Remember These:

 Memory is used for storing binary words.

 Memory size is specified by the number of words i.e. ‘M’ and the number of bits per
word i.e. ‘N’, such as : M x N.

 Reading is the process by which the data can be retrieved from

memory:
 Writing is the process by which the data can be stored in the memory.
 Semiconductor memories make use of bipolar and MOS.
 Types of memories -

(a) RAM

(b) ACM

 RAM is the random access memory or read/write memory. One can read and write in
RAM.

 ROM is the read only memory. One can only read from ROM nothing
can be written in it.
 RAM is of two types:

(a) SRAM

(b) DRAM

 SRAM is also known as static RAM. In SRAM data will remain stored permanently as
long as power is supplied, they need not required rewriting periodically the data. The
basic cell is SRAM is a flip-flop.
 DRAM is also known as dynamic RAM. In DRAM rewriting periodically the data into
memory is required. The basic cell in DRAM is a capacitor.
 ROM is of four types:

(a) Masked ROM

(b) PROM

(c) EPROM V

(d) EEPROM V

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  In masked ROM the data is stored permanently through photomasking during fabrication
i.e. programming is done through masking and metalization process.
 PROM is the programmable read only memory. it is programmed using PROM-
programmer and once the data is programmed (i.e. written) cannot be rewrite or changed
again.
 EPROM is the erasable programmable read only memory. The user can erase and
programme this memory again and again. The EPROM is erased by exposing the
chip from inside via window at the top to ultra violet light.
 EEPROM is the electrically erasable. programmable read only memory. its function is
similar to EPROM but instead UV light the data can be erased using electrical signals.
PLAs are programmable logic arrays in which AND-OR gate arrays are used and
programmed for specific logic functions.
 PLDs are the programmable logic devices. There are of three types

(a) PAL

(b) PLA

(c) PGA or FPGA.

 PAL are the programmable array logic in which AND gate arrays are programmable and
OR gate arrays are fixed.
 FPGA is the field programmable gate array. It consists of logic blocks
i.e. an array of circuit elements.
 CAM is the content addressable memory and is a special type of RAM
which can be accessed by searching for data content.
 CAM can perform read, write and associate operations.
 CCD is a charge coupled device memory which make use of MOS as a
capacitor to shift and store digital information. MOS capacitor acts as a
dynamic shift register.

Q 1. Explain the Bipolar RAM Cell.

Ans. Bipolar transistor is used in bipolar ROM cell. It is as shown in figure.

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When base of transistor is not connected with a row no current flows to the
base and it represents a storage of logic ‘0’. On the other hand, when base is
connected the flowing to the base of transistor and it represents a storage of
logic ‘1’.

Q 2. Design the OR Matrix or OR array.

Ans. These gives the logical sum terms of output from AND arrays as shown
in fig.

OR arrays gives sum terms in the logical form. Such as:

Here ‘X’ are the fuse links used in diagrams. The interconnections without ‘X’
are unplugged fuses or blown off fuse links.

Q 3. Draw the block diagram of PLA logic device.

Ans.

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Q 4. Implement the boolean function using PAL.

Ans. Let the input variables are A, B and C. The K-map minimization is as
shown:

Implementation using PAL:

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Q 5. Design half adder circuit using PLA.

Ans. Truth table of Half Adder circuit is:

Carry = C = AB.

Q 6. What is a non-volatile memory?

Ans. Non-volatile memory: The memory in which the data stored or

information

present once does not change even after the power is switched off is called
as non-volatile memory.

ROM i.e. Read only memory is the example of non-volatile memory.

Because such

memories hold the data or information even if power is switched off.

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Q 7. What are the advantages of static RAM over Dynamic RAM?

Ans. Advantages of static RAM over Dynamic RAM:

1. Access time of SRAM is less and thus these memories are faster
memories.

2. As SRAM is consists of flip-flops thus, refreshing is not required.

3. Less number of memory cells are required in SRAM for unit area.

Q 8. What is EEPROM?

Ans. EEPROM: Electrically Erasable PROM or Electrically Erasable

Programmable Read Only Memory. This memory stores a bit by charging the
floating gate of an FET. Thus, the memory is similar to EPROM except that
the information can be altered by using electrical signals at the register level
.rather than erasing all the information i.e. It can be erased information byte
to byte.

Q 9. What is PAL?

Ans. PAL: PAL is known as programmable array logic. It is a programmed

logic device

with OR arrays fixed and AND arrays programmable. Because only AND
gates are

programmable, the PAL is easier to program, but it is not as flexible as the

PLA (programmable logic array).

For example : We have a Boolean function given by

Y (A, B, C,) = (1, 3, 4, 6) and we have to implement it by using PAL. It

is as shown:

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Q 10. What is cache memory?

Ans. Cache memory is a type of semiconductor memory. It forced its entry

as fast memory device. It works as an interface between the CPU and the
primary memory. Following block diagram shows the position of cache
memory:

Q 11. Explain the role of PAL and PLA in digital design.

Ans. PAL: It is called programmable array logic. It makes use of AND array
only as a programmable but OR array is fixed.

PLA: It is called programmable logic array. Its AND or OR array both are
programmable. Both PAL and PLA are used for memory purposes.

Q 12. What is the difference between PAL and PLA?

Ans.

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Q 13 What do you mean by PLD’s?

Ans. PLDs: Programmable logic devices are the special type of IC’s used by
the USE and are programmed before use Different type of logic functions can
be implemented using a single programmed IC chip of PLD’s. PLD s can be
reprogrammed because these are based on re-.writable memory
technologies Fuse links are used to programmed the PLD b the user
according to the type of PLD to be manufactured

Q 14 Describe with diagram internal architecture of PLA

Ans PLA is Programmable Logic Array It is used where the number of don’t
care conditions are excessive In PLA’s both AND and OR arrays are
programmable The ANI and OR gates are fixed for any PLA chip It depends
on the number of inputs and outputs of PLA

Let us take an example of Half Adder to illustrate the diagram internal

architecture of PLA:

Truth Table of Half Adder:

Thus, carry = A B and sum =

Implementation of Half Adder using PLA is as shown:

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Q 15. What is programmable logic array? How it differs from ROM?

Ans. Programmable logic array are those in which AND and OR arrays are
programmable. The AND and OR gates are fixed by any PLA chip. It depends
on the number of inputs and outputs of PLA.

Difference between PLA and ROM is as shown in table:

Q 16. What is the difference between static and dynamic RAM?

Ans.

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Q 17. Features of content accessible memories.

Ans. 1. Content addressable memory (CAM) is a special purpose Random

Access

Memory device that can be accessed by searching for data content.

2. CAM can perform three basic operations: Read, write and associate.

3. CAMs use ECL circuitry because of high speed of operation.

Q 18. Where do we use PLA’s?

Ans. 1. Combinational circuits can be implemented using PLA’s

2. Sequential circuits can be implemented using PLA’s.

3. In sequential circuