changed. The US now is the strongest power, Nations like China and other

44
 economies of Asia are fast growing and catching up and new issues like terrorism, climate change etc.
have emerged on the global scene amongst several other changes

Two basic kinds of reforms face the UN:

● Reform of the organisation's structures and processes.
● Review of the issues that fall within the jurisdiction of the organisation.

Reform of Structures and Processes:

● The major focus under this area is the reform of UN Security Council.
● On several occasions the attention has been brought upon the issue of UN Security Council reforms:

Instances bringing attention on the issue:

● In 1992, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution. Reflecting three main complaints:
⮚ The Security Council no longer represents contemporary political realities.
⮚ Its decisions reflect only Western values and interests and are dominated by a few powers.
⮚ It lacks equitable representation.
● In the years since then, the following are just some of the criteria that have been proposed for new
permanent and non-permanent members of the Security Council. A new member, it has been
suggested, should be:
⮚ A major economic power
⮚ A major military power
⮚ A substantial contributor to the UN budget
⮚ A big nation in terms of its population
⮚ A nation that respects democracy and human rights
⮚ A country that would make the Council more representative of the world's diversity in terms of
geography, economic systems, and culture
⮚ On 1 January 1997, the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan initiated an inquiry into how the UN
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

should be reformed.
● The veto power of the five permanent members be abolished. Many perceived the veto to be in conflict
with the concept of democracy and sovereign equality in the UN and thought that the veto was no
longer right or relevant.

Structure of Security Council:

● In the Security Council, there are five permanent members and ten non-permanent members. The
Charter gave the permanent members a privileged position to bring about stability in the world after
the Second World War.

45
 ● The main privileges of the five permanent members are permanency and the veto power.
● The non-permanent members serve for only two years at a time and give way after that period to
newly elected members.
● A country cannot be re-elected immediately after completing a term of two years. The non-
permanent members are elected in a manner so that they represent all continents of the world.
● The non-permanent members do not have the veto power.

Veto Power:
● In taking decisions, the Security Council proceeds by voting. All members have one vote. However, the
permanent members can vote in a negative manner so that even if all other permanent and non-
permanent members vote for a particular decision, any permanent member's negative vote can stall
the decision. This negative vote is the veto.

Fig. 6.3 Use of Veto Power by Permanent members (up to 1st June 2018)

Reforms in the Jurisdiction of the UN:

The heads of all the member-states of the UN met in September 2005 in a meeting. They decided that the
following steps should be taken to make the UN more relevant in the changing context:
● Creation of a Peacebuilding Commission.
● Acceptance of the responsibility of the international community in case of failures of national

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
governments to protect their own citizens from atrocities.
● Establishment of a Human Rights Council (operational since 19 June 2006).
● Agreements to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
● Condemnation of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations.
● Creation of a Democracy Fund.
● An agreement to wind up the Trusteeship Council.
In the present world, these reforms become contingent as to supplement the UN's ability to intervene and
resolve conflicts happening throughout the world causing suffering to humanity and to realistically
achiever goals like the Sustainable Development Goals etc.

46
 Fig. 6.4: United Nations Peacekeeping Operations

India and the UN Reforms:

India has been deeply connected with the issue of UN Reforms.
● India has supported the restructuring of the UN.
● India also supports an enhanced role for the UN in promoting development and cooperation among
states.
● India believes that development should be central to the UN's agenda as it is a vital precondition for the
maintenance of international peace and security.
● Enhanced Membership of the UN Security Council will enjoy greater support in the world community.

Major Concerns of India with the UN:

The major concern for India has been the composition of the Security Council:
● Membership of the UN Security Council was expanded from 11 to 15 in 1965, however no change in
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

the number of permanent members happened.

● The size of council has remained stationery since then, while the UN General Assembly (UNGA)
membership has expanded considerably.
● India considers that this has harmed the representative character of the Security Council.
● As the majority of members of the UNGA are developing counties, they should be provided more say in
the Security Council.
● India supports an increase in the number of both permanent and non-permanent members.

India's Desire to Become a Permanent Member:

India itself also wishes to be a permanent member in a restructured UN. The following reasons support
India's case of becoming so:

47
 ● India is the second most populous country in the world comprising almost one-fifth of the world
population.
● India is also the world's largest democracy.
● India has participated in virtually all of the initiatives of the UN, especially in its peacekeeping efforts.
● India's economic emergence on the world stage.
● India has also made regular financial contributions to the UN and never faltered on its payments.
The permanent membership also has a symbolic importance of projecting a country's growing
importance on the world stage.

Objections to India becoming a permanent member:

● Pakistan is reluctant to see India become a permanent veto member of the Security Council.
● Some countries are also concerned about India's nuclear weapons capabilities.
● Yet others feel that if India is included, then other emerging powers will have to be accommodated such
as Brazil, Germany, Japan, perhaps even South Africa, whom they oppose.
Given these concerns, it may not be very easy for India or anyone else to become a permanent member of
the UN in the near future.

The UN in a Unipolar World:

● With US being the world's greatest power, a question arises that whether UN can balance US
dominance in the world. The US with its' unmatched economic and military power can afford to
easily ignore the UN and also itself enjoys considerable financial and bureaucratic influence in the UN.
● UN is itself located in the US, with US being the single largest contributor to it, can in effect stop any
policy that US deems against its interests. Hence UN is not a great balance to the US power.
● However, UN has provided a forum and has brought together the world to talk about contentious
issues and on several occasions against the conduct of the US, in this sense the UN provides an arena
in which it is possible to modify US attitudes and policies.
The UN may not be a prefect body but has definitely played a great positive role for the world, with
increasing interlinkages in the world in this age of globalization, the importance of UN is bound to increase
in the future. Nations need to find ways to support UN and other international organization in ways that
are consistent with their own interests.

World Trade Organisation (WTO): INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

● It is an international organisation which sets the rules for global trade.
● It was set up in 1995 as the successor to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT)
created after the Second World War.
● It has 164 members.
● All decisions are taken unanimously but the major economic powers such as the US, EU and Japan
have managed to use the WTO to frame rules of trade to advance their own interests.
● The developing countries often complain of non-transparent procedures and being pushed around
by big powers.

48
 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):
● It was established in 1957, to implement US President Dwight Eisenhower's “Atoms for Peace”
proposal.
● It seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to prevent its use for military purposes.
IAEA teams regularly inspect nuclear facilities all over the world to ensure that civilian reactors are
not being used for military purposes.

Amnesty International:
● It is an NGO that campaigns for the protection of human rights all over the world.
● It promotes respect for all the human rights in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
● It believes that human rights are interdependent and indivisible.
● It prepares and publishes reports on human rights.
● Governments are not always happy with these reports since a major focus of Amnesty is the
misconduct of government authorities.
Nevertheless, these reports play an important role in research and advocacy on human rights.

Human Rights Watch:

● It is an international NGO involved in research and advocacy on human rights.
● It is the largest international human rights organisation in the US.
● It draws the global media's attention to human rights abuses.
● It helped in building international coalitions like the campaigns to ban landmines, to stop the use
of child soldiers and to establish the International Criminal Court.

World Bank:
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

● The World Bank was created during the Second World War in 1944.
● Its activities are focused on the developing countries.
● It works for human development (education, health), agriculture and rural development
(irrigation, rural services), environmental protection (pollution reduction, establishing and
enforcing regulations), infrastructure (roads, urban regeneration, electricity) and governance (anti-
corruption, development of legal institutions).
● It provides loans and grants to the member-countries.
● In this way, it exercises enormous influence on the economic policies of developing countries.
It is often criticized for setting the economic agenda of the poorer nations, attaching stringent
conditions to its loans and forcing free market reforms.

49
International Monetary Fund (IMF):
● The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organisation that oversees those financial
institutions and regulations that act at the international level. The IMF has 189 member countries (as
on 12 April 2016) but they do not enjoy an equal say.
● The G-7 members US (16.52%), Japan (6.15%), Germany (5.32%), France (4.03%), UK (4.03%),
Italy (3.02%) and Canada (2.22%) have 41.29% of the votes. China (6.09%), India (2.64%), Russia
(2.59%) Brazil (2.22%) and Saudi Arabia (2.02%) are the other major members.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

50
 SECURITY IN THE
7 CONTEMPORARY WORLD
Security as a phenomenon can assume various meanings like internal, external, human security etc. Many
factors in the contemporary world constitute threats to human/national security. At its most basic, security
implies freedom from threats. Human existence and the life of a country are full of threats.
Security relates only to extremely dangerous threats- Threats that could so endanger core values that those
values would be damaged beyond repair if we did not do something to deal with the situation.

External Security:
In the traditional conception of security, the greatest danger to a country is from military threats (wars),
originating from other countries.
It endangers the core values of sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity while endangering the
lives of ordinary citizens, along with soldiers.

In responding to the threat of war, a government has three basic choices:

● Surrender to the attacking nation. However, it is never promoted as a stated national policy.
● Prevent the other side from attacking by promising to raise the costs of war to an unacceptable level
(Preventing war).
● Defend itself when war actually breaks out so as to deny the attacking country its objectives and to
turn back or defeat the attacking forces altogether (Limiting/ending the war).

Components of Traditional Security Policy:

The various components consisting of a nation's traditional security policy include:
● Deterrence: This is the notion of preventing war.
● Defence: This is the notion of Limiting/ending the war.
● Balance of Power: It refers to the phenomenon whereby, a bigger and stronger country in the region
may choose to be aggressive with another nation in the future, pointing towards a disturbed balance
SECURITY IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

of power in the region.

⮚ Governments are very sensitive to the balance of power between their country and other
countries.
⮚ They do work hard to maintain a favourable balance of power with other countries, especially
those close by, those with whom they have differences, or with those they have had conflicts in the
past.
⮚ A good part of maintaining a balance of power is to build up one's military power, although
economic and technological power are also important since they are the basis for military power.
● Alliance Building: An alliance is a coalition of states that coordinate their actions to deter or defend
against military attack.
⮚ Most alliances are formalised in written treaties based on a fairly clear identification of who
constitutes the threat.
⮚ Alliances are undertaken by a nation to increase their relative power, in relation of another country
or an alliance.

51
 ⮚ Alliances however are co-terminus to national interest, and often change when the interests of the
nations' change.
In the traditional view of security, most threats to a nation's security originate from outside its borders, as in
the international system there is no central authority to regulate or control the behavior of nations, hence
leaving each country responsible for its own security.

Internal Security:
● After the Second World war, globally not much attention was paid to internal security of a nation, as
victors of the war assumed themselves to be stable systems and hence concentrated solely on their
external security.
● However, for the newly independent nations the scene was different, they faced threats not only from
outside their borders, mostly from neighbours, but also from within.
● Internally, the new states worried about threats from separatist movements which wanted to form
independent countries. Sometimes, the external and internal threats merged.
● A neighbour might help or instigate an internal separatist movement leading to tensions between the
two neighbouring countries.
● Internal wars now make up more than 95 per cent of all armed conflicts fought anywhere in the world.
Between 1946 and 1991, there was a twelve-fold rise in the number of civil wars—the greatest jump
in 200 years.
● So, for the new states, external wars with neighbours and internal wars posed a serious challenge to
their security.

Traditional Security and Cooperation:

● Traditional Security, recogonizes the effective role of cooperation in limiting violence. e. These limits
relate both to the ends and the means of war.

SECURITY IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

● As universally accepted, today war should only be conducted for right reasons, primarily self-defence
or to protect others from genocide, also it should be limited in terms of violence and only be resorted
to as a last measure, when all other methods have failed.
● Apart, from these principles of war various other methods of cooperation are also talked about under
the traditional view, namely Disarmament, Arms Control and Confidence Building Measures.

● Disarmament:
⮚ It requires all states to give up certain kinds of weapons.
⮚ For example, the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and the 1992 Chemical Weapons
Convention (CWC) banned the production and possession of these weapons.
⮚ However, US and Soviet Union did not want to give up another type of weapons of mass
destruction, namely, nuclear weapons. So, they pursued arms control.
Arms control:
● It regulates the acquisition or development of weapons. Various examples include

52
 ⮚ The Anti-ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty in 1972 tried to stop the United States and Soviet Union
from using ballistic missiles as a defensive shield to launch a nuclear attack, stopping them from
large-scale production of such systems.
⮚ The US and Soviet Union signed a number of other arms control treaties including the Strategic
Arms Limitations Treaty II or SALT II and the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START).
● The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968:
⮚ It was an arms control treaty in the sense that it regulated the acquisition of nuclear weapons.
⮚ The countries that had tested and manufactured nuclear weapons before 1967 were allowed to
keep their weapons; and those that had not done so were to give up the right to acquire them.
⮚ The NPT did not abolish nuclear weapons; rather, it limited the number of countries that could have
them.

Confidence Building Measures:

● It is a process in which countries share military ideas and information with their rivals.
● This is a way of demonstrating that they are not planning a surprise attack.
● This whole process is designed to ensure that rivals do not go to war through misunderstanding or
misperception.
Overall, traditional conceptions of security are principally concerned with the use, or threat of use, of military
force. In traditional security, force is both the principal threat to security and the principal means of achieving
security.

Non-Traditional Notions:
These notions of security go beyond military threats to include a wide range of threats and dangers affecting
the conditions of human existence.
These notions have also been called 'human security' or 'global security', as it goes beyond the security of
the nation or communities it encompasses the security of all Humankind.
SECURITY IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Human Security:
● This concept talks about the protection of people more than the protection of states as secure states
do not automatically mean secure people.
● Protecting citizens from foreign attacks is although a necessary condition to protect them, but not
sufficient.
● As, during the last 100 years, more people have been killed by their own governments than by
foreign armies.
● However, the notions of Human Security can also be divided into two broad concepts:
⮚ Narrow Concept of Human Security: Its focus is on violent threats to individuals. As former UN
Secretary-General Kofi Annan puts it, “the protection of communities and individuals from
internal violence”.
⮚ Broad Concept of Human Security: The threat agenda should include hunger, disease and natural
disasters because these kills far more people than war, genocide and terrorism combined.

53
 o It also encompasses economic security and 'threats to human dignity'. Put differently, the
broadest formulation stresses what has been called 'freedom from want' and 'freedom from
fear', respectively.

Global Security:
● This idea of global security emerged in the 1990s in response to the global nature of threats such as
global warming, international terrorism, and health epidemics like AIDS and bird flu and so on.
● Since these problems are global in nature and cannot be dealt by one country alone, at times they may
also disproportionately impact a particular nation, international cooperation is vital, even though it
is difficult to achieve.

New Sources of Threats:

The non-traditional notions of security throw light upon the changing nature of threats in the world.
Some neo/emerging threats are as follows:

Terrorism:
● It refers to political violence that targets civilians deliberately and indiscriminately.
● International terrorism as a concept involves the citizens or territory of more than one country.
● The various methods employed by terrorists, involve hijacking planes or planting bombs etc.
● Since 11 September 2001 when terrorists attacked the World Trade Centre in America, other
governments and public have paid more attention to terrorism, though terrorism itself is not new.
● In the past, most of the terror attacks have occurred in the Middle East, Europe, Latin America and
South Asia.

Human Rights:

SECURITY IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethinicty,
language, religion, or any other status. They have come to be classified into three types:
● Political Rights such as freedom of speech and assembly.
● Economic and social rights.
● Rights of colonised people or ethnic and indigenous minorities.
Despite a consensus on this classification, there is still no consensus on which human rights to be considered
as universal.
Since the 1990s, developments such as Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the genocide in Rwanda, and the
Indonesian military's killing of people in East Timor have led to many making a case for UN intervention to
protect human rights, UN Charter empowers the international community to take up arms in defence of
human rights, however others argue that the national interests of the powerful states will determine which
instances of human rights violations the UN will act upon.

54
 Global Poverty:
● Currently, half the world's population growth occurs in just six countries—India, China, Pakistan,
Nigeria, Bangladesh and Indonesia.
● Among the world's poorest countries, population is expected to triple in the next 50 years, whereas
many rich countries will see population shrinkage in that period.
● Globally, this disparity contributes to the gap between the Northern and Southern countries of the
world.
● Within the South, disparities have also sharpened, as a few countries have managed to slow down
population growth and raise incomes while others have failed to do so.
⮚ For example, most of the world's armed conflicts now take place in sub-Saharan Africa, which is
also the poorest region of the world.

Migration:
● Poverty in the South has also led to large-scale migration to seek a better life in the North.
● This has created international political frictions.
● International law and norms make a distinction between migrants (those who voluntarily leave their
home countries) and refugees (those who flee from war, natural disaster or political persecution).
● States are generally supposed to accept refugees, but they do not have to accept migrants.
● While refugees leave their country of origin, people who have fled their homes but remain within
national borders are called 'internally displaced people'.
● Wars and armed conflicts in the South have generated millions of refugees seeking safe haven.
● From 1990 to 1995, 70 states were involved in 93 wars which killed about 55 lakh people.
● As a result, individuals, and families and, at times, whole communities have been forced to migrate
because of generalised fear of violence or due to the destruction of livelihoods, identities and living
environments.
SECURITY IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

● Kashmiri Pandits that fled the violence in the Kashmir Valley in the early 1990s are an example of an
internally displaced community.

Health Epidemics:
● Health epidemics such as HIV-AIDS, bird flu, and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) have
rapidly spread across countries through migration, business, tourism and military operations. One
country's success or failure in limiting the spread of these diseases affects infections in other countries.
● By 2003, an estimated 4 crore people were infected with HIV AIDS worldwide, two-thirds of them in
Africa and half of the rest in South Asia.
● Greater integration of nations make borders less meaningful when epidemics as a security threat are
considered.
● However, for an issue to be classified a security threat an issue must share a minimum common
criterion, say, of threatening the very existence of the referent (a state or group of people) though the
precise nature of this threat may be different.

55
 ● In 1994, the Tutsi tribe in Rwanda faced a threat to its existence as nearly five lakhs of its people were
killed by the rival Hutu tribe in a matter of weeks. This shows that non-traditional conceptions of
security, like traditional conceptions of security, vary according to local contexts.

Cooperative Security:
● Dealing with many non-traditional threats such as, poverty alleviation, migration management,
tackling epidemics etc. requires a cooperative effort from diverse stakeholders instead of military
confrontation.
● Cooperation may be bilateral (i.e. between any two countries), regional, continental, or global.
● Cooperative security may also involve a variety of other players, both international and
national—international organisations (the UN, the World Health Organisation, the World Bank, the
IMF etc.), non-governmental organisations (Amnesty International, the Red Cross, private
foundations and charities, churches and religious organisations, trade unions, associations, social
and development organisations), businesses and corporations, and great personalities (e.g., Mother
Teresa, Nelson Mandela).
● Cooperative security may involve the use of force as a last resort. The international community may
have to sanction the use of force to deal with governments that kill their own people or ignore the
misery of their populations who are devastated by poverty, disease and catastrophe.
● It may have to agree to the use of violence against international terrorists and those who harbour
them.
● Non-traditional security is much better when the use of force is sanctioned and applied collectively
by the international community rather than when an individual country decides to use force on its
own.

India's Security Strategy:

SECURITY IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

India has faced traditional (military) and non-traditional threats to its security that have emerged from
within as well as outside its borders. Its security strategy has four broad components, which have been used
in a varying combination from time to time.

Strengthening Military Capabilities:

India needs to strengthen its military capabilities as:
● India has been involved in conflicts with its neighbours - Pakistan in 1947–48, 1965, 1971 and 1999;
and China in 1962.
● It is also surrounded by nuclear armed countries in the South Asian region.
● Thus, India first tested a nuclear device in 1974.
● India's decision to conduct another nuclear test in 1998 was justified by the Indian government in
terms of safeguarding national security.

56
 Strengthening International Norms and International Institutions:
India's aim has been to strengthen international norms and international institutions to protect its security
interests.
● Jawaharlal Nehru supported the cause of Asian solidarity, decolonisation, disarmament, and the UN
as a forum in which international conflicts could be settled.
● India also took initiatives to bring about a universal and non-discriminatory non-proliferation regime,
with respect to weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, biological, chemical).
● India has argued, for an equitable New International Economic Order (NIEO).
● It has used non-alignment to maintain peace in the era of alliances (cold war).
● India has also signed and ratified the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which provides a roadmap for reducing the
emissions of greenhouse gases to check global warming.
● Indian troops have been sent abroad on UN peacekeeping missions in support of cooperative security
initiatives.

Meeting Security Challenges Within the Country:

● Several militant groups from areas such as the Nagaland, Mizoram, the Punjab, and Kashmir etc. have
sought to break away from India.
● India has tried to preserve national unity by adopting a democratic political system, which allows
different communities and groups of people to freely articulate their grievances and share political
power.

Developing the Economy:

India has aimed to develop its economy, in a way that poverty, misery and economic inequalities do not exist.
● The attempt has not quite succeeded; we are still a very poor and unequal country.
● However, Democracy in our country has given the poor and relatively underprivileged a voice to speak
SECURITY IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

out their issues, for resolution at bigger levels.

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 ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL
8 RESOURCES
Today environment and resources are assuming greater significance in world politics. The 1992 Earth
Summit has brought environmental issues to the centre-stage of global politics. The sustainable
management of the environment and natural resources is vital for economic growth and human wellbeing.

Environmental Concerns in Global Politics:

Various environmental concerns in global politics are as follows:
● Constrained availability of cultivable area along with pollution of water bodies severely restricting food
production capacities.
● As per Human Development Report 2016 of the United Nations Development Programme, 663
million people in developing countries have no access to safe water and 2.4 billion have no access to
sanitation, resulting in the death of more than three million children every year.
● Natural forests - which help stabilise the climate, moderate water supplies, and harbour a majority of
the planet's biodiversity on land - are being cut down and people are being displaced. The loss of
biodiversity continues due to the destruction of habitat in areas which are rich in species.
● A steady decline in the total amount of ozone in the Earth's stratosphere (commonly referred to as
the ozone hole) poses a real danger to ecosystems and human health.
● Coastal pollution too is increasing globally. Although the open sea is relatively clean, the coastal
waters are becoming increasingly polluted largely due to land-based activities. If unchecked, intensive
human settlement of coastal zones across the globe will lead to further deterioration in the quality of
marine environment.
These issues require collective efforts from various governments and other stake holders. They can not be
resolved by one national government alone. Also, fixing responsibility for the causation and fixation of these
concerns are questions that have made these issues a part of 'global politics.'

History of environmental concerns:

ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Awareness of the environmental consequences of economic growth acquired an increasingly political
character from the 1960s onwards.
● The Club of Rome, a global think tank, published a book in 1972 entitled Limits to Growth,
dramatising the potential depletion of the Earth's resources against the backdrop of rapidly growing
world population.
● International agencies, including the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), began
organising meetings and commencing studies in such issues.
● In 1987 Brundtland Report, Our Common Future, had warned that traditional patterns of economic
growth were not sustainable in the long term.
● United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit):
⮚ It was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992.
⮚ It aimed to cater to the growing focus on environmental issues within the arena of global politics.

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 Conclusions of the Earth Summit:
● The rich and developed countries of the First World (referred as 'global North') were concerned with
ozone depletion and global warming.
● Poor and developing countries of the Third World (referred as 'global South') were anxious to
address the relationship between economic development and environmental management.
● The Rio Summit produced conventions dealing with climate change, biodiversity, forestry, and
recommended a list of development practices called 'Agenda 21'.
● There was a consensus on combining economic growth with ecological responsibility. This approach
to development is commonly known as 'sustainable development'
However, along with laying these objectives the Earth Summit did not devise effective ways of achieving
them. Also, some critics say the Agenda 21 was more tilted in the favour of economic growth instead of
ecological conservation.

The Protection of Global Commons:

These are the areas or regions of the world which are located outside the sovereign jurisdiction of any one
state, and therefore require common governance by the international community. These are known as res
communis humanitatis or global commons. For example: Earth's atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor,
and outer space.
● In order to regulate them, there have been many path-breaking agreements such as the 1959
Antarctic Treaty, the 1987 Montreal Protocol, and the 1991 Antarctic Environmental Protocol.
● However, a major problem underlying all ecological issues relates to the difficulty of achieving
consensus on common environmental agendas on the basis of vague scientific evidence and time
frames.
● Also, the management of these areas is heavily influenced from North-South divide as the benefits
ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

attained from these commons is far from being equal e.g. Outer Space exploration.

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities:

The North-South divide in perceiving environmental issues is very prominent. The developed nations of
North want everyone to be equally responsible for ecological conservation. However, the developing
nations of the South want that the historical reasons for ecological degradation is because of the industrial
development undertaken by the developed nations and hence they should assume more responsibility.
● Moreover, these developing nations, are also in the process of industrialization to develop and must not
be subjected to the same restrictions as the developed nations. Thus, the special needs of the
developing countries must be taken into account in the development, application, and
interpretation of rules of international environmental law.

59
 ● This argument was accepted in the Rio Declaration at the Earth Summit in 1992 and is called the
principle of 'common but differentiated responsibilities.
● The relevant part of the Rio Declaration says that “States shall cooperate in the spirit of global
partnership to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. In
view of the different contributions of global environmental degradation, states have common but
differentiated responsibilities. The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they
bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies
place on the global environment and of the technological and financial resources they command.”
● Similarly, the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) also
provides that the parties should act to protect the climate system “on the basis of equity and in
accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities.”

The following points were agreed upon in this convention:

● Largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases originated in developed
countries.
● It was also acknowledged that per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low.
● China, India, and other developing countries were, therefore, exempted from the requirements of the
Kyoto Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol:

● It is an international agreement setting targets for industrialised countries to cut their
greenhouse gas emissions.
● Certain gases like Carbon dioxide, Methane, Hydro-fluoro carbons etc. are considered at least
partly responsible for global warming - the rise in global temperature which may have

ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

catastrophic consequences for life on Earth.
The protocol was agreed to in 1997 in Kyoto in Japan, based on principles set out in UNFCCC.

Common Property Resources:

● These are the property resources for a group, that is the members of the group have both rights and
duties with respect to the nature, levels of use, and the maintenance of a given resource.
● Through mutual understanding and centuries of practice, many village communities in India, for
example, have defined members' rights and responsibilities.
● A combination of factors, including privatisation, agricultural intensification, population growth and
ecosystem degradation have caused common property to dwindle in size, quality, and availability to
the poor in much of the world.

60
 Antarctica:
● The Antarctic continental region extends over 14 million square kilometres and comprises 26
per cent of the world's wilderness area, representing 90 per cent of all terrestrial ice and 70 per
cent of planetary fresh water.
● It has a limited terrestrial life and a highly productive marine ecosystem, comprising a few
plants (e.g. microscopic algae, fungi and lichen), marine mammals, fish and hordes of birds
adapted to harsh conditions, as well as the krill.
● The Antarctic plays an important role in maintaining climatic equilibrium, and deep ice cores
provide an important source of information about greenhouse gas concentrations and
atmospheric temperatures of hundreds and thousands of years ago.
● Some countries like the UK, Argentina etc. have made legal claims to sovereign rights over
Antarctic territory.
● Most other states however view that the Antarctic is a part of the global commons and not
subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of any state.
● The Antarctic and the Arctic polar regions are subjected to special regional rules of
environmental protection.
Since 1959, activities in the area have been limited to scientific research, fishing and tourism. Even
these limited activities have not prevented parts of the region from being degraded by waste as a
result of oil spills.

India's Stand on Environmental Issues:

ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

India signed and ratified the 1997 Kyoto Protocol in August 2002. India, China and other developing
countries were exempt from the requirements of the Kyoto Protocol because their contribution to the
emission of greenhouse gases during the industrialisation period (that is believed to be causing today's
global warming and climate change) was not significant.
Per capita carbon emissions of India by 2030 is likely to still represent less than half the world average of 3.8
tonnes in 2000. Indian emissions are predicted to rise from 0.9 tonnes per capita in 2000 to 1.6 tonnes per
capita in 2030.
● India is of the view that the major responsibility of curbing emission rests with the developed
countries, which have accumulated emissions over a long period of time.
● This position relies heavily on principles of historical responsibility, as enshrined in UNFCCC.
● Which acknowledges that developed countries are responsible for most historical and current
greenhouse gas emissions and emphasizes that 'economic and social development are the first and
overriding priorities of the developing country parties.

61
 ● India is wary of recent discussions within UNFCCC focusing on binding commitments on rapidly
industrialising countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, as it feels that this contravenes
the very spirit of UNFCCC.
● No meaningful progress with respect to transfer of new and additional financial resources and
environmentally-sound technology on concessional terms to developing nations has taken place.
● Developed countries should take immediate measures to provide developing countries with financial
resources and clean technologies to enable them to meet their existing commitments under UNFCCC.
● SAARC countries should adopt a common position on major global environment issues, so that the
region's voice carries greater weight.

Also, India has taken many progressive steps on the issue of Environmental Conservation:
● India's National Auto-fuel Policy mandates cleaner fuels for vehicles.
● The Energy Conservation Act, 2001 outlines initiatives to improve energy efficiency.
● Electricity Act of 2003 encourages the use of renewable energy.
● Efforts at importing natural gas and encouraging the adoption of clean coal technologies have been
made.
● National Mission on Biodiesel has been launched.
● Paris Climate Agreement has been ratified.
● India has one of the largest renewable energy programmes in the world.

Environmental Movements:
A very significant response to environmental challenges has come from groups of environmentally
conscious volunteers working in different parts of the world. Today these ground level movements from such
volunteers and activists represent the most vibrant, diverse, and powerful social movements across the

ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

globe today.
The forest movements of the South, in Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, continental Africa and
India ( just to list a few examples) are faced with enormous pressures. Forest clearing in the Third World
continues at an alarming rate, despite three decades of environmental activism. The destruction of the
world's last remaining grand forests has actually increased in the last decade.

Various Factors leading to the development of such movements:

● Forest clearing is happening at an alarming rate. Liberalisation of the global economy, has opened
countries to large MNCs in the business of mineral extraction, leading to widespread extraction of
earth, use of chemicals, pollution of waterways and land, clearance of native vegetation,
displacement of communities etc.
● Mega-dams are again inviting pro-river reactions from communities for more sustainable and

62
 equitable management of river systems and valleys. India has had some of the leading anti-dam, pro-
river movements. Narmada Bachao Andolan is one of the best known of these movements.

● Today anti-dam and other environmental movements in India, form the most important shared idea of
non-violence. These movements form the bedrock of action, as it is within social movements that
new forms of political action are born or reinvented.

Resource Geopolitics:
It is a phenomenon describing the distribution of resources amongst nations. Resources have played a key
role in several nations emerging as great powers and thus their distribution have also been the subject of
inter-state rivalries.
Various resources that warrant geopolitical issues include:

Oil:
● The global economy relied on oil for much of the 20th century as a portable and indispensable fuel.
● The immense wealth associated with oil generates political struggles to control it, thus filling the
history of petroleum with war and struggle.
● Regions like West Asia and Central Asia have been the theatres of this struggle.
● West Asia, specifically the Gulf region, accounts for about 30 per cent of global oil production.
● But it has about 64 percent of the planet's known reserves and is therefore the only region able to
satisfy any substantial rise in oil demand.
● Saudi Arabia has a quarter of the world's total reserves and is the single largest producer.
● Iraq's known reserves are second only to Saudi Arabia's. And, since substantial portions of Iraqi
territory are yet to be fully explored, there is a fair chance that actual reserves might be far larger.
ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Water:
● It is another crucial resource important for the world.
● However, the lower riparian states have objected to pollution, excessive irrigation, or the
construction of dams by an upper riparian state, which might decrease or degrade the quality of
water available to the downstream state.
● States have also used force to protect or seize freshwater resources.
● A number of studies show that countries that share rivers — and many countries do share rivers — are
involved in military conflicts with each other.
● Examples of violence include those between Israel, Syria, and Jordan in the 1950s and 1960s over
attempts by each side to divert water from the Jordan and Yarmuk Rivers, and more recent threats
between Turkey, Syria, and Iraq over the construction of dams on the Euphrates River.

63
 Fig. 8.1: Troubled waters, Trapped people

The Indigenous People and their Rights:

● The UN defines indigenous populations as comprising the descendants of peoples who inhabited the

ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

present territory of a country at the time when persons of a different culture or ethnic origin arrived
there from other parts of the world and overcame them.
● They live in conformity with their social, economic, and cultural customs and traditions than the
institutions of the country of which they now form a part.
● Today there are approximately 30 crore indigenous peoples spread throughout the world including
India. They have time and again spoke of their struggles, their agenda and their rights. They call for
equal representation in world politics.
● They appeal to governments to come to terms with the continuing existence of indigenous nations as
enduring communities with an identity of their own. Today loss of land, which has supported many
life systems since times immemorable, has become a major concern for these indigenous people.

India's Indigenous People:

● In India, indigenous people usually describe the Scheduled Tribes constituting nearly eight per cent of
the population of the country.

64
 ● Most indigenous populations in India depend for their subsistence primarily on the cultivation of land.
● For centuries they had free access to as much land as they could cultivate.
● However, after the establishment of the British colonial rule these areas inhabited by the Scheduled
Tribe communities, were subjected to outside forces.
● Although they enjoy a constitutional protection in political representation, they have not got much of
the benefits of development in the country.
● In fact, they have paid a huge cost for development since they are the single largest group among the
people displaced by various developmental projects since independence.
Issues related to the rights of the indigenous communities have been neglected in domestic and
international politics for very long. During the 1970s, growing international contacts among indigenous
leaders from around the world aroused a sense of common concern and shared experiences. The World
Council of Indigenous Peoples was formed in 1975. The Council became subsequently the first of 11
indigenous NGOs to receive consultative status in the UN.

Sacred Groves in India:

● Sacred groves in India (parcels of uncut forest vegetation in the name of certain deities or
natural or ancestral spirits) exemplify such practice.
● As a model of community-based resource management, groves have lately gained attention in
conservation literature. The sacred groves can be seen as a system that informally forces
traditional communities to harvest natural resources in an ecologically sustained fashion.
● Some researchers believe that sacred groves hold the potential for preserving not only
biodiversity and ecological functions, but also cultural diversity.
● Sacred groves embody a rich set of forest preservation practices and they share characteristics
with common property resource systems. Their size ranges from clumps of a few trees to
ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

several hundred acres.

● Traditionally, sacred groves have been valued for their embodied spiritual and cultural
attributes. Hindus commonly worshipped natural objects, including trees and groves. Many
temples have originated from sacred groves.
● Deep religious reverence for nature, rather than resource scarcity, seems to be the basis for the
long-standing commitment to preserving these forests.
● In recent years, however, expansion and human settlement have slowly encroached on sacred
forests. In many places, the institutional identity of these traditional forests is fading with the
advent of new national forest policies.
A real problem in managing sacred groves arises when legal ownership and operational control are
held by different entities. The two entities in question, the state and the community, vary in their
policy norms and underlying motives for using the sacred grove.

65
 GLOBALIZATION
9
It is a complex phenomenon aiming to transform the world into greater interdependence and integration,
by creating networks and activities transcending economic, social and geographical boundaries thus
creating a borderless world.
Globalisation need not be only about the economic issues, nor is the direction of influence always from the
rich to the poor countries.

The Concept of Globalization:

● Globalization as a concept dealing with flows of various kinds; ideas, capital, commodities, people
etc. within different parts of the world.
● These constant flows give rise to and sustain 'worldwide interconnectedness'.
● Globalization is a multidimensional concept having political, economic and cultural manifestations.

Causes of Globalization:
● Technology remains a critical element in enabling globalization. Inventions of telephone, internet etc,
have revolutionized communication and enabled linkages. The ability of ideas, capital, commodities
and people to move more easily from one part of the world to another has been made possible
largely by technological advances.
● The recognition by the people that the world is interlinked and happening at one place impacts the
other politically separate spaces as well.

Consequences of Globalization:
Political Consequences:
● Globalization results in an erosion of the ability of government to do what they do (that is erosion of
state capacity).
● Welfare states are now being transformed to minimalist states which is more focused on the core
functions such as maintaining law and order etc. instead of welfare directed measures of economic and
social well-being.
● Economic and social priorities are being determined based on the market instead of welfare goals.
● The entry and the increased role of multinational companies has reduced the capacity of
governments to take decisions on their own.
However, this is not always true as globalization has not necessarily eroded state capacity and in ways has
also given it a boost.
● The primacy of the state continues to be the unchallenged basis of political community.
● The old jealousies and rivalries between countries have not ceased to matter in world politics.
GLOBALIZATION

● The state continues to discharge its essential functions and consciously withdraws from certain
domains from which it wishes to.
● With enhanced technologies available at the disposal of the state to collect information about its
citizens.
● With this information, the state is better able to rule, not less able.

66
 ● Thus, states become more powerful than they were earlier as an outcome of the new technology.

Economic Consequences:
Economic consequences of globalization are largely about the distribution of economic gains, i.e., who gets
the most from globalization and who gets less, indeed who loses from it.

Positive consequences:
● Globalization has involved greater trade in commodities across the globe; the restrictions imposed by
different countries on allowing the imports of other countries have been reduced.
● Restrictions on movement of capital across countries have also been reduced.
● Led to the flow of ideas across national boundaries.
● Globalization generates greater economic growth and well-being for larger sections of the
population when there is de-regulation.
● Greater trade among countries allows each economy to do what it does best. This would benefit the
whole world.
● Globalization is inevitable and it is not wise to resist the march of history.

Concerns:
● Globalization has not led to the same degree of increase in the movement of people across the globe.
Developed countries have carefully guarded their borders with visa policies to ensure that citizens of
other countries cannot take away the jobs of their own citizens.
● State withdrawal has been caused by processes of economic globalization.
● It is likely to benefit only a small section of the population while impoverishing those who were
dependent on the government for jobs and welfare (education, health, sanitation, etc.).

Way Forward:
● Need to ensure institutional safeguards or creating 'social safety nets' to minimise the negative effects
of globalization on those who are economically weak is there.
● Alternatively, a halt to forced economic globalization can be there, else it may lead to economic ruin
for the weaker countries, especially for the poor within these countries.
More moderate supporters of globalization say that globalization provides a challenge that can be
responded to intelligently without accepting it uncritically. What, however, cannot be denied is the
increased momentum towards inter - dependence and integration between governments, businesses,
GLOBALIZATION

and ordinary people in different parts of the world as a result of globalization.

Cultural Consequences:
Globalization has impacts on our culture and shaping our cultural preferences.

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Negative Impacts:
● Globalization affects us in our home, it shapes what we think are our preferences. The cultural effect of
globalization leads to the fear of rise of a uniform culture or what is called cultural homogenisation.
● The rise of a uniform culture is not the emergence of a new global culture but the imposition of the
western culture.

● McDonaldisation': The culture of the politically and economically dominant society leaves its imprint
on a less powerful society, and the world begins to look more like the dominant power wishes it to be.
Cultures are not static things. All cultures accept outside influences all the time. Some external
influences are negative because they reduce our choices. But sometimes external influences simply
enlarge our choices, and sometimes they modify our culture without overwhelming the traditional.
The burger is no substitute for a masala dosa and, therefore, does not pose any real challenge. It is
simply added on to our food choices.
● This is dangerous not only for the poor countries but for the whole of humanity, for it leads to the
shrinking of the rich cultural heritage of the entire globe.

Positive Impacts:
● All cultures accept outside influences all the time.
● Adding new features from other cultures to our own widens our choices.
● Globalization also makes a culture more different and distinctive by adding newer attributes to it, for
example: wearing a kurta with a blue jean. This phenomenon is called cultural heterogenization.

India and Globalization:

● During the colonial period, as a consequence of Britain's imperial ambitions, India became an
exporter of primary goods and raw materials and a consumer of finished goods.
● After independence, India decided to be self-reliant instead of importing. This 'protectionism'
generated its own problems.
● While some advances were made in certain arenas, critical sectors such as health, housing and
primary education did not receive the attention they deserved. India had a fairly sluggish rate of
economic growth.
● In 1991, responding to a financial crisis and to the desire for higher rates of economic growth, India
embarked on a programme of economic reforms that has sought increasingly to de-regulate various
sectors including trade and foreign investment.

Resistance to Globalization:
GLOBALIZATION

Globalization has received criticism from various sections across the globe.

The arguments made against globalization are as follows:

● It represents a particular phase of global capitalism that makes the rich richer (and fewer) and the
poor poorer.

68
 ● Weakening of the state leads to a reduction in the capacity of the state to protect the interest of its
poor.
● In political terms, the fear the weakening of the state is there.
● Economically, self-reliance and protectionism, are needed at least in certain areas of the economy.
● Culturally, traditional culture is harmed, and people lose their age-old values and ways.
However, many anti-globalization movements are not opposed to the idea of globalization per se as much as
they are opposed to a specific program of globalization, which they see as a form of imperialism.

● In 1999, at the World Trade Organisation (WTO) Ministerial Meeting there were widespread
protests at Seattle alleging unfair trading practices by the economically powerful states.
● The World Social Forum (WSF) is another global platform, which brings together a wide coalition
composed of human rights activists, environmentalists, labour, youth and women activists opposed to
neo-liberal globalization.
Ø The first WSF meeting was organised in Porto Alegre, Brazil in 2001. The fourth WSF meeting
was held in Mumbai in 2004. The latest WSF meeting was held in Brazil in March 2018.

India's Resistance to Globalization:

● Resistance to globalization in India has come from different quarters.
● There have been left wing protests to economic liberalization voiced through political parties as well
as through forums like the Indian Social Forum.
● Trade unions of industrial workforce as well as those representing farmer interests have organised
protests against the entry of multinationals.
● The patenting of certain plants like Neem by American and European firms has also generated
considerable opposition.
● Resistance to globalization has also come from the political right. This has taken the form of objecting
particularly to various cultural influences — ranging from the availability of foreign T.V. channels
provided by cable networks, celebration of Valentine's Day, and westernization of the dress tastes of
girl students in schools and colleges.
Globalization has had mixed impacts on the world as well as India. Instead of assuming a negative
connotation of the entire process, it is largely certain specific impacts of globalization that have become a
major cause of concern.
GLOBALIZATION

69
NCERT NOTES
FOR POLITY
12th Standard
Politics in India Since Independence
CONTENTS
Challenges of Nation Building .................................................................................................... 1 - 8

Era of One-Party Dominance ................................................................................................... 9 - 16

Politics of Planned Development .......................................................................................... 17 - 23

India's External Relations ........................................................................................................ 24 - 31

Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System ............................................... 32 - 39

The Crisis of Democratic Order ............................................................................................. 40 - 48

Rise of Popular Movements ................................................................................................... 49 - 55

Regional Aspirations ............................................................................................................... 56 - 66

Recent Developments in Indian Politics ............................................................................. 67 - 72

 CHALLENGES OF NATION
1 BUILDING
India got independent on 15th August 1947. Freedom came with the partition of the country. The year 1947
was a year of unprecedented violence and trauma of displacement. It was in this situation that independent
India started on its journey to achieve several objectives. India was born in very difficult circumstances.

Three Challenges:
Broadly, independent India faced three kinds of challenges:

Shaping Unity in Diversity:

· The immediate challenge was to shape a nation that was united, yet accommodative of the diversity
(linguistic, cultural, religious etc.) in our society, due to the continental size and diversity of the nation.
· The partition of the country appeared to prove that such diverse people could not live in unity.

Establishing Democracy:
· The second challenge was to establish democracy.
· The Indian Constitution adopted for representative democracy based on the parliamentary form of the
government. The challenge was to develop democratic practices in accordance with the Constitution.

Ensuring equitable development and wellbeing of all:

· The third challenge was to ensure the development and wellbeing of the entire society and not only
of some sections.
· The Constitution clearly laid down the principle of equality and special protection to socially
disadvantaged groups and religious and cultural communities.
· The Constitution also set out in the Directive Principles of State Policy the welfare goals that
democratic politics must achieve.
· An evolvement effective policy for economic development and eradication of poverty was the real
challenge.
Displacement and Rehabilitation of Migrated people has occupied the centre stage in the years
immediately after the independence. Various aspects of this challenge are as follows:

Partition: Displacement and Rehabilitation

CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING

· Partition refers to the division of British India into two nation-states-India and Pakistan.
· According to the 'two-nation theory' advanced by the Muslim League, India consisted of not one but
two 'people', Hindus and Muslims. This led to the demand of Pakistan, a separate country for the
Muslims. The Congress opposed this theory.
· But several political developments in 1940s, the political competition between the Congress and the
Muslim League and the British role led to the decision for the creation of Pakistan.

Process of Partition:
· Partition was based on the principle of religious majorities.
· Areas where Muslims were in majority would make up the territory of Pakistan. The rest was to stay
with India.

1
However, there were certain difficulties in executing this scheme of partition:
· There was no single belt of Muslim majority areas in British India.
· There were two areas of concentration, one in the west and one in the east with no way to join these
parts.
Ø Thus it was decided that Pakistan, will comprise two territories, West and East Pakistan separated
by a long expanse of Indian territory
· Not all Muslim majority areas wanted to be in Pakistan.
Ø Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, the leader of the North Western Frontier Province and known as 'Frontier
Gandhi', was staunchly opposed to the two-nation theory.
Ø Eventually, his voice was simply ignored and the NWFP was made to merge with Pakistan.
· Muslim majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal had very large areas where the non-Muslims were in
majority. Eventually it was decided that these two provinces would be bifurcated according to the
religious majority at the district or even lower level.
· A large number of people did not know on the day of Independence whether they were in India or in
Pakistan. The Partition of these two provinces caused the deepest trauma of Partition.
· Problem of 'minorities': There was also the problem of 'minorities' on both sides of the border.
Ø Lakhs of Hindus and Sikhs in the areas that were now in Pakistan and an equally large number of
Muslims on the Indian side of Punjab and Bengal (and to some extent Delhi and surrounding areas)
found themselves trapped.
Ø As soon as partition became certain they became easy targets and this led to violence in such
areas.
Ø The minorities on both sides of the border were left with no option except to leave their homes.
Partition of India has many consequences. The life of people was badly affected. Partition triggered riots,
mass casualties, and a colossal wave of migration.

Consequences of Partition:
· Refugee Crisis: 1947 was the year of one of the largest, most abrupt, unplanned and tragic transfer of
population that human history has known. Minorities on both sides fled their home and often secured

CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING

temporary shelter in 'refugee camps'. Those who did manage to cross the border found that they had
no home.
· Killings and atrocities: Cities like Lahore, Amritsar and Kolkata became divided into 'communal
zones'. During their journey from one side to another, they were often attacked, killed or raped.
Ø In many cases women were killed by their own family members to preserve the 'family honour'.
Ø Many children were separated from their parents.
Ø It is estimated that about 80 lakh people were forced to migrate across the new border. Between
five to ten lakh people were killed in Partition related violence.
· Forced Conversion: Thousands of women were abducted on both sides of the border, made to convert
to the religion of the abductor and were forced into marriage.

2
 · Division of hearts': While recounting the trauma of Partition, many have often used the phrase that
the survivors themselves used to describe Partition — as a 'division of hearts'.
Beyond the administrative concerns and financial strains, the Partition posed another deeper issue.

Post-Partition status of India:

· India a Hindu nation Theory: Partition of India taken place on religious basis that made India a Hindu
nation automatically.
Ø However, even after large scale migration of Muslims to the newly created Pakistan, the Muslim
population in India accounted for 12 per cent of the total population in 1951.
· Politics of Religion: There were several political interests at play based on religious demands.
· Secular Nation: In India, all citizens would be equal irrespective of their religious affiliation. Being
religious or a believer would not be a test of citizenship.
Ø They cherished therefore the ideal of a secular nation. This ideal was enshrined in the Indian
Constitution.
Integration of Princely states was one of the biggest challenge after India's Independence. British India was
divided into British Indian Provinces and the Princely States.

Integration of Princely States:

The British Indian Provinces were directly under the control of the British government. On the other hand,
several large and small states ruled by princes, called the Princely States, enjoyed some form of control over
their internal affairs as long as they accepted British supremacy. This was called paramountcy or suzerainty
of the British crown.
Princely States covered one-third of the land area of the British Indian Empire and one out of four Indians
lived under princely rule.

The Problem of their Integration:

· Due to lapse of paramountcy of the British crown over Princely States, all the 565 princely states had
right to being a legally independent.
CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING

· After Independence, all these states were free to join either India or Pakistan or remain independent if
they so wished. However, it was the rulers who were to decide and not the people. This problem
threatened the very existence of a united India.
· Subsequently, the ruler of Travancore and Nizam of Hyderabad announced to be Independent.
· Rulers like the Nawab of Bhopal were averse to joining the Constituent Assembly.
This kind of response made a threat that India would further get divided into smaller countries. The
prospects of democracy for the people in these states also looked bleak.
Since the Indian Independence was aimed at unity, self-determination and democracy, most of the princely
states, governments being run in a non-democratic manner and the rulers unwilling to give democratic
rights to their populations posed a very strange situation.

3
Government's approach for integration:
The government's approach of responding to situation of princely states was guided by three
considerations.
· Firstly, the people of most of the princely states clearly wanted to become part of the Indian union.
· Secondly, the government was prepared to be flexible in giving autonomy to some regions.
· Thirdly, in the backdrop of Partition which brought into focus the contest over demarcation of territory,
the integration and consolidation of the territorial boundaries of the nation had assumed supreme
importance.
The interim government took a firm stance against the possible division of India into small principalities of
different sizes.
The Muslim League opposed the Indian National Congress and took the view that the States should be free
to adopt any course they liked.

· Sardar Patel was India's Deputy Prime Minister and the Home Minister during the period immediately
following Independence.
· He played a historic role in negotiating with the rulers of princely states firmly but diplomatically and
bringing most of them into the Indian Union.
· Before independence, peaceful negotiations had brought almost all states with contiguous territories
with the new boundaries of India, into the Indian Union.
· The rulers of most of the states signed a document called the 'Instrument of Accession' which meant
that their state agreed to become a part of the Union of India.
However, accession of the Princely States of Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir and Manipur posed certain
difficulties.

Junagarh:
The issue of Junagarh was resolved after a plebiscite confirmed people's desire to join India.

Hyderabad:

CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING

It was the largest Princely States and was surrounded entirely by Indian territory. Today parts of
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh constitute the old state of Hyderabad whose ruler used to
claim the title, 'Nizam', and he was one of the world's richest men.
· The Nizam wanted Hyderabad to remain independent so he entered into the Standstill Agreement
with India in November 1947 for a year while negotiations with the Indian government were going on.
· In the meantime, a movement against the Nizam's rule by the people gathered force. The Nizam
responded by unleashing a para-military force known as the Razakars on the people.
· They committed atrocities on the people and were deeply communal targeting particularly the non-
muslims.
· The central government of India ordered the army to tackle the situation. In September 1948, Indian

4
 army moved in to control the Nizam's forces and after a few days of intermittent fighting, the Nizam
surrendered, leading to Hyderabad's accession to India.
Manipur:
· Maharaja of Manipur, Bodhachandra Singh, signed the Instrument of Accession with the Indian
government on the assurance that the internal autonomy of Manipur would be maintained.
· Under the pressure of public opinion, elections in Manipur were conducted by the Maharaja in June
1948 and the state became a constitutional monarchy. Thus, Manipur was the first part of India to
hold an election based on universal adult franchise.
· However, there were sharp differences over the question of merger of Manipur with India in its
Legislative Assembly.
· While the state Congress wanted the merger, other political parties were opposed to this.
· The Government of India however succeeded in pressurising the Maharaja into signing a Merger
Agreement in September 1949, without consulting the popularly elected Legislative Assembly of
Manipur.
· This caused a lot of anger and resentment in Manipur, the repercussions of which are still being felt.
CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING

Fig.1.1: India before and After Partition

5
After partition and integrating the princely states, the challenge of drawing the internal boundaries of the
Indian states was there.

Reorganisation of States:
· States had to be drawn in a way so that the linguistic and cultural plurality of the country could be
reflected without affecting the unity of the nation.
· Our national movement had rejected these divisions and had promised the linguistic principle as the
basis of formation of states. The Nagpur session of Congress in 1920 recognised language as the
basis of the reorganisation of the Indian National Congress party itself.
· Provincial Congress Committees created by linguistic zones did not follow the administrative division
of British India.
· However, post-independence it was believed that carving out states on the basis of language might
lead to disruption and disintegration while moving away the focus from other social and economic
challenges.
· Due to several such concerns the leadership decided to postpone the matter of reorganisation.
However, protests began in the Telugu speaking areas of the old Madras province against this.
· Creation of First Linguistic state:
Ø The Vishalandhra movement (as the movement for a separate Andhra was called) demanded that
the Telugu speaking areas should be separated from the Madras province of which they were a part
and be made into a separate Andhra province.
Ø Potti Sriramulu, a Congress leader and a veteran Gandhian, went on an indefinite fast that led to his
death after 56 days. This led to great unrest and violent outbursts in Andhra region.
Ø Finally, the Prime Minister announced the formation of a separate Andhra state in December 1952.
· Demand for new linguistic states: This spurred the struggle for making of other states on linguistic
lines in other parts of the country.
Ø These struggles forced the Central Government into appointing a States Reorganisation

CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING

Commission in 1953 to look into the question of redrawing of the boundaries of states.
o The Commission in its report accepted that the boundaries of the state should reflect the
boundaries of different languages.
o On the basis of its report the States Reorganisation Act was passed in 1956.
o Which led to the creation of 14 states and six union territories.

6
 Fig. 1.2: India After reorganization administrative map 1961

Positive and Negative aspects of Linguistic states:

CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING

· It was feared that linguistic states may foster separatism and create pressures on the newly founded
nation.
· But while making a decision for linguistic states it was hoped that acceptance of linguistic and
regional claims would reduce the threat of division and separatism.
· it has had many positive impacts for India:
Ø The path to politics and power was now open to people other than the small English speaking elite.
Ø Uniform basis to the drawing of state boundaries has been provided.
Ø It has not led to disintegration of the country.
Ø Above all, the linguistic states underlined the acceptance of the principle of diversity.
Indian scheme of democracy thus associated plurality of ideas and ways of life not limiting itself to a
democratic constitution and particular way of elections.

7
Creation of new states:
· Formation of Maharashtra and Gujarat -1960.
· Nagaland had become a state much earlier in 1963.
· Formation of Haryana from Punjab: 1966.
· Meghalaya was carved out of Assam, Manipur and Tripura emerged as separate states in 1972.
· States of Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh came into being in 1987.
· Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand were created in 2000.

Interesting points

· Tryst with Destiny was first speech given by Jawaharlal Nehru after India's Independence.
· Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1875-1950): Leader of the freedom movement; follower of Mahatma
Gandhi; Deputy Prime Minister and first Home Minister of independent India; played an
important role in the integration of Princely States with India; member of important committees of
the Constituent Assembly on Fundamental Rights, Minorities, Provincial Constitution, etc.
· Faiz Ahmed Faiz (1911-1984): Born in Sialkot; stayed in Pakistan after Partition. A leftist in his
political leanings, he opposed the Pakistani regime and was imprisoned. Collections of his poetry
include Naksh-e-Fariyadi, Dast-e-Saba and Zindan-Nama. Regarded as one of the greatest
poets of South Asia in the twentieth century. Urdu poem Subh-e-azadi was written by him.
· Amrita Pritam (1919–2005): A prominent Punjabi poet and fiction writer. Recipient of Sahitya
Akademi Award, Padma Shree and Jnanapeeth Award. She was active in writing and editing
'Nagmani' a Punjabi monthly magazine till her last. A Punjabi poem “Aaj Akhan Waris Shah Nun”
based on partition is written by her.

CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING

8
 2 ERA OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE

Electoral competition amongst political parties started soon after independence, however the first few
yearswere marked by the dominance of a single political party.

Challenge of Building Democracy:

· Many newly independent countries chose methods other than democracy to setup their political systems,
as for them national unity was the first priority, and democracy they thought would introduce differences
and conflicts.
· Indian freedom struggle however was deeply committed to the idea of democracy, and thus our
leaders chose it. For them politics in democratic system was a way to solve problems, instead of being a
problem.
· After the constitution came into effect on 26 January 1950, it was necessary to install the first
democratically elected government of the country.
· The Election Commission of India was set up in January 1950. Sukumar Sen became the first Chief
Election Commissioner.

Challenges in conducting India's First General Elections:

· Holding a free and fair election in a country of India's size is not an easy task. Holding an election
required delimitation or drawing the boundaries of the electoral constituencies. It also required
preparing the electoral rolls, or the list of all the citizens eligible to vote.
· Following were the important issues:
Ø Women Voters: Initially when the first draft of the rolls was published, it was discovered that the
names of nearly 40 lakh women were not recorded in the list.
Ø Literacy of Voters: There were 17 crore eligible voters, who had to elect about 3,200 MLAs and 489
Members of Lok Sabha. Only 15 per cent of these eligible voters were literate.
Ø Training of election staff: The Election Commission had to train over 3 lakh officers and polling staff
to conduct the elections.
· No election on this scale had ever been conducted in the world before. They were to be the first big test
of democracy in a poor and illiterate country.
ERA OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE

· In those times, many countries in even Europe had not given voting rights to women, India's
experiment with universal adult franchise appeared very bold and risky. The elections were subject to
scepticism from many rungs of the world.
· The elections had to be postponed twice and finally were held from October 1951 to February 1952.
But this election is referred to as the 1952 election since most parts of the country voted in January
1952.
· It took six months for the campaigning, polling and counting to be completed. Elections were
competitive – there were on an average more than four candidates for each seat. The level of
participation was encouraging — more than half the eligible voters turned out to vote on the day of
elections. When the results were declared these were accepted as fair even by the losers.

9
 · The Indian experiment had proved the critics wrong. India's general election of 1952 became a
landmark in the history of democracy all over the world. It proved that democracy could be practiced
anywhere in the world.

Changing methods of voting:

· In the first general election, a box for each candidate with the election symbol of that candidate
was placed in the polling booths.
· Each voter was given a blank ballot paper which they had to drop into the box of the candidate
they wanted to vote for. Voters had to drop a blank ballot paper, in the box of the candidate they
wished to vote for.
· After the first two elections this method was changed. Now the ballot paper carried the names
and symbols of all the candidates and the voter was required to put a stamp on the name of the
candidate they wanted to vote for. This method worked for nearly forty years.
· Towards the end of 1990s the Election Commission started using the EVM (Electronic Voting
Machine). By 2004 the entire country had shifted to the EVM.

The Congress party had inherited the legacy of the national movement, so it won election of 1952.

Congress Dominance in the First Three General Elections:

· The Congress party won 364 of the 489 seats in the first Lok Sabha and finished way ahead of any
other challenger. The Communist Party of India that came next in terms of seats won only 16 seats.
· The state elections were held with the Lok Sabha elections.
· The Congress won a majority of seats in all the states except Travancore-Cochin (part of today's
Kerala), Madras and Orissa. Finally, even in these states the Congress formed the government.
· The party ruled all over the country at the national and the state level.
· Jawaharlal Nehru became the Prime Minister after the first general election.

ERA OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE

· In the second and the third general elections, held in 1957 and 1962 respectively, the Congress
maintained the same position in the Lok Sabha by winning three-fourth of the seats.
· In the state assembly elections, the Congress did not get majority in a few cases:
Ø Kerala: In 1957 a coalition led by the CPI formed the government.
· The extent of the victory of the Congress was artificially boosted by our electoral system.
Ø The Congress won three out of every four seats but it did not get even half of the votes.
Ø Due to the first past the post system of our elections, the party that gets more votes than others
tends to get much more than its proportional share. That is exactly what worked in favour of the
Congress.

10
 Ø If we add up the votes of all the non-Congress candidates it was more than the votes of the
Congress. But the non-Congress votes were divided between different rival parties and
candidates.

Fig. 2.1: Congress Dominance 1952-1967

ERA OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE

Communist victory in Kerala:

· In the assembly elections held in March 1957, the Communist Party won the largest number of
seats in the Kerala legislature.
· E. M. S. Namboodiripad became the Chief Minister.
· For the first time in the world, a Communist party government had come to power through
democratic elections.
· However, the Congress party began a 'liberation struggle' against the elected government.
· The Communists claimed that the agitation was led by vested interests and religious
organisations.

11
 · In 1959 the Congress government at the Centre dismissed the Communist government in
Kerala under Article 356 of the Constitution.
· This decision proved very controversial and was widely cited as the first instance of the misuse
of constitutional emergency powers.

Nature of Congress Dominance:

Many nations have experienced one party dominance but in India, the unique case is that such a dominance
was there under democratic conditions. Many parties contested elections in conditions of free and fair
elections and yet the Congress managed to win election after election.

Factors Responsible for Congress Dominance:

· Congress party was seen as the inheritor of the national movement.
· Many leaders who were in the forefront of that struggle were now contesting elections as Congress
candidates.
· The Congress was already a very well-organised party and by the time the other parties could even
think of a strategy, the Congress had already started its campaign.
· In fact, many parties were formed only around Independence or after that. Thus, the Congress had the
'first off the blocks' advantage.
· By the time of Independence, the party had not only spread across the length and breadth of the
country but also had an organisational network down to the local level.
· Most importantly, as the Congress was till recently a national movement, its nature was all-inclusive.
Congress evolved from its origins in 1885 as a pressure group for the newly educated, professional and
commercial classes to a mass movement in the twentieth century. This laid the basis for its eventual
transformation into a mass political party and its subsequent domination of the political system.

Congress as social and ideological coalition:

· It began as a party dominated by the English speaking, upper caste, upper middle-class and urban

ERA OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE

elite. But with every civil disobedience movement it launched, its social base widened.
· It subsequently brought together diverse groups, with contradictory interests. Gradually, its
leadership also expanded beyond the upper caste and upper-class professionals to agriculture based
leaders with a rural orientation.
· By the time of Independence, the Congress was transformed into a rainbow-like social coalition
broadly representing India's diversity in terms of classes and castes, religions and languages and
various interests. Thus, existing as a social coalition.
· Also very often groups and individuals holding different beliefs existed within the Congress as
individuals making Congress was an ideological coalition as well.

12
 · ideological coalition: It accommodated the revolutionary and pacifist, conservative and radical,
extremist and moderate and the right, left and all shades of the centre, becoming 'platform' for
numerous groups, interests and even political parties to take part in the national movement. Despite
numerous conflicting interests the party always tried to contain them and build consensus.

Tolerance and management of factions:

· Due to the coalition like nature of the Congress party, it accommodated a variety of ideas and
ideologies, putting the opposition in a difficult position.
· Groups with different ideologies, resorted to political competition within the Congress instead of
leaving the party. These groups with varied interests within the party were called 'factions' and
various such factions existed within the Congress.
· Due to this political competition within the Congress, it played the role of both the ruling party and the
opposition as the factions played the role of balancing the Congress.
· That is why this period of Indian politics has been described as the 'Congress system'.

Emergence of Opposition Parties:

· Even during the period of Congress System, India had a larger number of diverse and vibrant
opposition parties than many other multi-party democracies. Some of these had come into being even
before the first general election of 1952.
· The roots of almost all the non-Congress parties of today can be traced to one or the other of the
opposition parties of the 1950s.

Role of Opposition Parties during Congress Dominance:

· All opposition parties succeeded in gaining only a token representation in the Lok Sabha and state
assemblies during this period. Their presence however played a crucial role in maintaining the
democratic character of the system.
· These parties offered a sustained and often principled criticism of the policies and practices of the
Congress party. Keeping the ruling party under check.
· By keeping democratic political alternative alive, these parties prevented the resentment with the
ERA OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE

system from turning anti-democratic.

· These parties groomed the leaders who were to play a crucial role in the shaping of our country.

Relations between the Congress and Opposition:

· In the early years there was a lot of mutual respect between the leaders of the Congress and those of
the opposition.
· The interim government that ruled the country after the declaration of Independence and the first
general election included opposition leaders like Dr. Ambedkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee in
the cabinet.

13
 · Jawaharlal Nehru often referred to his fondness for the Socialist Party and invited socialist leaders like
Jayaprakash Narayan to join his government.
However, this kind of personal relationship with and respect for political adversaries declined after the party
competition grew more intense.
The phase of Congress Dominance was thus that of a broad based social and ideological coalition instead of
any kind of autocracy.

Political Parties:
· Socialist Party: It was formed within the Congress in 1934 by a group of young leaders who wanted
a more radical and egalitarian Congress.
Ø The Socialists formed a separate Socialist Party in 1948, due to the amended constitution of the
Congress prohibiting dual party membership.
Ø The socialists believed in the ideology of democratic socialism.
Ø The Socialist Party went through many splits and reunions leading to the formation of many
socialist parties including the Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party, the Praja Socialist Party and Samyukta
Socialist Party.
Ø Jayaprakash Narayan, Achyut Patwardhan, Asoka Mehta, Acharya Narendra Dev, Rammanohar
Lohia and S.M. Joshi were among the leaders of the socialist parties.
Ø Many parties in contemporary India, like the Samajwadi Party, the Rashtriya Janata Dal, Janata
Dal (United) and the Janata Dal (Secular) trace their origins to the Socialist Party.
· The Communist Party of India: In the early 1920s communist groups emerged in different parts of
India taking inspiration from the Bolshevik revolution in Russia.
Ø They advocated socialism as the solution to problems affecting the country.
Ø From 1935, the Communists worked mainly from within the fold of the Indian National Congress. A
parting of ways took place in December 1941, when the Communists decided to support the
British in their war against Nazi Germany.
Ø The party thought that the transfer of power in 1947 was not true independence and encouraged
violent uprisings in Telangana. The Communists however failed to generate popular support for
their position and were crushed by the armed forces.

ERA OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE

Ø In 1951 the Communist Party abandoned the path of violent revolution and decided to participate
in the approaching general elections.
Ø In the first general election, CPI emerged as the largest opposition party. The party's support was
more concentrated in Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and Kerala.
Ø A. K. Gopalan, S.A. Dange, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, P.C. Joshi, Ajay Ghosh and P. Sundarraya
were among the notable leaders of the CPI.
Ø The Party went through a major split in 1964 following the ideological rift between Soviet Union
and China. The pro-Soviet faction remained as the CPI, while the opponents formed the CPI(M).
Both these parties continue to exist to this day.
· Bhartiya Jana Sangha: It was formed in 1951 by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee.

14
 Ø It emphasised the idea of one country, one culture and one nation and believed that the country
could become modern, progressive and strong on the basis of Indian culture and traditions.
Ø The party called for a reunion of India and Pakistan in Akhand Bharat.
Ø They led the agitation to replace English with Hindi as the official language of India and was also
opposed to the granting of concessions to religious and cultural minorities.
Ø The party was a consistent advocate of India developing nuclear weapons especially after China
carried out its atomic tests in 1964.
Ø In the 1950s Jana Sangh remained on the margins of the electoral politics.
Ø The party's leaders included Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya and Balraj
Madhok.
Ø The Bharatiya Janata Party traces its roots to the Bharatiya Jana Sangh.
· Swatantra Party: It was formed in August 1959.
Ø The party was led by old Congressmen like C. Rajagopalachari, K.M.Munshi, N.G.Ranga and
Minoo Masani.
Ø They wanted the government to be less and less involved in controlling the economy. As they
believed in prosperity through individual freedom.
Ø It favoured expansion of a free private sector.
Ø It was against land ceilings in agriculture and opposed cooperative farming and state trading.
Ø It was also opposed to the progressive tax regime and demanded dismantling of the licensing
regime.
Ø It was critical of the policy of non-alignment and maintaining friendly relations with the Soviet
Union and advocated closer ties with the United States.

Important Personalities:
· Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888-1958): Scholar of Islam; freedom fighter and Congress leader;
proponent of Hindu-Muslim unity; opposed to Partition; member of Constituent Assembly; Education
Minister in the first cabinet of free India.
· Rajkumari Amrit Kaur (1889-1964): A Gandhian and Freedom fighter; belonged to the royal family of
Kapurthala; inherited Christian religion from her mother; member of Constituent Assembly; Minister
ERA OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE

for Health in independent India's first ministry; continued as Health Minister till 1957.
· Acharya Narendra Dev (1889-1956): Freedom fighter and founding President of the Congress
Socialist Party; jailed several times during the freedom movement; active in peasants' movement; a
scholar of Buddhism; after independence led the Socialist Party and later the Praja Socialist Party.
· Babasaheb Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891-1956): Leader of the anti-caste movement and the
struggle for justice to the Dalits; scholar and intellectual; founder of Independent Labour Party; later
founded the Scheduled Castes Federation; planned the formation of the Republican Party of India;
Member of Viceroy's Executive Council during the Second World War; Chairman, Drafting Committee
of the Constituent Assembly; Minister in Nehru's first cabinet after Independence; resigned in 1951
due to differences over the Hindu Code Bill; adopted Buddhism in 1956, with thousands of followers.

15
· Rafi Ahmed Kidwai (1894-1954): Congress leader from U.P.; Minister in U.P. in 1937 and again in
1946; Minister for Communications in the first ministry of free India; Food and Agriculture Minister,
1952-54.
· A.K. Gopalan (1904-1977): Communist leader from Kerala, worked as a Congress worker initially;
joined the Communist Party in 1939; after the split in the Communist Party in 1964, joined the CPI (M)
and worked for strengthening the party; respected as a parliamentarian; Member of Parliament from
1952.
· Deen Dayal Upadhyaya (1916-1968): Fulltime RSS worker since 1942; founder member of the
Bharatiya Jana Sangh; General Secretary and later President of Bharatiya Jana Sangh; initiated the
concept of integral humanism.
· C. Rajagopalachari (1878-1972): A senior leader of Congress and literary writer; close associate of
Mahatma Gandhi; member of Constituent Assembly; first Indian to be the Governor General of India
(1948- 1950); minister in Union Cabinet; later became Chief Minister of Madras state; first recipient of
the Bharat Ratna Award; founder of the Swatantra Party (1959).
· Shyama Prasad Mukherjee (1901-1953): Leader of Hindu Mahasabha; founder of Bharatiya Jana
Sangh; Minister in Nehru's first cabinet after Independence; resigned in 1950 due to differences over
relations with Pakistan; Member of Constituent Assembly and later, the first Lok Sabha; was opposed
to India's policy of autonomy to Jammu & Kashmir; arrested during Jana Sangh's agitation against
Kashmir policy; died during detention.

Interesting points

· “Maila Anchal” is a novel of Fanishwarnath Renu. The novel is set in Purnia district in North East
Bihar in the early years after Independence.
· Founded in 1929, as National Revolutionary Party and later renamed as the Institutional
Revolutionary Party, the PRI (in Spanish), exercised power in Mexico for almost six decades. It
represented the legacy of the Mexican revolution.

ERA OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE

16
 POLITICS OF PLANNED
3 DEVELOPMENT
After Independence, there was a broad consensus that development in India was to constitute both
Economic Development as well as social and economic justice.
Achieving these two goals together, government should play a key role. However there were differing ideas
on exactly what role the government should play.

Ideas of Development:
Development means different things for different sections of the society.
· On the eve of Independence, India had two models of modern development: the liberal-capitalist
model as in much of Europe and the US and the socialist model as in the USSR.
· Majority of the leaders and groups preferred the socialist model reflecting a broad consensus that had
developed during the national movement, as the task of poverty alleviation and social and economic
redistribution were seen primarily as the responsibility of the government.
· The adoption of socialist model led to the introduction of planed economy. Planning became a
corner stone for the development.

Left and Right:

· In the politics of most countries, there are references to parties and groups with a Left or Right
ideology or leaning.
· These terms characterise the position of the concerned groups or parties regarding social change
and role of the state in effecting economic redistribution.
· Left Wing: Refers to those who are in favour of the poor, downtrodden sections and support
government policies for the benefit of these sections.
· Right Wing: Refers to those who believe that free competition and market economy alone
ensure progress and that the government should not unnecessarily intervene in the economy.

Planning:
Despite the various differences, there was a consensus that development could not be left to private actors,
POLITICS OF PLANNED DEVELOPMENT

that there was the need for the government to develop a design or plan for development.

Bombay Plan:
· Before independence, a section of the big industrialists got together in 1944 and drafted a joint
proposal for setting up a planned economy in the country. It was called the Bombay Plan.
· It wanted the state to take major initiatives in industrial and other economic investments.

To achieve these goals, a scheme of planning for the economy was to be devised.
· Planning Commission: The Planning Commission was set up in March, 1950 with the Prime Minister
as its Chairman.
Ø It was setup by a simple resolution of the Government of India. It had an advisory role and its
recommendations become effective only when the Union Cabinet approved these.

17
 Ø It became the most influential and central machinery for deciding what path and strategy India
would adopt for its development.
The Planning Commission was to guide India's economic scenario for many decades to come.

The Scheme of Planning:

· As in the USSR, the Planning Commission of India opted for five-year plans (FYP).
· The Government of India prepared a document that has a plan for all its income and expenditure for
the next five years.
· Accordingly, the budget of the central and all the State governments was divided into two parts: 'non-
plan' budget that is spent on routine items on a yearly basis and 'plan' budget that is spent on a five
year basis as per the priorities fixed by the plan.

Plan Holiday: It refers to the period of 1966-1969, where instead of releasing Five Year Plans, the
Government release three Annual Plans.

First Five-Year Plan (First FYP):

Salient features
· The First Five Year Plan (1951–1956): Sought to get the country's economy out of the cycle of
poverty.
· The First Five Year Plan mainly addressed, the agrarian sector including investment in dams and
irrigation. As the sector was hard hit by partition and needed urgent interventions.
· Huge allocations were made for large-scale projects like the Bhakhra Nangal Dam.
· The Plan focused on land reforms, raising the level of national income, which could be possible only
through increased savings.
· People's savings did rise in the first phase of the planned process until the end of the Third Five Year
Plan.

POLITICS OF PLANNED DEVELOPMENT

Second Five Year Plan (Rapid Industrialisation):
Salient features
· It was drafted under the leadership of P. C. Mahalanobis.
· It stressed on heavy industries.
· It wanted to bring about quick structural transformation by making changes simultaneously in all
possible directions.
· The government imposed substantial tariffs on imports in order to protect domestic industries.
· This helped both public and private sector industries to grow.
· Due to the growing phase of investments in this period, a bulk of capital-intensive industries like
electricity, railways, steel, machineries and communication could be developed in the public sector
only.

18
 Problems with the Second FYP:
· India was technologically backward, so it had to spend precious foreign exchange to buy technology
from the global market.
· Lesser investment in agriculture, bringing the possibility of food shortages.
· Some critics say that Industry was given importance over agriculture, reflecting an “urban bias” in the
plan.
· The Third FYP was also on similar lines as the second FYP.

Fig. 3.1: Allocations in the 1st and 2nd FYP

Kerala Model:
· The 'Kerala model' is the name given to the path of planning and development charted by the
State of Kerala.
POLITICS OF PLANNED DEVELOPMENT

· There has been a focus in this model on education, health, land reform, effective food
distribution, and poverty alleviation.
· Between 1987 and 1991, the government launched the New Democratic Initiative which
involved campaigns for development (including total literacy especially in science and
environment) designed to involve people directly in development activities through voluntary
citizens' organisations.
· The State has also taken initiative to involve people in making plans at the Panchayat, block and
district level (Decentralised Planning).

The strategy of development followed in the early years raised several important questions.

19
Key Controversies about the Initial Strategies of Development:
The development strategies followed in the first few years after independence were subject to certain
controversies, some of which are as follows:

Agriculture Versus Industry:

Various sections held different view on the priority given to agriculture vis a vis industry and the possible
outcomes of the same.
· Various views about central theme of Planning:
Ø Second FYP lacked an agrarian strategy for development, and the emphasis on industry caused
agriculture and rural India to suffer.
Ø Gandhian economists like J. C. Kumarappa proposed an alternative blueprint that put greater
emphasis on rural industrialisation.
Ø Chaudhary Charan Singh forcefully articulated the case for keeping agriculture at the centre of
planning for India.
Ø Indian planning did have an agrarian strategy to boost the production of foodgrains. The state made
laws for land reforms and distribution of resources among the poor in the villages. It also
proposed programmes of community development and spent large sums on irrigation projects.
Ø The failure was not that of policy but its non-implementation, because the landowning classes had
lot of social and political power.
Ø On the issue of giving priority to industry, they held that without a drastic increase in industrial
production, there could be no escape from the cycle of poverty.
Ø Besides, they also argue that even if the government had spent more money on agriculture it would
not have solved the massive problem of rural poverty.

Public versus Private Sector:

· Various elements from capitalist and socialist models were taken and mixed together in India. Thus,

POLITICS OF PLANNED DEVELOPMENT

describing India's economy as 'mixed economy'.
· Much of the agriculture, trade and industry were left in private hands. The state controlled key heavy
industries, provided industrial infrastructure, regulated trade and made some crucial interventions in
agriculture.
· Criticism of government intervention:
Ø The enlarged public sector created hurdles for private capital, especially by way of installing
systems of licenses and permits for investment.
Ø The policy to restrict import of goods that could be produced in the domestic market left the private
sector with no incentive to improve their products and make them cheaper.
Ø The state controlled more things than were necessary and this led to inefficiency and corruption.
Ø State did not spend any significant amount for public education and healthcare.
Ø The state intervened only in those areas where the private sector was not prepared to go. Thus,

20
 helping private sector to make profit.
Ø Also, instead of helping the poor, the state intervention ended up creating a new 'middle class'
that enjoyed the privileges of high salaries without much accountability.
Ø Poverty did not decline substantially during this period; even when the proportion of the poor
reduced, their numbers kept going up.
The early initiatives for planned development were at best realising the goals of economic development of
the country and well-being of all its citizens. The inability to take significant steps in this direction in the
very first stage was to become a political problem. Those who benefited from unequal development soon
became politically powerful and made it even more difficult to move in the desired direction.
An assessment of the outcomes of this early phase of planned development must begin by acknowledging
the fact that in this period the foundations of India's future economic growth were laid.

Foundations of India's future economic growth:

· Mega-dams construction: Bhakhra-Nangal and Hirakud for irrigation and power generation were
constructed during this period.
· Establishment of heavy industries: Some of the heavy industries in the public sector – steel plants, oil
refineries, manufacturing units, defense production etc. – were started during this period.
· Transport and communication Infrastructure: Infrastructure for transport and communication was
improved substantially.
Much of the later economic growth, including that by the private sector, may not have been possible in the
absence of these foundations.
In the agrarian sector, this period witnessed a serious attempt at land reforms.

Land Reforms:
· Abolition of zamindari system: This was the most successful and significant reform.
· Land Consolidation: It aimed at bringing small pieces of land together in one place so that the farm size
could become viable for agriculture. These reforms were also fairly successful.
POLITICS OF PLANNED DEVELOPMENT

· Land Ceiling: Laws were made to put an upper limit or 'ceiling' to how much agricultural land one
person could own however, people with excess land managed to evade the law, due to which this
component was much less successful.
· Security to Tenants: Tenants who worked on someone else's land were given greater legal security
against eviction, but this provision was rarely implemented.

As the landowners were very powerful and wielded considerable political influence due to which many
proposals for land reforms were either not translated into laws, or, when made into laws, they remained only
on paper. This shows that economic policy is part of the actual political situation in the society. It also
shows that in spite of good wishes of some top leaders, the dominant social groups would always
effectively control policy making and implementation.

21
In the face of the prevailing food-crisis, the country was clearly vulnerable to external pressures and
dependent on food aid, mainly from the United States. The United States, in turn, pushed India to change
its economic policies. The government adopted a new strategy for agriculture in order to ensure food
sufficiency. This led to beginning of Green Revolution in India.

The Green Revolution:

It refers to the increase in food grain production due to various interventions like High Yielding Varieties of
seeds, irrigation facilities, use of pesticide etc.

New strategy for agriculture:

· Instead of providing more support to areas and farmers that were lagging behind, now it was decided
to put more resources into those areas which already had irrigation and those farmers who were
already well-off.
· The government offered high-yielding variety seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and better irrigation at
highly subsidised prices.
· The government also gave a guarantee to buy the produce of the farmers at a given price.
· The rich peasants and the large landholders were the major beneficiaries of the process.

Impacts:
· It delivered only a moderate agricultural growth (mainly a rise in wheat production) and raised the
availability of food in the country.
· It increased polarisation between classes and regions.
Ø Some regions like Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh became agriculturally prosperous,
while others remained backward.
· The stark contrast between the poor peasantry and the landlords produced conditions favourable for
leftwing organisations to organise the poor peasants.
· Green revolution also resulted in the rise of middle peasant sections.
Ø These were farmers with medium size holdings, who benefited from the changes and soon
emerged politically influential in many parts of the country.

POLITICS OF PLANNED DEVELOPMENT

White Revolution:
· In 1970 the rural development programme called Operation Flood was started.
· It organised cooperatives of milk producers into a nationwide milk grid, with the purpose of
increasing milk production, bringing the producer and consumer closer by eliminating
middlemen, and assuring the producers a regular income throughout the year.
· Also, it was not just a dairy programme. It saw dairying as a path to development, for
generating employment and income for rural households and alleviating poverty.
· This model was based upon Amul, a dairy cooperative movement joined by about 2 and half
million milk producers in Gujarat. The Amul pattern became a uniquely appropriate model for
rural development and poverty alleviation, spurring what has come to be known as the White
Revolution.

22
 Later developments:
· The story of development in India took a significant turn from the end of 1960s.
· Indira Gandhi decided to further strengthen the role of the state in controlling and directing the
economy.
· The period from 1967 onwards witnessed many new restrictions on private industry. Fourteen
private banks were nationalised. The government announced many pro-poor programmes. These
changes were accompanied by an ideological tilt towards socialist policies.
· Planning did continue, but its salience was significantly reduced. Between 1950 and 1980 the Indian
economy grew at a sluggish per annum rate of 3 to 3.5%.
· In view of the prevailing inefficiency and corruption in some public sector enterprises and the not-
so-positive role of the bureaucracy in economic development, the public opinion in the country lost
the faith it initially placed in many of these institutions. Such lack of public faith led the policy makers
to reduce the importance of the state in India's economy from the 1980s onwards.

Interesting points

· Verghese Kurien is nicknamed the 'Milkman of India'.

· P.C. Mahalanobis (1893-1972): Scientist and statistician of international repute; founder of Indian
Statistical Institute (1931); architect of the Second Plan; supporter of rapid industrialisation and
active role of the public sector.
· J.C. Kumarappa (1892-1960): Original name J.C. Cornelius; economist and chartered accountant;
studied in England and USA; follower of Mahatma Gandhi; tried to apply Gandhian principles to
economic policies; author of 'Economy of Permanence'; participated in planning process as
member of the Planning Commission.
· Congress party at its Avadi session passed a resolution declaring that 'socialist pattern of society'
was its goal.
POLITICS OF PLANNED DEVELOPMENT

· The Government of India replaced the Planning Commission with a new institution named NITI
Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India). This came into existence on 1 January 2015.
· The Fourth Plan was due to start in 1966. By this time, the novelty of planning had declined
considerably, and moreover, India was facing acute economic crisis. The government decided to
take a 'plan holiday'.
· Raag Darbari' is novel written by Shrilal Shukla. The satire is set in a village Shivpalganj in Uttar
Pradesh in the 1960s.
· “zoning” policies of Government in Bihar: during the food crisis in 1960s, the government had
“zoning” policies that prohibited trade of food across states; this reduced the availability of food
in Bihar dramatically. In situations such as this, the poorest sections of the society suffered the
most.

23
 INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS
4
India was born in a very trying and challenging international context. The world had witnessed a
devastating war and was grappling with issues of reconstruction; yet another attempt to establish an
international body was underway; many new countries were emerging as a result of the collapse of
colonialism; and most new nations were trying to come to terms with the twin challenges of welfare and
democracy.
Free India's foreign policy reflected all these concerns in the period immediately after independence.
Apart from these factors at the global level, India had its own share of concerns. The British government left
behind the legacy of many international disputes; partition created its own pressures, and the task of
poverty alleviation was already waiting for fulfilment.
This was the overall context in which India started participating in the world affairs as an independent
nation-state.
As a nation born in the backdrop of the world war, India decided to conduct its foreign relations with an aim
to respect the sovereignty of all other nations and to achieve security through the maintenance of peace.
This aim finds an echo in the Directive Principles of State Policy.

The Constitutional principles:

Article 51 of the Indian Constitution lays down some Directive Principles of State Policy on 'Promotion
of international peace and security'.
“The State shall endeavour to –
(a) Promote international peace and security
(b) Maintain just and honourable relations between nations
(c) Foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organised people with
one another; and
(d) Encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.”

The Policy of Non-Alignment

Background of NAM:
· In the period immediately after the Second World War, many developing nations chose to support the
foreign policy preferences of the powerful countries who were giving them aid or credits. This
resulted in the division of countries of the world into two clear camps. One was under the influence of INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS
the United States and its western allies and the other was under the influence of the then Soviet
Union.
· When India achieved its freedom and started framing its foreign policy, the Cold War was just
beginning and the world was getting divided into these two camps. India opted not to join any of the
two big groups. India adopted a new form of foreign policy centred on the policy of Non- Alignment.

India opted for the policy of Non-Alignment in its foreign affairs. The various factors that contributed to the
Indian foreign policy formulation in its early years are as follows:

24
 · The Indian national movement formed a part of the worldwide struggle against colonialism and
imperialism.
· It influenced the liberation movements of many Asian and African countries.
· The creation of the Indian National Army (INA) by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose during the Second
World War was the clearest manifestation of the linkages established between India and overseas
Indians during the freedom struggle.

Nehru's Role:
· The first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a crucial role in setting the national agenda. He was
his own foreign minister.
· He exercised profound influence in the formulation and implementation of India's foreign policy from
1946 to 1964.
· The three major objectives of Nehru's foreign policy were to preserve the hard-earned sovereignty,
protect territorial integrity, and promote rapid economic development.
· Nehru wished to achieve these objectives through the strategy of nonalignment.
· There were, of course, parties and groups in the country that believed that India should be more
friendly with the bloc led by the US because that bloc claimed to be pro-democracy.
Ø Some leaders like Dr. Ambedkar and parties like Bharatiya Jan Sangh and later the Swatantra
Party however advocated for better ties with the US led bloc as it claimed to be pro-democracy.

Distance from two camps:

· The foreign policy of independent India vigorously pursued the dream of a peaceful world by
advocating the policy of non-alignment.
· By reducing Cold War tensions and by contributing human resources to the UN peacekeeping
operations.
· Non-Alignment was a difficult balancing act and sometimes the balance did not appear perfect.
· India took an independent stand on various international issues and could get aid and assistance
from members of both the blocs.

India-US relations and NAM:

INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS

While India was trying to convince the other developing countries about the policy of non-alignment,
Pakistan joined the US-led military alliances.
· The US was not happy about India's independent initiatives and the policy of non-alignment.
· The US also resented India's growing partnership with the Soviet Union.
· Therefore, there was a considerable unease in Indo-US relations during the 1950s.

· The development strategy of import substitution limited India's economic interaction with the
outside world.

25
Afro-Asian Unity:
· Nehru envisaged a major role for India in world affairs and especially in Asian affairs. He was an ardent
advocate of Asian unity.
· His era was marked by the establishment of contacts between India and other newly independent
states in Asia and Africa.
· India convened the Asian Relations Conference in March 1947.
· India made earnest efforts for the early realisation of freedom of Indonesia from the Dutch colonial
regime by convening an international conference in 1949 to support its freedom struggle.
· India was a staunch supporter of the decolonisation process and firmly opposed racism, especially
apartheid in South Africa.
· The Afro-Asian conference was held in the Indonesian city of Bandung in 1955, commonly known as
the Bandung Conference, marked the zenith of India's engagement with the newly independent
Asian and African nations.
· The Bandung Conference later led to the establishment of the NAM. The First Summit of the NAM
was held in Belgrade in September 1961. Nehru was a co-founder of the NAM.
Unlike its relationship with Pakistan, free India began its relationship with China on a very friendly note.

Peace and conflict with China:

· After the Chinese revolution in 1949, India was one of the first countries to recognise the communist
government.
· But Nehru thought it was 'exceedingly unlikely' that India will face an attack from China. For a very long
time, the Chinese border was guarded by para-military forces, not the army.
· Panchsheel : The joint enunciation of Panchsheel, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, by the
Indian Prime Minister Nehru and the Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai on 29 April 1954 was a step in the
direction of stronger relationship between the two countries.
· Indian and Chinese leaders visited each other's country and were greeted by large and friendly
crowds.
· Two developments strained this relationship. China annexation of Tibet and Chinese attack on India in
1962. INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS

The Chinese Invasion, 1962:

· China annexation of Tibet: China annexed Tibet in 1950 and thus removed a historical buffer
between the two countries.
Ø Initially, the government of India did not oppose this openly. But as more information came in about
the suppression of Tibetan culture, the Indian government grew uneasy.
Ø The Tibetan spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, sought and obtained political asylum in India in 1959.

26
 Tibet:
· From time to time in history, China had claimed administrative control over Tibet.
· In 1950, China took over control of Tibet. Large sections of the Tibetan population opposed this
takeover.
· India tried to persuade China to recognise Tibet's claims for independence.
· However, as per Panchsheel agreement both India and China were to respect each other's
territorial integrity and sovereignty, thus India conceded China's claim over Tibet.
· In 1958, there was armed uprising in Tibet against China's occupation.
· In 1959, the Dalai Lama crossed over into the Indian border and sought asylum which was
granted. The Chinese government strongly protested against this.
· Over the last half century, a large number of Tibetans have also sought refuge in India and many
other countries of the world (specifically in Dharmashala, Himachal Pradesh).
· Today, China has created the Tibet autonomous region, which is an integral part of China.
· Tibetans oppose the Chinese claim that Tibet is part of Chinese territory.
· They also oppose the policy of bringing into Tibet more and more Chinese settlers.
· Tibetans dispute China's claim that autonomy is granted to the region.
· They think that China wants to undermine the traditional religion and culture of Tibet.

War with China

Reasons of War with China:
· Anti-China activities allegation on India: China alleged that the government of India was allowing
anti-China activities to take place from within India. Political asylum of Dalai Lama by India was one
such issue.
· Boundary dispute: In another boundary dispute India claimed that the boundary was a matter
settled in colonial time, but China said that any colonial decision did not apply.
Ø China claimed two areas within the Indian territory: Aksai-chin area in the Ladakh region of Jammu
and Kashmir and much of the state of Arunachal Pradesh in what was then called NEFA (North
Eastern Frontier Agency).
INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS

Fig. 4.1: India –China Border

27
 · These differences could not be resolved. While the entire world's attention was on this crisis involving
the two superpowers, China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the
disputed regions.
· While the Indian forces could block the Chinese advances on the western front in Ladakh, in the east
the Chinese managed to advance nearly to the entry point of Assam plains.
· Finally, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and its troops withdrew to where they were before the
invasion began.

Impact of Invasion:
· The China war dented India's image at home and abroad.
· India had to approach the Americans and the British for military assistance to tide over the crisis.
· The Soviet Union remained neutral during the conflict. It induced a sense of national humiliation and
at the same time strengthened a spirit of nationalism.
· Nehru's own stature suffered as he was severely criticised for his naïve assessment of the Chinese
intentions and the lack of military preparedness.
· For the first time, a no-confidence motion against his government was moved and debated in the Lok
Sabha. Soon thereafter, the Congress lost some key by-elections to Lok Sabha.
· The political mood of the country had begun to change.
· This and the growing rift between China and the Soviet Union created irreconcilable differences
within the Communist Party of India (CPI).
Ø The pro-USSR faction remained within the CPI and moved towards closer ties with the Congress.
Ø The other faction was for sometime closer to China and was against any ties with the Congress.
Ø The party split in 1964 and the leaders of the latter faction formed the Communist Party of India
(Marxist) (CPI-M).
· The war with China alerted the Indian leadership to the volatile situation in the Northeast region.
Apart from being isolated and extremely underdeveloped, this region also presented India with the
challenge of national integration and political unity.
Ø The process of its reorganisation began soon after the China war. Nagaland was granted
statehood; Manipur and Tripura, though Union Territories, were given the right to elect their own
legislative assemblies.

INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS

Sino-Indian relations since 1962:
· It took more than a decade for India and China to resume normal relations.
· It was in 1976 that full diplomatic relations were restored between the two countries.
· Atal Behari Vajpayee was the first top level leader (he was then External Affairs Minister) to
visit China in 1979.
· Later, Rajiv Gandhi became the first Prime Minister after Nehru to visit China. Since then, the
emphasis is more on trade relations between the two countries.

28
 Wars and Peace with Pakistan:
In the case of Pakistan, the conflict started just after Partition over the dispute on Kashmir. A proxy war
broke out between the Indian and Pakistani armies in Kashmir during 1947 itself. But this did not turn into a
full war. The issue was then referred to the UN.

Cornerstones of India- Pakistan Relations:

· Kashmir conflict: Pakistan soon emerged as a critical factor in India's relations with the US and
subsequently with China. The Kashmir conflict did not prevent cooperation between the
governments of India and Pakistan. A proxy war broke out between the Indian and Pakistani armies in
Kashmir during 1947 itself.
· Partition Factor: Both the governments worked together to restore the women abducted during
Partition to their original families.
· Sharing of river waters: A long-term dispute about the sharing of river waters was resolved through
mediation by the World Bank. The India-Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty was signed by Nehru and
General Ayub Khan in 1960. Despite all ups and downs in the Indo-Pak relations, this treaty has
worked well.

War of 1965:
· In April 1965 Pakistan launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat.
· In a fierce battle in various arenas, the Indian army reached close to Lahore. The hostilities came to an
end with the UN intervention.
· Later, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan's General Ayub Khan signed the
Tashkent Agreement.
· 1965 war added to India's already difficult economic situation.

Bangladesh war, 1971:

After 1965 war, the next contagious development in India Pakistan relations was the Bangladesh war of
1971.

Reasons:
· Internal Political crisis in Pakistan: Beginning in 1970, Pakistan faced its biggest internal crisis.
INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS

Ø The country's first general election produced a split verdict – Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's party emerged a
winner in West Pakistan, while the Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman swept
through East Pakistan.
Ø The Bengali population of East Pakistan had voted to protest against years of being treated as
second class citizens by the rulers based in West Pakistan.
Ø The Pakistani rulers were not willing to accept the democratic verdict. Nor were they ready to
accept the Awami League's demand for a federation.
Ø Instead, in early 1971, the Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib and unleashed a reign of terror
on the people of East Pakistan.

29
 · Refugee crisis in India: In response to Pakistani army atrocities, the people started a struggle to
liberate 'Bangladesh' from Pakistan.
Ø Throughout 1971, India had to bear the burden of about 80 lakh refugees who fled East Pakistan
and took shelter in the neighbouring areas in India.
Ø India extended moral and material support to the freedom struggle in Bangladesh. Pakistan
accused India of a conspiracy to break it up.

Support for Pakistan came from the US and China. The US-China rapprochement that began in the late
1960s resulted in a realignment of forces in Asia. Henry Kissinger, the adviser to the US President Richard
Nixon, made a secret visit to China via Pakistan in July 1971.
· In order to counter the US-Pakistan-China axis, India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship
with the Soviet Union in August 1971, which assured India of Soviet support if the country faced any
attack.
· After months of diplomatic tension and military build-up, a full-scale war between India and Pakistan
broke out in December 1971, which ended with the surrender of Pakistani troops, and Bangladesh
becoming a free country.
· Later, the signing of the Shimla Agreement between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on 3 July
1972 formalised the return of peace.

Impacts:
· Conflicts with neighbours derailed the five-year plans.
· The scarce resources were diverted to the defence sector especially after 1962, as India had to
embark on a military modernisation drive.
· The Department of Defence Production was established in November 1962 and the Department of
Defence Supplies in November 1965.
· The Third Plan (1961-66) was affected and it was followed by three Annual Plans and the Fourth
Plan could be initiated only in 1969.
· India's defence expenditure increased enormously after the wars.

Kargil Confrontation:
· In the early part of 1999 several points on the Indian side of the LoC (Line of Control) were occupied
by forces claiming to be Mujahideens.
· Suspecting involvement of the Pakistan Army, Indian forces started reacting to this occupation. This INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS
led to a confrontation between the two countries. Known as the Kargil conflict.
· The Kargil conflict drew attention worldwide for the reason that only one year prior to that, both India
and Pakistan had attained nuclear capability.
· However, this conflict remained confined only to the Kargil region.
Nehru had always put his faith in science and technology for rapidly building a modern India. A significant
component of his industrialisation plans was the nuclear programme initiated in the late 1940s under the
guidance of Homi J. Bhabha. India wanted to generate atomic energy for peaceful purposes. Nehru was
against nuclear weapons. So, he pleaded with the superpowers for comprehensive nuclear disarmament.

30
 However, the nuclear arsenal kept rising.

India's Nuclear Policy:

· First nuclear explosion undertaken by India in May 1974.
· Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT): When Communist China conducted nuclear tests in October
1964, the five nuclear weapon powers, the US, USSR, UK, France, and China (Taiwan then
represented China) – also the five Permanent Members of the UN Security Council – tried to impose the
Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 on the rest of the world.
· India always considered the NPT as discriminatory and had refused to sign it.
· When India conducted its first nuclear test, it was termed as peaceful explosion.
· India argued that it was committed to the policy of using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.
The period when the nuclear test was conducted was a difficult period in domestic politics. Following the
Arab-Israel War of 1973, the entire world was affected by the Oil Shock due to the massive hike in the oil
prices by the Arab nations. It led to economic turmoil in India resulting in high inflation.

India's Nuclear Programme:

· India has opposed the international treaties aimed at non-proliferation since they were
selectively applicable to the non-nuclear powers and legitimised the monopoly of the five
nuclear weapons powers.
· Thus, India opposed the indefinite extension of the NPT in 1995 and also refused to sign the
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
· India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998, demonstrating its capacity to use
nuclear energy for military purposes.
· Pakistan soon followed, thereby increasing the vulnerability of the region to a nuclear exchange.
· The international community was extremely critical of the nuclear tests in the subcontinent and
sanctions were imposed on both India and Pakistan, which were subsequently waived.
· India's nuclear doctrine of credible minimum nuclear deterrence professes “no first use” and
reiterates India's commitment to global, verifiable and non-discriminatory nuclear
disarmament leading to a nuclear weapons free world.
INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS

Important Personalities:
· V.K. Krishna Menon (1897-1974): Diplomat and minister; active in the Labour Party in UK between
1934- 1947; Indian High Commissioner in UK and later head of India's delegation to UN; Rajya Sabha
MP and later Lok Sabha MP; member of the Union Cabinet from 1956; Defence Minister since 1957;
considered very close to Nehru; resigned after the India-China war in 1962.
· Many non-Congress governments came to power in the period starting 1977. The Janata Party
government that came to power in 1977 announced that it would follow genuine non-alignment. This
implied that the pro-Soviet tilt in the foreign policy will be corrected.

31
 CHALLENGES TO AND RESTORATION
5 OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM
The 1960s were labelled as the 'dangerous decade' when unresolved problems like poverty, inequality,
communal and regional divisions etc. could lead to a failure of the democratic project or even the
disintegration of the country. Prime Minister Nehru passed away in May 1964, posing certain problems and
ushering into a new era.
It was feared India would not be able to manage a democratic succession. A failure to do so, it was feared,
could lead to a political role for the army. But succession after Nehru took place with ease and Lal Bahadur
Shastri became the country's next Prime Minister.

From Nehru to Shastri:

· Lal Bahadur Shastri was unanimously chosen as the leader of the Congress parliamentary party and
thus became the country's next Prime Minister.
· Lal Bahadur Shastri was the country's Prime Minister from 1964 to 1966.
· During his brief Prime Ministership, the country faced two major challenges:
Ø Food Crisis: While India was still recovering from the economic implications of the war with China,
failed monsoons, drought and serious food crisis presented a grave challenge.
Ø War with Pakistan: The country also faced a war with Pakistan in 1965.
· His famous slogan 'Jai Jawan Jai Kisan', symbolised the country's resolve to face both these
challenges.
· His Prime Ministership came to an abrupt end on 10 January 1966, when he suddenly expired in

CHALLENGES TO AND RESTORATION OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

Tashkent, then in USSR and currently the capital of Uzbekistan.
· He was there to discuss and sign an agreement with Muhammad Ayub Khan, the then President of
Pakistan, to end the war.
Due to sudden death of Shastri, Congress faced the challenge of political succession for the second time in
two years.

This time there was an intense competition between Morarji Desai and Indira Gandhi. Morarji Desai had
earlier served as Chief Minister of Bombay state (today's Maharashtra and Gujarat) and also as a Minister at
the centre.

Indira Gandhi, the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, had been Congress President in the past and had also been
Union Minister for Information in the Shastri cabinet. This time the senior leaders in the party decided to
back Indira Gandhi, but the decision was not unanimous.

From Shastri to Indira Gandhi:

· Intense competition between Morarji Desai and Indira Gandhi was resolved through a secret ballot
among Congress MPs.
· Indira Gandhi defeated Morarji Desai by securing the support of more than two-thirds of the party's
MPs.
· A peaceful transition of power, despite intense competition for leadership, was seen as a sign of
maturity of India's democracy.

32
 · The senior Congress leaders may have supported Indira Gandhi in the belief that her administrative
and political inexperience would compel her to be dependent on them for support and guidance.
· Within a year of becoming Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi had to lead the party in a Lok Sabha election.
· Around this time, the economic situation in the country had further deteriorated, adding to her
problems.
· Faced with these difficulties, she set out to gain control over the party and to demonstrate her
leadership skills.
The year 1967 is considered a landmark year in India's political and electoral history. In the years leading up
to the fourth general elections, the country witnessed major changes. Two Prime Ministers had died in
quick succession, and the new Prime Minister, who was being seen as a political novice, had been in office for
less than a year.

Fourth General Elections, 1967

Context of the elections:
· The period was fraught with grave economic crisis resulting from successive failure of monsoons,
widespread drought, decline in agricultural production, serious food shortage, depletion of foreign
exchange reserves, drop in industrial production and exports, combined with a sharp rise in
military expenditure and diversion of resources from planning and economic development.
CHALLENGES TO AND RESTORATION OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

· The government devalued the Indian rupee. Earlier one US dollar could be purchased for less than Rs.
5; after devaluation it cost more than Rs. 7. This economic situation triggered a price rise.
· People started protesting against the increase in prices, food scarcity and unemployment.
· The government saw the protests as a law-and-order problem and not as expressions of people's
problems, further increasing public bitterness and reinforced popular unrest.
· The communist and socialist parties launched struggles for greater equality.
· This period also witnessed some of the worst Hindu-Muslim riots since Independence.

Non-Congressism:
Due to the, then prevailing situations:
· Opposition parties were in the forefront of organising public protests and pressurising the
government.
· Parties that were entirely different and disparate in their programmes and ideology got together to
form anti-Congress fronts in some states and entered into electoral adjustments of sharing seats in
others.
· The socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohia gave this strategy the name of 'non-Congressism'. He also
produced a theoretical argument in its defence: Congress rule was undemocratic and opposed to
the interests of ordinary poor people; therefore, the coming together of the non-Congress parties
was necessary for reclaiming democracy for the people.

33
Electoral verdict:
· Fourth general elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies were held in February 1967.
· The Congress did manage to get a majority in the Lok Sabha, but with its lowest tally of seats and
share of votes since 1952.
· Half the ministers in Indira Gandhi's cabinet were defeated.
· Many contemporary political observers described the election results as a 'political earthquake'.
· The Congress lost majority in as many as seven States.
· In Madras State (now called Tamil Nadu), a regional party — the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK)
– came to power by securing a clear majority.
Ø The DMK won power after having led a massive anti-Hindi agitation by students against the centre
on the issue of imposition of Hindi as the official language.
Ø This was the first time any non-Congress party had secured a majority of its own in any State.

CHALLENGES TO AND RESTORATION OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

Fig. 5.1: Election results of 1967

Coalitions:
· The elections of 1967 brought into picture the phenomenon of coalitions.
· Since no single party had got majority, various non-Congress parties came together to form joint
legislative parties (called Samyukt Vidhayak Dal in Hindi or SVD governments) that supported non-
Congress governments.

34
 · SVD government in Bihar, for instance, included the two socialist parties – SSP and the PSP – along
with the CPI on the left and Jana Sangh on the right.
· In Punjab it was called the 'Popular United Front' and comprised the two rival Akali parties at that time
– Sant group and the Master group – with both the communist parties – the CPI and the CPI(M), the
SSP, the Republican Party and the Bharatiya Jana Sangh.

Defection:
· Defection means an elected representative leaves the party on whose symbol he/she was elected and
joins another party.
· Another important feature of the politics after the 1967 election was the role played by defections in
the making and unmaking of governments in the States.
· After the 1967 general election, the breakaway Congress legislators played an important role in
installing non-Congress governments in three States - Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
· The constant realignments and shifting political loyalties in this period gave rise to the expression
'Aya Ram, Gaya Ram'.
After the 1967 elections, the Congress retained power at the Centre but with a reduced majority and lost
power in many States. More importantly, the results proved that the Congress could be defeated at the
elections. But there was no substitute as yet.
CHALLENGES TO AND RESTORATION OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

Most non-Congress coalition governments in the States did not survive for long. They lost majority, and
either new combinations were formed or President's rule had to be imposed.

The real challenge to Indira Gandhi came not from the opposition but from within her own party. That led to
the split in the Congress.

Split in the Congress

Indira vs. the 'Syndicate':
· The real challenge to Indira Gandhi came from within her own party. She had to deal with the
'syndicate', a group of powerful and influential leaders from within the Congress.
· The Syndicate had played a role in the installation of Indira Gandhi as the Prime Minister by ensuring
her election as the leader of the parliamentary party and thus they expected Indira Gandhi to follow
their advise.
· While Indira Gandhi attempted to assert her position within the government and the party, she
sidelined the Syndicate.
· She launched a series of initiatives to give the government policy a Left orientation. She got the
Congress Working Committee to adopt a Ten Point Programme in May 1967. This programme
included social control of banks, nationalisation of General Insurance, ceiling on urban property and
income, public distribution of food grains, land reforms and provision of house sites to the rural
poor.

35
 · While the 'syndicate' leaders formally approved this Left-wing programme, they had serious
reservations about the same.

Presidential election, 1969:

· Following President Zakir Hussain's death, the post of President of the India fell vacant. The 'syndicate'
nominated Indira Gandhi's long-time opponent and then speaker of the Lok Sabha, N. Sanjeeva
Reddy, as the official Congress candidate for the ensuing Presidential elections.
· Indira Gandhi retaliated by encouraging the then Vice-President, V.V. Giri, to fight as an independent
candidate.
· She also announced several big and popular policy measures like the nationalisation of fourteen
leading private banks and the abolition of the 'privy purse' or the special privileges given to former
princes.
Ø On both these issues, differences arose between Indira Gandhi and Morarji Desai (then Deputy
Prime Minister and Finance Minister) which resulted in Morarji Desai leaving the government.
· The then Congress President S. Nijalingappa issued a 'whip' asking all the Congress MPs and MLAs to
vote in favour of Sanjeeva Reddy.
· Supporters of Indira Gandhi requisitioned a special meeting of the AICC (that is why this faction came
to be known as 'requisitionists') but this was refused.
· After silently supporting V.V. Giri, the Prime Minister openly called for a 'conscience vote' which meant

CHALLENGES TO AND RESTORATION OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

that the MPs and MLAs from the Congress should be free to vote the way they want.
· The election ultimately resulted in the victory of V.V. Giri.
· The defeat of the official Congress candidate formalised the split in the party.
· The Congress President expelled the Prime Minister from the party. She claimed that her group was
the real Congress.
· By November 1969, the Congress group led by the 'syndicate' came to be referred to as the Congress
(Organisation) and the group led by Indira Gandhi came to be called the Congress (Requisitionists).
These two parties were also described as Old Congress and New Congress.
· Indira Gandhi projected the split as an ideological divide between socialists and conservatives,
between the pro-poor and the pro-rich.

Abolition of Privy Purse:

· Integration of Princely States in India was preceded by an assurance that after the dissolution of
princely rule, the then rulers' families would be allowed to retain certain private property, and
given a grant in heredity or government allowance, measured on the basis of the extent,
revenue and potential of the merging state. This grant was called the privy purse.
· Following the 1967 elections, Indira Gandhi supported the demand that the government
should abolish privy purses.
· Following her massive victory in the 1971 election, the Constitution was amended to remove
legal obstacles for abolition of 'privy purse'.

36
 The split in the Congress reduced Indira Gandhi Government to a minority. Yet her government continued
in office with the issue-based support of a few other parties including the Communist Party of India and
the DMK.

During this period the government made conscious attempts to project its socialist credentials. This was
also a phase when Indira Gandhi vigorously campaigned for implementing the existing land reform laws
and undertook further land ceiling legislation.

In order to end her dependence on other political parties, strengthen her party's position in the Parliament,
and seek a popular mandate for her programmes, Indira Gandhi's government recommended the
dissolution of the Lok Sabha in December 1970. This was another surprising and bold move. The fifth
general election to Lok Sabha were held in February 1971.

The 1971 Election and Restoration of Congress

The contest:
· All the major non-communist, non-Congress opposition parties formed an electoral alliance known as
the Grand Alliance.
· The ruling party had an alliance with the CPI.
CHALLENGES TO AND RESTORATION OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

· The election was fought on the issue on Indira Hatao (Remove Indira) vs Garibi Hatao (Remove
Poverty).
· She focused on the growth of the public sector, imposition of ceiling on rural land holdings and
urban property, removal of disparities in income and opportunity, and abolition of princely
privileges.
· The slogan of garibi hatao and the programmes that followed it were part of Indira Gandhi's political
strategy of building an independent nationwide political support base.

The outcome and after:

· The Congress(R)-CPI alliance won more seats and votes than the Congress had ever won in the first
four general elections.
· Congress (O): the party with so many stalwarts could get less than one-fourth of the votes secured
by Indira Gandhi's party. The Grand Alliance of the opposition proved a grand failure. Their
combined tally of seats was less than 40.
· With this the Congress party led by Indira Gandhi established its claim to being the 'real' Congress and
restored to it the dominant position in Indian politics.
Soon after the 1971 Lok Sabha elections, Indira Gandhi's role in Indo Pak war added to her popularity. Her
party swept through all the State Assembly elections held in 1972. She was seen not only as the protector of
the poor and the underprivileged, but also a strong nationalist leader. With two successive election
victories, one at the centre and other at the State level, the dominance of the Congress was restored.

37
Restoration of the Congress System:
· In many ways she had re-invented the party. The party occupied a similar position in terms of its
popularity as in the past. But it was a different kind of a party. It relied entirely on the popularity of the
supreme leader. It had a somewhat weak organisational structure. Thus Indira Gandhi restored the
Congress system by changing the nature of the Congress system itself.
· Despite being more popular, the new Congress did not have the kind of capacity to absorb all tensions
and conflicts that the Congress system was known for.
· While the Congress consolidated its position and Indira Gandhi assumed a position of unprecedented
political authority, the spaces for democratic expression of people's aspirations actually shrank.

Important Personalities:
· Lal Bahadur Shastri (1904-1966): Prime Minister of India; participated in the freedom movement
since 1930; minister in UP cabinet; General Secretary of Congress; Minister in Union Cabinet from
1951 to 1956 when he resigned taking responsibility for the railway accident and later from 1957 to
1964; coined the famous slogan 'Jai Jawan-Jai Kisan'
· Indira Gandhi (1917-1984): Prime Minister of India from 1966 to 1977 and 1980 to 1984; daughter of
Jawaharlal Nehru; participated in the freedom struggle as a young Congress worker; Congress
President in 1958; minister in Shastri's cabinet from 1964-66; led the Congress party to victory in
1967, 1971 and 1980 general elections; credited with the slogan 'garibi hatao', victory in 1971 war

CHALLENGES TO AND RESTORATION OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

and for policy initiatives like abolition of Privy Purse, nationalisation of banks, nuclear test and
environmental protection; assassinated on 31 October 1984.
· C. Natarajan Annadurai (1909-1969): Chief Minister of Madras (Tamil Nadu) from 1967; a journalist,
popular writer and orator; initially associated with the Justice Party in Madras province; later joined
Dravid Kazagham (1934); formed DMK as a political party in 1949; a proponent of Dravid culture, he
was opposed to imposition of Hindi and led the anti-Hindi agitations; supporter of greater autonomy to
States.
· Ram Manohar Lohia (1910-1967): Socialist leader and thinker; freedom fighter and among the
founders of the Congress Socialist Party; after the split in the parent party, the leader of the Socialist
Party and later the Samyukta Socialist Party; Member, Lok Sabha, 1963- 67; founder editor of
Mankind and Jan, known for original contribution to a non-European socialist theory; as political
leader, best known for sharp attacks on Nehru, strategy of non-Congressism, advocacy of
reservation for backward castes and opposition to English.
· K. Kamaraj (1903-1975): Freedom fighter and Congress President; Chief Minister of Madras (Tamil
Nadu); having suffered educational deprivation, made efforts to spread education in Madras province;
introduced mid-day meal scheme for schoolchildren; in 1963 he proposed that all senior
Congressmen should resign from office to make way for younger party workers—this proposal is
famous as the 'Kamaraj plan.'
· S. Nijalingappa (1902-2000): Senior Congress leader; Member of Constituent Assembly; member of
Lok Sabha; Chief Minister of the then Mysore (Karnataka) State; regarded as the maker of modern
Karnataka; President of Congress during 1968-71.

38
 · Karpoori Thakur (1924-1988): Chief Minister of Bihar between December 1970 and June 1971 and
again between June 1977 and April 1979; Freedom Fighter and socialist leader; active in labour and
peasant movements; staunch follower of Lohia; participated in the movement led by JP; known for his
decision to introduce reservations for the backward classes in Bihar during his second Chief
Ministership; strong opponent of the use of English Language.
· V.V. Giri (1894-1980): President of India from 1969 to 1974; Congress worker and labour leader from
Andhra Pradesh; Indian High Commissioner to Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Labour Minister in Union cabinet;
Governor of U.P., Kerala, Mysore (Karnataka); Vice-President (1967-1969) and acting President after
the death of President Zakir Hussain; resigned and contested presidential election as independent
candidate; received support from Indira Gandhi for his election as President.

Interesting points

· Aya Ram, Gaya Ram': 'Aya Ram, Gaya Ram' is Popular in the political vocabulary in India to describe
the practice of frequent floor-crossing by legislators. Literally translated the terms meant, Ram
came and Ram went.
Ø The expression originated in an amazing feat of floor crossing achieved by Gaya Lal, an MLA in
CHALLENGES TO AND RESTORATION OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

Haryana, in 1967. He changed his party thrice in a fortnight, from Congress to United Front, back
to Congress and then within nine hours to United Front again
Ø It is said that when Gaya Lal declared his intention to quit the United Front and join the Congress, the
Congress leader, Rao Birendra Singh brought him to Chandigarh press and declared “Gaya
Ram was now Aya Ram”.

39
 THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC
6 ORDER
Indira Gandhi had emerged as a towering leader with tremendous popularity. This was also the period
when party competition became bitter and polarised. This period also witnessed tensions in the
relationship between the government and the judiciary. The Supreme Court found many initiatives of the
government to be violative of the Constitution.

The Congress party took the position that this stand of the Court was against principles of democracy and
parliamentary supremacy. The Congress also alleged that the Court was a conservative institution and it
was becoming an obstacle in the way of implementing pro-poor welfare programmes.

The parties opposed to the Congress felt that politics was becoming too personalised and that
governmental authority was being converted into personal authority. The split in the Congress had
sharpened the divisions between Indira Gandhi and her opponents. These certain events led to the
declaration of National Emergency in 1975.

Declaration of National Emergency

Economic Context:
· Despite the Congress slogan of garibi hatao (remove poverty). The social and economic condition in
the country did not improve much after 1971-72.
· The Bangladesh crisis had also put a heavy strain on India's economy.
· This was followed by war with Pakistan. After the war the U.S government stopped all aid to India.
· In the international market, oil prices increased manifold during this period. This led to an all-round
increase in prices of commodities. Such a high level of inflation caused much hardship to the people.
· Industrial growth was low and unemployment was very high, particularly in the rural areas.
· In order to reduce expenditure the government froze the salaries of its employees. This caused
further dissatisfaction among government employees.
· Monsoons failed in 1972-1973 resulting in a sharp decline in agricultural productivity. Food grain
output declined by 8 per cent. There was a general atmosphere of dissatisfaction with the prevailing
economic situation all over the country.
· Opposition parties were able to organise popular protests effectively.
· Marxist groups who did not believe in parliamentary politics took arms and insurgent techniques for

THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

the overthrow of the capitalist order and the established political system. Known as the Marxist-
Leninist (now Maoist) groups or Naxalites, they were particularly strong in West Bengal, where the
State government took stringent measures to suppress them.

The Naxalite Movement:

· In 1967 a peasant uprising took place in the Naxalbari police station area of Darjeeling hills
district in West Bengal under the leadership of the local cadres of the Communist Party of India
(Marxist).
· This peasant movement spread to several states of India and came to be referred broadly as the
Naxalite movement.

40
 · In 1969, they broke off from the CPI (M) and a new party, Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist)
(CPI-ML), was formed under the leadership of Charu Majumdar.
· It argued that democracy in India was a sham and decided to adopt a strategy of protracted
guerrilla warfare in order to lead to a revolution.
· The Naxalite movement has used force to snatch land from the rich landowners and give it to
the poor and the landless.
· Its supporters advocated the use of violent means to achieve their political goals.
· CPI – ML (Liberation) participate in open, democratic politics.
· Most of the districts hit by Naxalite movement are very backward areas inhabited by Adivasis.
· In these areas the sharecroppers, under-tenants and small cultivators are denied their basic
rights with regard to security of tenure or their share in produce, payment of fair wages etc.
Forced labour, expropriation of resources by outsiders and exploitation by moneylenders are
also common in these areas.
· These conditions lead to the growth of the Naxalite movement.
· Governments have taken stern measures in dealing with the Naxalite movement.
· Human right activists have criticised the government for violating constitutional norms in
dealing with the Naxalites.
· Many thousand people have lost their lives in the violence by the Naxalites and the anti-
Naxalite violence by the government.

Gujarat and Bihar movements:

· Students' protests in Gujarat and Bihar had far reaching impact on the politics of the two States and
national politics.
· Gujarat Episode: In January 1974 students in Gujarat started an agitation against various issues.
Ø The students' protest was joined by major opposition parties and became widespread leading to
the imposition of President's rule in the state. The opposition parties demanded fresh elections to
the state legislature.
THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

Ø Under intense pressure from students, supported by the opposition political parties, assembly
elections were held in Gujarat in June 1975. The Congress lost.
· Bihar Episode: In March 1974 students came together in Bihar to protest against rising prices, food
scarcity, unemployment and corruption.
Ø After a point they invited Jayaprakash Narayan (JP), to lead the student movement.
Ø The students' movement assumed a political character and had national appeal.
Ø Jayaprakash Narayan demanded the dismissal of the Congress government in Bihar and gave a
call for total revolution in the social, economic and political spheres in order to establish what he
considered to be true democracy. The government, however, refused to resign.
Ø In 1975, JP led a peoples' march to the Parliament. This was one of the largest political rallies ever
held in the capital.

41
 Railway Strike of 1974:
Alongside the agitation led by Jayaprakash Narayan, the employees of the Railways gave a call for a
nationwide strike. This threatened to paralyse the country.
· The National Coordination Committee for Railwaymen's Struggle led by George Fernandes
gave a call for nationwide strike by all employees of the Railways for pressing their demands
related to bonus and service conditions. The government was opposed to these demands.
· The employees of India's largest public sector undertaking went on a strike in May 1974. The
strike by the Railway employees added to the atmosphere of labour unrest.
· It also raised issues like rights of the workers and whether employees of essential services
should adopt measures like strikes.
· The government declared the strike illegal. As the government refused to concede the demands
of the striking workers, arrested many of their leaders and deployed the territorial army to
protect railway tracks, the strike had to be called off after twenty days without any settlement.

Conflict with Judiciary:

· During this period, the government and the ruling party had many differences with the judiciary.
· During a long-drawn conflict between the Parliament and the Judiciary, the Supreme Court made the
following conclusions:
Ø It held that the Parliament cannot abridge the Fundamental Rights.
Ø Parliament cannot amend the Constitution in such a manner that rights are curtailed.
Ø Parliament cannot amend the Constitution to abridge Fundamental Rights for giving effect to
Directive Principles.
· This led to a crisis in relations between the government and the judiciary.
· This crisis culminated in the famous Kesavananda Bharati Case, where the Court gave a decision that

THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

there are some basic features of the Constitution and the Parliament cannot amend these features.
· Appointment of Chief Justice: Immediately after the Keshavananda Bharati case, a vacancy arose for
the post of the Chief Justice of India.
Ø The government appointed Justice A.N. Ray as the Chief Justice in 1973 setting aside the seniority
of three judges, when the practice had been to appoint the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court
as the Chief Justice.
Ø The appointment became politically controversial because all the three judges who were
superseded had given rulings against the stand of the government.
· People close to the Prime Minister started talking of the need for a judiciary and the bureaucracy
'committed' to the vision of the executive and the legislature.

42
 Declaration of Emergency:
· Allahabad High Court passed a judgment on 12 June 1975, declaring Indira Gandhi's election to the
Lok Sabha invalid.
· An election petition filed by Raj Narain, a socialist leader and a candidate who had contested against
her in 1971 challenged the election of Indira Gandhi on the ground that she had used the services of
government servants in her election campaign.
· The judgment of the High Court meant that legally she was no more an MP and therefore, could not
remain the Prime Minister unless she was once again elected as an MP within six months.
· On June 24, the Supreme Court granted her a partial stay on the High Court order – till her appeal was
decided, she could remain an MP but could not take part in the proceedings of the Lok Sabha.

Crisis and response:

· The opposition political parties led by Jayaprakash Narayan pressed for Indira Gandhi's resignation
and organised a massive demonstration in Delhi's Ramlila grounds on 25 June 1975.
· Jayaprakash announced a nationwide satyagraha for her resignation and asked the army, the police
and government employees not to obey “illegal and immoral orders”.
· The political mood of the country had turned against the Congress, more than ever before.
· On 25 June 1975, the government declared that there was a threat of internal disturbances and
therefore, it invoked Article 352 of the Constitution.
· Under the provision of this article the government could declare a state of emergency on grounds of
external threat or a threat of internal disturbances.
· The government decided that a grave crisis had arisen which made the proclamation of a state of
emergency necessary.
· Once an emergency is proclaimed, the federal distribution of powers remains practically suspended
and all the powers are concentrated in the hands of the union government.
· The government also gets the power to curtail or restrict all or any of the Fundamental Rights during
the emergency.
· After midnight, the electricity to all the major newspaper offices was disconnected.
THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

· In the early morning, a large number of leaders and workers of the opposition parties were arrested.
· The Cabinet was informed about it at a special meeting at 6 a.m. on 26 June, after all this had taken
place.

Consequences:
· This brought the agitation to an abrupt stop; strikes were banned; many opposition leaders were put in
jail; the political situation became very quiet though tense.
· The government suspended the freedom of the Press by introducing press censorship.
· The government banned Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and Jamait-e-Islami.
· Under the provisions of Emergency, the various Fundamental Rights of citizens stood suspended,
including the right of citizens to move the Court for restoring their Fundamental Rights.

43
 · The government made extensive use of preventive detention.
· Arrested political workers could not challenge their arrest through habeas corpus petitions.
· In April 1976, the constitution bench of the Supreme Court ruled that Government could take away
the citizen's right to life and liberty.
· This judgment closed the doors of judiciary for the citizens and is regarded as one of the most
controversial judgments of the Supreme Court.
· There were many acts of dissent and resistance to the Emergency, by many Newspapers, political
workers, organisations etc.
· The Parliament also brought in many new changes to the Constitution.
· In the background of the ruling of the Allahabad High Court in the Indira Gandhi case, an amendment
was made declaring that elections of Prime Minister, President and Vice-President could not be
challenged in the Court.
· The forty-second amendment was also passed during the Emergency.
Ø Among the various changes made by this amendment, one was that the duration of the
legislatures in the country was extended from five to six years.
Ø This change was not only for the Emergency period, but was intended to be of a permanent nature.
· Besides this, during an Emergency, elections can be postponed. Thus, effectively, after 1971,
elections needed to be held only in 1978; instead of 1976.

Controversies regarding Emergency:

· Emergency being one of the most controversial episodes in Indian politics, has been subject to many
controversies regarding the need of declaring it, practical suspension of democratic functioning
during the emergency etc.
· Also, the investigations by the Shah Commission after the Emergency found out, there were many
'excesses' committed during the Emergency.

Shah Commission of Inquiry:

THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

· In May 1977, the Janata Party government appointed a Commission of Inquiry headed by
Justice J.C. Shah.
· To inquire “into several aspects of allegations of abuse of authority, excesses and malpractices
committed and action taken in the wake of the Emergency proclaimed on the 25th June, 1975”.
· The Commission examined various kinds of evidence and called scores of witnesses to give
testimonies.
· The Government of India accepted the findings, observations and recommendations contained
in the two interim reports and third and final report of the Shah Commission.
· The reports were also tabled in the two houses of Parliament.

44
 The need for emergency:
It is argued that weather the agitations ongoing in the country a reason enough for terming them 'internal
disturbances' as mentioned in the Constitution as a reason for declaring Emergency.

The government and its supporters made the following arguments:

· In a democracy, the opposition parties must allow the elected ruling party to govern according to its
policies. It felt that frequent recourse to agitations, protests and collective action are not good for
democracy.
· Also, in a democracy continuous resort to extra-parliamentary politics targeting the government
cannot happen. As this leads to instability and distracts the administration from its routine task of
ensuring development.

The critics of the Emergency argue:

· Indian politics has had a history of popular struggles. In a democracy, people had the right to
publicly protest against the government.
· The Bihar and Gujarat agitations were mostly peaceful and non-violent. No cases were registered
against most of the detainees.
· The Home Ministry also did not express any concern about the law and order. The government also
had enough routine powers to deal with any concerns about the protest that it may have had.
· The threat was not to the unity and integrity of the country but to the ruling party and to the Prime
Minister herself.
· Indira Gandhi misused a constitutional provision meant for saving the country to save her personal
power.

Happenings during emergency:

· The government announced a twenty-point programme and declared its determination to implement
this programme. It included land reforms, land redistribution, review of agricultural wages, workers'
participation in management, eradication of bonded labour, etc.
THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

Criticism of implementation:
· Most of these promises by the government remained unfulfilled.
· Severe restrictions were put on the press, sometimes without proper legal sanctions.
· Sanjay Gandhi the Prime Minister's younger son did not hold any official position at the time. Yet, he
gained control over the administration and allegedly interfered in the functioning of the government.
· His role in the demolitions and forced sterilisation in Delhi became very controversial.
· Torture and custodial deaths occurred during the Emergency; arbitrary relocation of poor people
also took place; and over-enthusiasm about population control led to cases of compulsory
sterilisation.

45
Lessons of the Emergency:
The Emergency brought out both the weaknesses and the strengths of India's democracy.

The various lessons from the emergency are as follows:

· It is extremely difficult to do away with democracy in India as democratic functioning resumed within a
short period after the emergency.
· There were some ambiguities regarding the Emergency provision in the Constitution that have been
rectified since. Now, internal' Emergency can be proclaimed only on the grounds of 'armed rebellion'
and it is necessary that the advice to the President to proclaim Emergency must be given in writing
by the Union Cabinet.
· Everyone was made more aware about the importance of Civil Liberties.

The actual implementation of the Emergency rule took place through the police and the administration.
These institutions could not function independently. They were turned into political instruments of the ruling
party and according to the Shah Commission Report, the administration and the police became vulnerable
to political pressures. This problem did not vanish after the Emergency.

The most valuable and lasting lesson of the Emergency was learnt as soon as the Emergency was over and
the Lok Sabha elections were announced. The 1977 elections turned into a referendum on the experience
of the Emergency, at least in north India where the impact of the Emergency was felt most strongly.

The opposition fought the election on the slogan of 'save democracy'. The people's verdict was decisively
against the Emergency. In this sense the experience of 1975 -77 ended up strengthening the foundations
of democracy in India.

Lok Sabha Elections, 1977:

· The major opposition parties came together on the eve of the elections and formed a new party, known
as the Janata Party. The new party accepted the leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan. Jayaprakash

THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

Narayan became the popular symbol of restoration of democracy.
· Some Congress leaders also came out and formed a separate party under the leadership of Jagjivan
Ram called Congress for Democracy later merged with the Janata Party.
· For the first time since Independence, the Congress party was defeated in the Lok Sabha elections.
Janta party formed the government. Janata Party itself won 295 seats and thus enjoyed a clear
majority.
· Congress did not lose elections all over the country. It retained many seats in Maharashtra, Gujarat
and Orissa and virtually swept through the southern States.
· There are many reasons for this. To begin with, the impact of Emergency was not felt equally in all
the States. The forced relocation and displacements, the forced sterilisations, were mostly
concentrated in the northern States.

46
 · But more importantly, north India had experienced some long term changes in the nature of political
competition. The middle castes from north India were beginning to move away from the Congress
and the Janata party became a platform for many of these sections to come together. In this sense, the
elections of 1977 were not merely about the Emergency.

Janta Government:
· After the election, there was stiff competition among three leaders for the post of Prime Minister –
Morarji Desai, Charan Singh and Jagjivan Ram, Eventually Morarji Desai became the Prime Minister but
that did not bring the power struggle within the party to an end.
· The Janata Party split and the government which was led by Morarji Desai lost its majority in less than
18 months.
· Another government headed by Charan Singh was formed on the assurance of the support of the
Congress party. But the Congress party later decided to withdraw its support with the result that the
Charan Singh government could remain in power for just about four months.
· Fresh Lok Sabha elections were held in January 1980 in which the Janata Party suffered a
comprehensive defeat. Congress party led by Indira Gandhi nearly repeated its great victory in 1971
and came back to power.
· The experience of 1977-79 taught another lesson in democratic politics: governments that are seen
to be unstable and quarrelsome are severely punished by the voters.

Legacy of Emergency:
· Issue of welfare of the backward castes: In an indirect manner the issue of welfare of the backward
castes also began to dominate politics since 1977. The issue of reservations for 'other backward
classes' became very controversial in Bihar and following this, the Mandal Commission was
appointed by the Janata Party government at the centre.
· Constitutional crisis: The Emergency and the period around it can be described as a period of
constitutional crisis because it had its origins in the constitutional battle over the jurisdiction of the
Parliament and the judiciary.
· Political crisis: it was also a period of political crisis. The party in power had absolute majority and
yet, its leadership decided to suspend the democratic process.
THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

· Role and extent of mass protests: Another critical issue that emerged during this period was the role
and extent of mass protests in a parliamentary democracy. There was clearly a tension between
institution-based democracy and democracy based on spontaneous popular participation. This
tension may be attributed to the inability of the party system to incorporate the aspirations of the
people.

Important Personalities:
· Charu Majumdar (1918-1972): Communist revolutionary and the leader of the Naxalbari uprising;
participated in the Tebhaga movement before independence; left the CPI and founded the Communist
Party of India (Marxist-Leninist); believed in the Maoist path of peasant rebellion and defended
revolutionary violence; died in police custody.

47
· Loknayak Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) (1902-1979): A marxist in his youth; founder general secretary
of the Congress Socialist Party and the Socialist Party; a hero of the 1942 Quit India movement;
declined to join Nehru's cabinet; after 1955 quit active politics; became a Gandhian and was involved in
the Bhoodan movement, negotiations with the Naga rebels, peace initiative in Kashmir and ensured
the surrender of decoits in Chambal; leader of Bihar movement, he became the symbol of opposition
to Emergency and was the moving force behind the formation of Janata Party.
· Morarji Desai (1896-1995): Freedom fighter; a Gandhian leader; Proponenet of Khadi, naturopathy
and prohibition; Chief Minister of Bombay State; Deputy Prime Minister (1967- 1969); joined Congress
(O) after the split in the party; Prime Minister from 1977 to 1979—first Prime Minister belonging to a
non-Congress party.
· Chaudhary Charan Singh (1902-1987): Prime Minister of India between July1979 - January 1980;
freedom fighter; active in the politics of Uttar Pradesh; proponent of rural and agricultural
development; left Congress party and founded Bharatiya Kranti Dal in 1967; twice Chief Minister of
U.P.; later he was one of the founders of the Janata Party in 1977 and became Deputy Prime Minister
and Home Minister (1977-79); founder of Lok Dal.
· Jagjivan Ram (1908-1986): Freedom fighter and Congress leader from Bihar; Deputy Prime Minister
of India (1977-79); member of Constituent Assembly; also a Member of Parliament since 1952 till his
death; Labour Minister in the first ministry of free India; held various other ministries from 1952 to
1977; a scholar and astute administrator.

THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

48
 RISE OF POPULAR MOVEMENTS
7
Three decades after Independence, the people were beginning to get impatient. Their unease expressed
itself in various forms. In the 1970s, diverse social groups like women, students, Dalits and farmers felt
that democratic politics did not address their needs and demands. Therefore, they came together under
the banner of various social organisations to voice their demands. These assertions marked the rise of
popular movements or new social movements in Indian politics.

Chipko Movement:
· The movement began in two or three villages of Uttarakhand when the forest department refused
permission to the villagers to fell ash trees for making agricultural tools.
· However, allotted the same patch of land to a sports manufacturer for commercial use. This enraged
the villagers, and they protested the move of the government.
· They used a novel tactic for their protest – that of hugging the trees to prevent them from being cut
down.
· The struggle soon spread across many parts of the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand. Larger issues of
ecological and economic exploitation of the region were raised.
· The movement took up economic issues of landless forest workers and asked for guarantees of
minimum wage.
· Women's active participation in the Chipko agitation was a very novel aspect of the movement.
Women held sustained agitations against the habit of alcoholism and broadened the agenda of the
movement to cover other social issues.
· The movement achieved a victory when the government issued a ban on felling of trees in the
Himalayan regions for fifteen years, until the green cover was fully restored. The movement became a
symbol for later popular movements.

Party based movements:

Popular movements may take the form of social movements or political movements and there is often an
overlap between the two. Most movements in the pre-independence times raised issues about certain
RISE OF POPULAR MOVEMENTS

underlying conflicts. Some of these movements have continued in the post-independence period as well.
· Trade union movement had a strong presence among industrial workers in major cities like Mumbai,
Kolkata and Kanpur. All major political parties established their own trade unions.
· Peasants in the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh organised massive agitations under the
leadership of Communist parties.
· Naxalite movement took shape. Peasants and agricultural labourers in parts of Andhra Pradesh,
West Bengal, Bihar and adjoining areas continued their agitations under the leadership of the
Marxist-Leninist workers; who were known as the Naxalites.

49
 · The peasants' and the workers' movements mainly focussed on issues of economic injustice and
inequality.
· These movements did not participate in elections formally. And yet they retained connections with
political parties, as many participants in these movements, as individuals and as organisations, were
actively associated with parties. These links ensured a better representation of the demands of
diverse social sections in party politics.
Non-Party Movements:
· In the 1970s and 1980s, many sections of the society became disillusioned with the functioning of
political parties. Failure of the Janata experiment and the resulting political instability were the
immediate causes. But in the long run the disillusionment was also about economic policies of the
state.
· A sense of injustice and deprivation grew among different groups. Therefore, they chose to step
outside of party politics and engage in mass mobilisation for registering their protests.
· Students and young political activists from various sections of the society were in the forefront in
organising the marginalised sections such as Dalits and Adivasis.
· The middle-class young activists launched service organisations and constructive programmes
among rural poor.
· Because of the voluntary nature of their social work, many of these organisations came to be known as
voluntary organisations or voluntary sector organisations.
Ø These voluntary organisations chose to remain outside party politics.
Ø Hence, these organisations were called 'non-party political formations'.
Ø Such voluntary sector organisations still continue their work in rural and urban areas.
· Many of these organisations are funded by external agencies including international service
agencies. The ideal of local initiatives is weakened as a result of availability of external funds on a
large scale to these organisations.
Dr. Ambedkar has a vision of socio-economic change and his relentless struggle for a dignified future for
Dalits outside the Hindu caste-based social structure. It is not surprising that Dr. Ambedkar remains an

RISE OF POPULAR MOVEMENTS

iconic and inspirational figure in much of Dalit liberation writings. Dalit Panthers movement was also
influenced by the vision of Dr. Ambedkar.

Dalit Panthers:
· Dalit Panthers, a militant organisation of the Dalit youth, was formed in Maharashtra in 1972 by the
first-generation Dalit graduates, especially those living in city slums began to assert themselves from
various platforms.
· Their prominent demands included effective implementation of reservations and other such policies
of social justice.

50
 · Dalit Panthers resorted to mass action for assertion of Dalits' rights.

Activities:
· Their activities were centred around fighting increasing atrocities on Dalits in various parts of the
State.
· The government passed a comprehensive law in 1989 that provided for rigorous punishment for such
acts.
· The movement provided a platform for Dalit educated youth to use their creativity as a protest
activity.
· Dalit writers protested against the brutalities of the caste system in their numerous autobiographies
and other literary works published during this period.
· In the post-emergency period, Dalit Panthers got involved in electoral compromises; it also
underwent many splits, which led to its decline. Organisations like the Backward and Minority
Communities' Employees Federation (BAMCEF) took over this space.
Agrarian struggles of the eighties is one such example where better off farmers protested against the
policies of the state. Bhartiya Kisan Union played vital role in these protests.

Bhartiya Kisan Union:

The BKU was one of the leading organisations in the farmers' movement of the eighties in western Uttar
Pradesh and Haryana regions.
· Sugar and wheat became the main cash crops in the western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab since
green revolution.
· The cash crop market faced a crisis in mid-eighties due to the beginning of the process of
liberalisation of Indian economy.
· The BKU demanded higher government floor prices for sugarcane and wheat, abolition of restrictions
on the inter-state movement of farm produce, guaranteed supply of electricity at reasonable rates,
waiving of repayments due on loans to farmers and the provision of a government pension for farmers.
RISE OF POPULAR MOVEMENTS

· Shetkari Sanghatana of Maharashtra declared the farmers' movement as a war of Bharat

(symbolising rural, agrarian sector) against forces of India (urban industrial sector).

Characteristics:
· Most of the BKU members belonged to a single community. The organisation used traditional caste
panchayats of these communities in bringing them together over economic issues.
· Funds, resources and activities of BKU were mobilised through networks of members.
· Until the early nineties, the BKU distanced itself from all political parties and start operating as a
pressure group.

51
 · Farmer's movement was active mainly in the prosperous States of the country.
· Members of BKU grew cash crops for the market.
· Like the BKU, farmers' organisations across States recruited their members from communities that
dominated regional electoral politics. Shetkari Sanghatana of Maharashtra and Rayata Sangha of
Karnataka are prominent examples of such organisations of the farmers.

National Fish Workers' Forum:

· Indian fishers constitute the second largest fishing population in the world.
· Both in the eastern and the western coastal areas of our country hundreds of thousands of
families, mainly belonging to the indigenous fishermen communities, are engaged in the
occupation of fishing.
· Throughout the nineties the National Fish Workers' Forum fought various legal and public
battles with the government. It worked to protect the interests of those who rely on fishing for
subsistence rather than those who invest in the sector for profit.

When the BKU was mobilising the farmers of the north, an altogether different kind of mobilisation in the
rural areas was taking shape in the southern State of Andhra Pradesh. It was a spontaneous mobilisation of
women demanding a ban on the sale of alcohol in their neighbourhoods.

Anti-Arrack Movement:
· The habit of alcoholism had taken deep roots among the village people and was ruining their physical
and mental health.
· It affected the rural economy of the region a great deal. Indebtedness grew with increasing scales of
consumption of alcohol, men remained absent from their jobs and the contractors of alcohol engaged
in crime for securing their monopoly over the arrack trade.
· Women in Nellore came together in spontaneous local initiatives to protest against arrack and forced
closure of the wine shop.

RISE OF POPULAR MOVEMENTS

· This movement in Nellore District slowly spread all over the State.

Linkages:
The simple demand of prohibition on Arrack touched upon larger social, economic and political issues of the
region that affected women's life.
· The complex issue of nexus between crime and politics was also touched upon.
· They openly discussed the issue of domestic violence. Their movement, For the first time, providing a
platform to discuss private issues of domestic violence. Thus this movement became a part of a larger
women's movement.

52
 Impact of women's movement:
· These campaigns increased overall social awareness about women's questions.
· Focus of the women's movement gradually shifted from legal reforms to open social
confrontations. As a result, the movement made demands of equal representation to women
in politics during the nineties.
· 73rd and 74th amendments have granted reservations to women in local level political
offices. Demands for extending similar reservations in State and Central legislatures have also
been made.
· A constitution amendment bill to this effect has been proposed but has not received enough
support from the Parliament yet. Main opposition to the bill has come from groups, including
some women's groups, who are insisting on a separate quota for Dalit and OBC women within
the proposed women's quota in higher political offices.

Social movements raised various issues about the model of economic development that India had adopted
at the time of Independence.

Chipko movement brought out the issue of ecological depletion whereas the farmers complained of neglect
of agricultural sector.

Social and material conditions of Dalits led to their mass struggles whereas the anti-arrack movement
focused on the negative fallouts of what was considered development. The issue implicit in all these
movements was made explicit by the movements against displacement caused by huge developmental
projects. Narmada Bachao Aandolan is also a movement against displacement caused by huge
developmental projects.

Narmada Bachao Aandolan

RISE OF POPULAR MOVEMENTS

Sardar Sarovar Project:

· An ambitious developmental project was launched in the Narmada valley in early 'eighties. The project
consisted of 30 big dams, 135 medium sized and around 3,000 small dams to be constructed on the
Narmada and its tributaries that flow across three states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and
Maharashtra.
· Sardar Sarovar Project in Gujarat and the Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh were two of
the most important and biggest, multi-purpose dams planned under the project.
· Narmada Bachao Aandolan (NBA), a movement to save Narmada, opposed the construction of
these dams and questioned the nature of ongoing developmental projects in the country. Sardar
Sarovar Project is a multipurpose mega-scale dam.

53
 · Benefits of the project:
Ø Availability of drinking water and water for irrigation.
Ø Generation of electricity.
Ø Increase in agricultural production.
Ø Effective flood and drought control in the region.
· Problems associated with the project:
Ø In the process of construction of the dam, 245 villages from these States were expected to get
submerged.
Ø It required relocation of around two and a half lakhs people from these villages.
Ø Issues of relocation and proper rehabilitation of the project-affected people were first raised by
local activist groups.

Debates and Struggles:

It was around 1988-89 that the issues crystallised under the banner of the NBA – a loose collective of local
voluntary organisations.

NBA linked its opposition to the Sardar Sarovar Project with larger issues concerning the nature of ongoing
developmental projects, efficacy of the model of development that the country followed and about what
constituted public interest in a democracy.

It put the following demands:

· Cost benefit analysis of the major developmental projects completed in the country so far.
· Larger social costs of the developmental projects must be calculated in such an analysis.
· These social costs included forced resettlement of the project-affected people, a serious loss of their
means of livelihood and culture and depletion of ecological resources.
· It raised the demand that local communities must be included in the decisions and they should also
have effective control over natural resources like water, land and forests.
· All these considerations led the NBA to shift from its initial demand for rehabilitation of impacted
people to its position of total opposition to the dam.

Right to Rehabilitation has been now recognised by the government and the judiciary. RISE OF POPULAR MOVEMENTS

· A comprehensive National Rehabilitation Policy formed by the government in 2003 can be seen as
an achievement of the movements like the NBA.
· The Supreme Court upheld the government's decision to go ahead with the construction of the dam
while also instructing to ensure proper rehabilitation.

Lessons from Popular Movements:

· Non-party movements are neither sporadic in nature nor are these a problem.

54
 · These movements came up to rectify some problems in the functioning of party politics.
· They represented new social groups whose economic and social grievances were not redressed in
electoral politics.
· Popular movements ensured effective representation of diverse groups and their demands.
· Popular movements suggested new forms of active participation and thus broadened the idea of
participation in Indian democracy.
· A counter view suggests that collective actions like strikes, sit-ins and rallies disrupt the functioning
of the government, delay decision making and destabilise the routines of democracy.

Movement for Right to Information:

· The movement started in 1990 in Bhim Tehsil in a very backward region of Rajasthan, when a
mass-based organisation called the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) took the
initiative in demanding records of famine relief work and accounts of labourers.
· The villagers asserted their right to information by asking for copies of bills and vouchers and
names of persons on the muster rolls who have been paid wages on the construction of schools,
dispensaries, small dams and community centres. villagers raised the issue of gross
misappropriation of funds.
· In 1996 MKSS formed National Council for People's Right to Information in Delhi to raise RTI
to the status of a national campaign.
· In 2004 RTI Bill was tabled and received presidential assent in June 2005.

Social movements in India have been involved in making people aware of their rights and the expectations
educative tasks for a long time and have thus contributed to expansion of democracy rather than causing
disruptions. The struggle for the right to information is a case in point.

The relationship between popular movements and political parties has grown weaker over the years,
RISE OF POPULAR MOVEMENTS

creating a vacuum in politics. In the recent years, this has become a major problem in Indian politics.

Interesting points

· Apartheid', meaning 'separateness', refers to the official policy of racial discrimination which
existed in South Africa during the 20th century.
· Medha Patkar is associated with Narmada Bachao Aandolan.

55
 REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS
8
Indian nationalism sought to balance the principles of unity and diversity. Democracy allows the political
expressions of regional aspirations and does not look upon them as anti-national. Besides, democratic
politics allows parties and groups to address the people on the basis of their regional identity, aspiration
and specific regional problems.

1980s is a period of rising regional aspirations for autonomy, often outside the framework of the Indian
Union. These movements frequently involved armed assertions by the people, their repression by the
government, and a collapse of the political and electoral processes.
Political conflicts over issues of power of the regions, their rights and their separate existence are common
to nations that want to respect diversity while trying to forge and retain unity.

Areas of tension:
· issue of Jammu and Kashmir: It was not only a conflict between India and Pakistan, but it was a
question of the political aspirations of the people of Kashmir valley.
· Issue of North-east: There was no consensus about being a part of India. First Nagaland and then
Mizoram witnessed strong movements demanding separation from India.
· Issues in South: Some groups from the Dravid movement briefly toyed with the idea of a separate
country. These events were followed by mass agitations in many parts for the formation of linguistic
States.
Ø In some parts of southern India, particularly Tamil Nadu, there were protests against making Hindi
the official national language of the country.

Dravidian movement:
· Dravidian movement was one of the first regional movements in Indian politics.
· the movement did not take to arms. It used democratic means like public debates and the
electoral platform to achieve its ends.
· The Dravidian movement led to the formation of Dravidar Kazhagam [DK] under the leadership
of Tamil social reformer E.V. Ramasami 'Periyar'.
· The organisation strongly opposed the Brahmins' dominance and affirmed regional pride
against the political, economic and cultural domination of the North.
· Initially, the Dravidian movement spoke in terms of the whole of south India; however, lack of
support from other States limited the movement to Tamil Nadu.
REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS

· The DK split and the political legacy of the movement was transferred to Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam (DMK).

· Issues in the North: There were strong pro-Hindi agitations demanding that Hindi be made the
official language immediately.
Ø From the late 1950s, people speaking the Punjabi language started agitating for a separate State
for themselves. This demand was finally accepted, and the States of Punjab and Haryana were
created in 1966.

56
 Ø Later, the States of Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand were created.

Jammu and Kashmir:

Despite a special status under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution (On 5 August 2019, the Government of
India revoked the special status), Jammu and Kashmir experienced violence, cross border terrorism and
political instability with internal and external ramifications. Besides, there was also a large-scale
displacement of Kashmiri Pandits from the Kashmir valley.

Jammu and Kashmir comprise of three social and political regions— Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh.
· The Jammu region is a mix of foothills and plains. It is predominantly inhabited by the Hindus.
Muslims, Sikhs and people of other denominations also reside in this region.
· The Kashmir region mainly comprises of the Kashmir valley. It is inhabited mostly by Kashmiri
Muslims with the remaining being Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists and others.
· The Ladakh region is mainly mountainous. It has very little population which is almost equally
divided between Buddhists and Muslims.

Fig. 8.1 Union Territories of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh

REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS

Roots of the Problem:

· Kashmiriyat: Before 1947, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) was a Princely State. Its ruler, Maharaja Hari
Singh did not want to merge either with India or Pakistan but to have an independent status for his
state.
Ø The Pakistani leaders thought that Kashmir region 'belonged' to Pakistan, since the majority
population of the State was Muslim.

57
 Ø people of the state themselves saw Kashmiris above all. This issue of regional aspiration is known
as Kashmiriyat.
· Sheikh Abdullah and the National Conference: The popular movement in the State, led by Sheikh
Abdullah of the National Conference, wanted to get rid of the Maharaja, but was against joining
Pakistan.
Ø The National Conference was a secular organisation and had a long association with the Congress.
Sheikh Abdullah was a friend of some of the leading nationalist leaders including Nehru.
· Tribal infiltration by Pakistan: In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators from its side to capture
Kashmir. This forced the Maharaja to ask for Indian military help.
Ø India extended the military support and drove back the infiltrators from Kashmir valley, but only
after the Maharaja had signed an 'Instrument of Accession' with the Government of India.
· Pakistan's Occupation: However, as Pakistan continued to control a sizeable part of the state, the
issue was taken to the Union Nations Organisation, which in its resolution dated 21 April 1948
recommended a three-step process to resolve the issue.
Ø Firstly, Pakistan had to withdraw its entire nationalities, who entered into Kashmir.
Ø Secondly, India needed to progressively reduce its forces so as to maintain law and order.
Ø Thirdly, a plebiscite was to be conducted in a free and impartial manner.

However, no progress could be achieved under this resolution. In the meanwhile, Sheikh Abdullah took over
as the Prime Minister of the State of J&K in March 1948 while India agreed to grant it provisional autonomy
under the Article 370. The head of the government in the State was then called Prime Minister.

External and internal disputes:

· Pakistan has always claimed that Kashmir valley should be part of Pakistan.
Ø The area occupied by Pakistan in the tribal invasion is described as 'Azad Pakistan' by Pakistan.
Ø India claims that this area is under illegal occupation.
· Internally, the special status of Kashmir had provoked two opposite reactions.
Ø There is a section of people that believed that the special status of the State conferred by Article
370 did not allow full integration of the State with India. Article 370 be revoked, and J&K be
treated like any other state of India.
Ø Another section, mostly Kashmiris, believe that the autonomy conferred by Article 370 is not
REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS

enough. They had at least three major grievances.

o First, the promise that Accession would be referred to the people of the State after the situation
created by tribal invasion was normalised, has not been fulfilled. This generated the demand for
a plebiscite.
o Secondly, there was a feeling that the special federal status guaranteed by Article 370, had been
eroded in practice. This had led to the demand for restoration of autonomy or 'Greater State
Autonomy'.

58
 o Thirdly, it was felt that democracy which is practiced in the rest of India has not been similarly
institutionalised in the State of Jammu and Kashmir.

Politics Since 1948:

· Reforms of Sheikh Abdullah: After taking over as the Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah initiated major
land reforms and other policies which benefitted ordinary people.
Ø But there was a growing difference between him and the central government about his position on
Kashmir's status.
Ø Growing popularity of Sheikh Abdullah created fear in the minds of central government of India
about loosing Kashmir. That led to detention of Sheikh Abdullah.
· Detention of Sheikh Abdullah: He was dismissed and kept in detention. The subsequent leadership
that emerged in Kashmir was with the support of the centre and did not enjoy much popularity in the
state, with serious allegations about malpractices in various elections. This step of Central
government created an evil image of Delhi among the Kashmiri people.

A change in the provision of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir was made in 1965 by which the Prime
Minister of the state was designated as Chief Minister of the state.

· Re-emergence of Sheikh Abdullah as a leader: Accordingly, Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq of the Indian
National Congress became the first Chief Minister of the state. In 1974 Indira Gandhi reached an
agreement with Sheikh Abdullah and he became the Chief Minister of the State.
Ø He revived the National Conference which was elected with majority in the assembly elections held
in 1977.
· Feeling of resentment in Kashmir: After his death, his son Farooq Abdullah took over the leadership of
his party and became the Chief Minister. His government was however subsequently dismissed, and
this interference of the centre generated a feeling of resentment in Kashmir. The confidence of
Kashmiris in the democratic process received a setback.

Insurgency and After:

· In 1987 elections National Conference - Congress alliance won a massive majority and Farooq
Abdullah returned as Chief Minister. But it was widely believed that the results did not reflect popular
choice, and that the entire election process was rigged.
REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS

· This generated a political crisis in Kashmir which became severe with the rise of insurgency. By 1989,
the State had come in the grip of a militant movement mobilised around the cause of a separate
Kashmiri nation. The insurgents got moral, material and military support from Pakistan.
· For a number of years, the State was under President's rule and effectively under the control of the
armed forces.
· Elections were held in 2002 in which coalition government of People's Democratic Party (PDP) and
Congress came to power.

59
 · After Mufti Mohammed Sayeed died, his daughter Mahbooba Mufti became the first woman Chief
Minister of the state in April 2016.
· During the tenure of Mahbooba Mufti, major acts of terrorism, mounting external and internal
tensions were witnessed.
· The President's rule was imposed in June 2018 after BJP withdrew its support to the Mufti
government.
· On 5 August 2019, Article 370 was abolished by the Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act 2019
and the state was constituted into two Union Territories, viz., Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh.
· Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh are living examples of plural society in India. Not only are there
diversities of all kind (religious, cultural, linguistic, ethnic and tribal) but there are also divergent
political and developmental aspirations, which have been sought to be achieved by the latest Act.

Punjab:
The decade of 1980s also witnessed major developments in the State of Punjab. The social composition of
the State changed first with Partition and later on after the carving out of Haryana and Himachal
Pradesh. While the rest of the country was reorganised on linguistic lines in 1950s, Punjab formed as a state
of Punjabi speaking people in 1966.

The Akali Dal, which was formed in 1920 as the political wing of the Sikhs, had led the movement for the
formation of a 'Punjabi suba'. The Sikhs were now a majority in the truncated State of Punjab.

Political Context:
· After the reorganisation of Punjab, the Akalis came to power in 1967 and then in 1977. But their
government was dismissed by the Centre mid-way through its term.
· In this context during the 1970s a section of Akalis began to demand political autonomy for the
region.
· Anandpur Sahib Resolution: This was reflected in a resolution passed at their conference at Anandpur
Sahib in 1973.
Ø The Anandpur Sahib Resolution asserted regional autonomy and wanted to redefine centre-state
relationship in the country.
Ø The resolution also spoke of the aspirations of the Sikh qaum (community or nation) and declared REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS
its goal as attaining the bolbala (dominance or hegemony) of the Sikhs.
Ø The Resolution was a plea for strengthening federalism, but it could also be interpreted as a plea
for a separate Sikh nation.
The Resolution had a limited appeal among the Sikh masses. A few years later, after the Akali government
had been dismissed in 1980, the Akali Dal launched a movement on the question of the distribution of water
between Punjab and its neighbouring States. A section of the religious leaders raised the question of
autonomous Sikh identity. The more extreme elements started advocating secession from India and the
creation of 'Khalistan'.

60
 Cycle of Violence:
· Demand of Khalistan: A section of the religious leaders raised the question of autonomous Sikh
identity. The more extreme elements started advocating secession from India and the creation of
'Khalistan'. Demand of Khalistan took the form of armed insurgency.
· Operation Blue Star': These militants made their headquarters inside the Sikh holy shrine, the
Golden Temple in Amritsar, and turned it into an armed fortress. In June 1984, the Government of India
carried out 'Operation Blue Star', code name for army action in the Golden Temple.
Ø In this operation, the militants were successfully flushed out but it also damaged the Golden temple,
deeply hurting the sentiments of Sikhs.
· Assassination of Indira Gandhi: Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated on 31 October 1984
outside her residence by her bodyguards. Both the assassins were Sikhs and wanted to take revenge
for Operation Bluestar.
· Delhi Riots of 1984: Due to this in Delhi and in many parts of northern India violence broke out against
the Sikh community.
Ø More than two thousand Sikhs were killed in the national capital, the area worst affected by this
violence. Hundreds of Sikhs were killed in other parts of the country.
Ø government took a long time in restoring normalcy and that the perpetrators of this violence
were not effectively punished.

Road to peace:
Rajiv Gandhi - Longowal Accord: After coming to power following the election in 1984, the new Prime
Minister Rajiv Gandhi initiated a dialogue with moderate Akali leaders. In July 1985, he reached an
agreement with Harchand Singh Longowal, then the President of the Akali Dal, known as the Rajiv Gandhi -
Longowal Accord or the Punjab Accord, was a step towards bringing normalcy to Punjab.
· Under this agreement, it was agreed that Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab.
· A separate commission would be appointed to resolve the border dispute between Punjab and
Haryana.
· Tribunal would be set up to decide the sharing of Ravi-Beas river water among Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan.
· The agreement provided for compensation to and better treatment of those affected by the
militancy in Punjab.
· The agreement provided for the withdrawal of the application of Armed Forces Special Powers Act
in Punjab.
REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS

Peace returned to Punjab by the middle of 1990s. Though religious identities continue to be important for
the people, politics has gradually moved back along secular lines.

The North-East:
In the North-East, regional aspirations reached a turning point in 1980s. This region now consists of seven
States, also referred to as the 'seven sisters. The region has only 4 per cent of the country's population but
about twice as much share of its area.

61
A small corridor of about 22 kilometers connects the region to the rest of the country. Otherwise, the region
shares boundaries with China, Myanmar and Bangladesh and serves as India's gateway to South East
Asia.

Fig. 8.2: Map of North- east India

The region has witnessed a lot of change since 1947:

· Tripura, Manipur and Khasi Hills of Meghalaya were erstwhile Princely States. Nagaland State was
created in 1963; Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya in 1972 while Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh
became separate States only in 1987.

Problems with North East Region:

· Cut off from the rest of India.
· Region suffered neglect in developmental terms. REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS
· Its politics too remained insulated.
· Influx of migrants: Most States in this region underwent major demographic changes due to influx of
migrants from neighbouring States and countries.
· Complicated set of demands: The isolation of the region, its complex social character and its
backwardness compared to other parts of the country have all resulted in the complicated set of
demands from different states of the North-East.
· Weak communication: The vast international border and weak communication between the North-
East and the rest of India have further added to the delicate nature of politics there.

62
 · Three issues dominate the politics of North-East: The issues were demands for autonomy,
movements for secession, and opposition to 'outsiders'. Major initiatives on the first issue in the
1970s set the stage for some dramatic developments on the second and the third in the 1980s.

Demands for autonomy:

· At independence the entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised the State of Assam.
Demands for political autonomy arose when the non-Assamese felt that the Assam government was
imposing Assamese language on them.
· Leaders of the major tribal communities wanted to separate from Assam. They formed the Eastern
India Tribal Union which later transformed into a more comprehensive All Party Hill Leaders
Conference in 1960. They demanded a tribal State to be carved out of Assam.
· Finally, instead of one tribal State, several States got carved out of Assam. At different points of time
the Central Government had to create Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh out of Assam.
Tripura and Manipur were upgraded into States too. The reorganisation of the North-East was
completed by 1972. But this was not the end of autonomy demands in this region.
· In Assam, for example, communities like the Bodos, Karbis and Dimasas wanted separate States.
Karbis and Dimasas have been granted autonomy under District Councils while Bodos were
recently granted Autonomous Council.

Secessionist movements:
Some groups demanded a separate country, not in momentary anger but consistently as a principled
position. This proved to be a problem for a very long time in Mizoram and Nagaland.

Mizoram:
· After Independence, the Mizo Hills area was made an autonomous district within Assam.
· Some Mizos believed that they were never a part of British India and therefore did not belong to the
Indian union.
· But the movement for secession gained popular support after the Assam government failed to
respond adequately to the great famine of 1959 in Mizo hills.
· Their anger led to the formation of the Mizo National Front (MNF) under the leadership of Laldenga.
· In 1966 the MNF started an armed campaign for independence.
· The MNF fought a guerilla war, got support from Pakistani government and secured shelter in the then
East Pakistan.
REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS

· The Indian security forces countered it with a series of repressive measures of which the common
people were the victims. These measures caused more anger and alienation among the people.
· In 1986 a peace agreement was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga.
· As per this accord Mizoram was granted full-fledged statehood with special powers and the MNF
agreed to give up secessionist struggle. Laldenga took over as the Chief Minister.
· This accord proved a turning point in the history of Mizoram. Today, Mizoram is one of the most
peaceful places in the region and has taken big strides in literacy and development.

63
Nagaland:
· Led by Angami Zaphu Phizo, a section of the Nagas declared independence from India way back in
1951.
· Phizo turned down many offers of negotiated settlement. The Naga National Council launched an
armed struggle for sovereignty of Nagas.
· After a period of violent insurgency, a section of the Nagas signed an agreement with the
Government of India but this was not acceptable to other rebels. The problem in Nagaland still awaits
a final resolution.

Movements against outsiders:

· The large-scale migration into the North-East gave rise to problem that pitted the 'local' communities
against people who were seen as 'outsiders' or migrants.
· This issue has taken political and sometimes violent form in many States of the North-East.

Movement in Assam:
· The Assam Movement from 1979 to 1985 is the best example of movements against 'outsiders'.
· The Assamese suspected that there were huge numbers of illegal Bengali Muslim settlers from
Bangladesh.
· They felt unless detected and deported they would reduce the indigenous Assamese into a minority.
· Also, there was poverty and unemployment, which led to the insecurity that resources from Assam
were being drained out without any benefit to the indigenous people.
· In 1979 the All-Assam Students' Union (AASU), a students' group not affiliated to any party, led an
anti-foreigner movement.
· The movement demanded that all outsiders who had entered the State after 1951 should be sent
back.
· Eventually after six years of turmoil, the Rajiv Gandhi-led government entered into negotiations with
the AASU leaders, leading to the signing of an accord in 1985.
· Assam Accord 1985: According to this agreement those foreigners who migrated into Assam during
and after Bangladesh war and since, were to be identified and deported.
Ø Assam accord brought peace and changed the face of politics in Assam, but it did not solve the
REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS

problem of immigration.
· The issue of the 'outsiders' continues to be a live issue in the politics of Assam and many other places in
the North-East.
· This problem is particularly acute, for example, in Tripura as the original inhabitants have been reduced
to being a minority in their own land. The same feeling informs the hostility of the local population to
Chakma refugees in Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.

64
 Sikkim's merger:
· At the time of Independence, Sikkim was a 'protectorate' of India meaning that while it was not
a part of India, it was also not a fully sovereign country. Sikkim's defence and foreign relations
were looked after by India, while the power of internal administration was with the Chogyal,
Sikkim's monarch.
· However, Chogyal was unable to deal with the democratic aspirations of the people. The anti-
Chogyal leaders of both the communities sought and got support from the Government of
India.
· The first democratic elections to Sikkim assembly in 1974 were swept by Sikkim Congress
which stood for greater integration with India. The assembly first sought the status of 'associate
state' and then in April 1975 passed a resolution asking for full integration with India. By
referendum Sikkim became part of India.
· Sikkim became the 22nd State of the Indian union.

Accommodation and National Integration:

some of the issues of national integration are not fully resolved till now. Some conclusions that can be drawn
from the above examples include:
· Regional aspirations are very much a part of democratic politics. A large and diverse democracy like
India must deal with regional aspirations on a regular basis. Nation building is an ongoing process.
· Best way to respond to regional aspirations is through democratic negotiations rather than through
suppression. Groups and parties from the region need to be given share in power at the State level.
· Regional imbalance in economic development contributes to the feeling of regional discrimination.
· The makers of our constitution were farsighted in dealing with questions of diversity. The federal
system adopted by India is a flexible arrangement.

Regional aspirations are not encouraged to espouse separatism. Thus, politics in India has succeeded in
accepting regionalism as part and parcel of democratic politics.
REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS

Goa's liberation:
· territories of Goa, Diu and Daman were under the control of Portugal even after the
independence.
· There was also a strong popular movement within Goa for freedom. in December 1961, the
Government of India sent the army which liberated these territories after barely two days of action.
· Goa, Diu and Daman became Union Territory. Goa continued as a Union Territory.
· Finally, in 1987, Goa became a State of the Indian Union.

65
Important Personalities:
· Rajiv Gandhi (1944-1991): Prime Minister of India between 1984 and 1989; son of Indira Gandhi;
joined active politics after 1980; reached agreements with militants in Punjab, Mizoram and the
students' union in Assam; pressed for a more open economy and computer technology; sent Indian
Army contingent on the request of Sri Lankan government, to sort out the Sinhala Tamil conflict;
assassinated by suspected LTTE suicide bomber.
· Kazi Lhendup Dorji Khangsarpa (1904): Leader of democracy movement in Sikkim; founder of
Sikkim Praja Mandal and later leader of the Sikkim State Congress; in 1962 founded the Sikkim
National Congress; after an electoral victory, he led the movement for integration of Sikkim with India;
after the integration, Sikkim Congress merged with the Indian National Congress.
· Angami Zapu Phizo (1904-1990): Leader of the movement for independent Nagaland; president of
Naga National Council; began an armed struggle against the Indian state; went 'underground', stayed
in Pakistan and spent the last three decades of his life in exile in UK.
· Laldenga (1937-1990): Founder and leader of the Mizo National Front; turned into a rebel after the
experience of the famine in 1959; led an armed struggle against India for two decades; reached a
settlement and signed an agreement with Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1986; became the Chief
Minister of the newly created State of Mizoram.
· Sant Harchand Singh Longowal (1932-1985): Sikh political and religious leader; began his political
career in mid-sixties as an Akali leader; became president of Akali Dal in 1980; reached an agreement
with Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi on key demands of Akalis; assassinated by unidentified Sikh youth.
· Master Tara Singh (1885-1967): Prominent Sikh religious and political leader; one of the early leaders
of the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC); leader of the Akali movement;
supporter of the freedom movement but opposed to Congress' policy of negotiating only with the
Muslims; after Independence, he was the senior most advocate of formation of separate Punjab State.
· Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah (1905-1982): Leader of Jammu and Kashmir; proponent of autonomy
and secularism for Jammu and Kashmir; led the popular struggle against princely rule; opposed to
Pakistan due to its non-secular character; leader of the National Conference; Prime Minister of J&K
immediately after its accession with India in 1947; dismissed and jailed by Government of India from
1953 to 1964 and again from 1965 to 1968; became Chief Minister of the State after an agreement
with Indira Gandhi in 1974.
· E.V. Ramasami Naicker (1879-1973): Known as Periyar (the respected); strong supporter of atheism;
famous for his anticaste struggle and rediscovery of Dravidian identity; initially a worker of the
Congress party; started the self-respect movement (1925); led the anti-Brahmin movement; worked
for the Justice party and later founded Dravidar Kazhagam; opposed to Hindi and domination of
REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS

north India; propounded the thesis that north Indians and Brahmins are Aryans.

Interesting points

· Justice Nanavati Commission of Inquiry was established to inquiry the killings of Sikhs in 1984.

66
 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
9 IN INDIAN POLITICS
Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime Minister after the assassination of Indira Gandhi. He led the Congress to a
massive victory in the Lok Sabha elections held immediately thereafter in 1984. As the decade of the eighties
came to a close, the country witnessed five developments that were to make a long-lasting impact on our
politics:
· End of Congress system': The Congress party was defeated in the elections held in 1989. This marked
the end of what political scientists have called the 'Congress system'.
· Mandal issue: The rise of the 'Mandal issue' in national politics. The dispute between the supporters
and opponents of OBC reservations was known as the 'Mandal issue' and was to play an important
role in shaping politics since 1989.
· New economic reforms: Initiation of the structural adjustment programme or the new economic
reforms. Started by Rajiv Gandhi, these changes first became very visible in 1991 and radically
changed the direction that the Indian economy had pursued since Independence.
· Babri Masjid Demolition: Demolition of the disputed structure at Ayodhya (known as Babri Masjid) in
December 1992. These developments are associated with the rise of the BJP and the politics of
'Hindutva'.
· Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi: Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991 led to a change in
leadership of the Congress party. He was assassinated by a Sri Lankan Tamil linked to the LTTE when
he was on an election campaign tour in Tamil Nadu. Following Rajiv Gandhi's death, the party chose
Narsimha Rao as the Prime Minister.

Elections in 1989 led to the defeat of the Congress party but did not result in a majority for any other party.
Though the Congress was the largest party in the Lok Sabha, it did not have a clear majority and therefore, it
decided to sit in the opposition.

The National Front (which itself was an alliance of Janata Dal and some other regional parties) received
support from two diametrically opposite political groups: the BJP and the Left Front. On this basis, the
National Front formed a coalition government, but the BJP and the Left Front did not join in this government.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIAN POLITICS

Era of Coalitions:
· Multi-Party Rule: After 1989 was the emergence of several parties in such a way that one or two
parties did not get most of the votes or seats. This development initiated an era of coalition
governments at the Centre, in which regional parties played a crucial role in forming ruling alliances.
· Alliance Politics: The nineties also saw the emergence of powerful parties and movements that
represented the Dalit and backward castes (Other Backward Classes or OBCs).
Ø These parties played an important role in the United Front government that came to power in 1996.
Ø Atal Behari Vajpayee was the Prime Minister during both these NDA governments and his
government formed in 1999 completed its full term. Thus, with the elections of 1989, a long phase
of coalition politics began in India.
Ø This applied to the National Front in 1989, the United Front in 1996 and 1997, the NDA in 1997,
the BJP-led coalition in 1998, the NDA in 1999, the UPA in 2004 and 2009. However, this trend
changed in 2014.

67
 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIAN POLITICS

Fig. 9.1: List of Prime Ministers since 1989

Political Rise of Other Backward Classes:

Rise of Other Backward Classes as a political force is major development after 1989. OBC refers to the
administrative category 'Other Backward Classes'. These are communities other than SC and ST who suffer
from educational and social backwardness. These are also referred to as 'backward castes'.

68
 'Mandal' Implemented:
· The decision of the National Front government to implement the recommendations of the Mandal
Commission helped in shaping the politics of 'Other Backward Classes'.
· This period saw the emergence of many parties that sought better opportunities for OBCs in
education and employment and raised the question of the share of power enjoyed by the OBCs.

The Mandal Commission:

· Central government appointed a Commission in 1978 to investigate and recommend ways to
improve the conditions of the backward classes. This commission was officially known as the
Second Backward Classes Commission. Popularly, the commission is known as the Mandal
Commission, after the name of its Chairperson, Bindeshwari Prasad Mandal.
· It was expected to give its recommendations on the ways in which this backwardness could be
ended. The Commission gave its recommendations in 1980.
· It recommended reserving 27 percent of seats in educational institutions and government
jobs for OBC.
· In August 1990, the National Front government decided to implement one of the
recommendations of Mandal Commission pertaining to reservations for OBCs in jobs in the
central government and its undertakings. This decision sparked agitations and violent protests
in many cities of north India.
· The decision was also challenged in the Supreme Court and came to be known as the 'Indira
Sawhney case', after the name of one of the petitioners.
· In November 1992, the Supreme Court gave a ruling upholding the decision of the
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIAN POLITICS

government.

Political Fallouts:
· In 1978 the Backward and Minority Communities Employees Federation (BAMCEF) was formed. It
took a strong position in favour of political power to the 'bahujan' – the SC, ST, OBC and minorities.
· Later Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti and Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) emerged under the
leadership of Kanshi Ram. In 1989 and the 1991 elections, it achieved a breakthrough in Uttar
Pradesh. This was the first time in independent India that a political party supported mainly by Dalit
voters had achieved this kind of political success.

Communalism, Secularism, Democracy:

· The other long-term development during 1990s was the rise of politics based on religious identity,
leading to a debate about secularism and democracy.

69
 · After the fall of the Janata Party and its break-up, the supporters of erstwhile Jana Sangh formed the
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in 1980. After 1986, the party began to emphasise the Hindu
nationalist element in its ideology.

Hindutva:
· Hindutva literally means 'Hinduness' and was defined by its originator, V. D. Savarkar, as the
basis of Indian (in his language also Hindu) nationhood.
· It basically meant that to be members of the Indian nation, everyone must not only accept India
as their 'fatherland' (pitrubhu) but also as their holy land (punyabhu).
· Believers of 'Hindutva' argue that a strong nation can be built only on the basis of a strong and
united national culture.
· They also believe that in the case of India the Hindu culture alone can provide this base.

Two developments around 1986 which included the Shah Bano Case, and the Ayodhya Dispute became
central to the politics of BJP as a 'Hindutva' party

· Shah Bano case in 1985: In this case a 62-year old divorced Muslim woman, had filed a case for
maintenance from her former husband. The Supreme Court ruled in her favour.
Ø The orthodox Muslims saw the Supreme Court's order as an interference in Muslim Personal Law.
Ø On the demand of some Muslim leaders, the government passed the Muslim Women (Protection
of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986 that nullified the Supreme Court's judgment.
Ø This action of the government was opposed by many women's organisations, many Muslim
groups and most of the intellectuals.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIAN POLITICS

Ø The BJP criticised this action of the Congress government as an unnecessary concession and
'appeasement' of the minority community.
· Ayodhya Dispute:
Ø Faizabad district court in February 1986 ordered that the Babri Masjid premises be unlocked so
that Hindus could offer prayers at the site which they considered as a temple. A dispute had been
going on for many decades over the mosque known as Babri Masjid at Ayodhya.
Ø The Babri Masjid was a 16th century mosque in Ayodhya and was built by Mir Baqi – Mughal
emperor Babur's General. Some Hindus believe that it was built after demolishing a temple for
Lord Rama in what is believed to be his birthplace.
Ø The dispute took the form of a court case and has continued for many decades. In the late 1940s the
mosque was locked up as the matter was with the court.
Ø The BJP made this issue its major electoral and political plank. Along with many other organisations
like the RSS and the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), it convened a series of symbolic and
mobilisational programmes.

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 Ø This large-scale mobilisation led to surcharged atmosphere and many instances of communal
violence. The BJP, in order to generate public support, took out a massive march called the
Rathyatra from Somnath in Gujarat to Ayodhya in UP.

Demolition and After:

· In December 1992, the organisations supporting the construction of the temple had organised a
Karseva, meaning voluntary service by the devotees, for building the Ram temple.
· The Supreme Court had ordered the State government to take care that the disputed site will not be
endangered. However, thousands of people gathered from all over the country at Ayodhya on 6
December 1992 and demolished the mosque.
· That led to communal violence across India. The violence in Mumbai erupted again in January 1993
and continued for over two weeks.
· The central government appointed a commission to investigate into the circumstances leading to the
demolition of the mosque.

Politics has a special relationship with the Religion in India. Religious sentiments were used for electoral
purposes. This democratic atmosphere of communal amity has faced many challenges since 1984. In
February-March 2002, communal violence broke out against the Muslims in Gujarat. Such violence against
the minority community and violence between two communities is a threat to democracy.

Gujarat riots:
· In February-March 2002, large-scale violence took place in Gujarat. The immediate provocation for
this violence due to the death by burning of Fifty-seven karvevaks at a station called Godhra.
Suspecting the hand of the Muslims in setting fire to the bogey, large-scale violence against Muslims
began in many parts of Gujarat from the next day.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIAN POLITICS

· The National Human Rights Commission criticised the Gujarat government's role in failing to control
violence, provide relief to the victims and prosecute the perpetrators of this violence.
· As in the case of anti-Sikh riots of 1984, Gujarat riots show that the governmental machinery also
becomes susceptible to sectarian passions.

Emergence of a new consensus:

The period after 1989 is seen sometimes as the period of decline of Congress and rise of BJP. The political
competition during the nineties is divided between the coalition led by BJP and the coalition led by the
Congress.

Lok Sabha Elections 2004:

The NDA was defeated and a new coalition government led by the Congress, known as the United
Progressive Alliance came to power. This government received support from the Left Front parties. The
elections of 2004 also witnessed the partial revival of Congress party.

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Growing Consensus:
In the midst of severe competition and many conflicts, a consensus appears to have emerged among most
parties. This consensus consists of four elements.
· Agreement on new economic policies: While many groups are opposed to the new economic policies,
most political parties are in support of the new economic policies. Most parties believe that these
policies would lead the country to prosperity and a status of economic power in the world.
· Acceptance of the political and social claims of the backward castes: Political parties have
recognised that the social and political claims of the backward castes need to be accepted. As a result,
all political parties now support reservation of seats for the 'backward classes' in education and
employment.
· Acceptance of the role of State level parties in governance of the country: State level parties are
sharing power at the national level and have played a central role in the country's politics of last
twenty years or so.
· Emphasis on pragmatic considerations rather than ideological positions and political alliances
without ideological agreement: Coalition politics has shifted the focus of political parties from
ideological differences to power sharing arrangements.

Important Personalities:
· Kanshi Ram (1934-2006): Proponent of Bahujan empowerment and founder of Bahujan Samaj
Party (BSP); left his central government job for social and political work; founder of BAMCEF, DS-4
and finally the BSP in 1984; astute political strategist, he regarded political power as master key to
attaining social equality; credited with Dalit resurgence in north Indian States.
· B.P. Mandal (1918-1982): M.P. from Bihar for 1967-1970 and 1977-1979; chaired the Second
Backward Classes Commission that recommended reservations for Other Backward Classes; a
socialist leader from Bihar; Chief Minister of Bihar for just a month and a half in 1968; joined the Janata

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIAN POLITICS

Party in 1977.

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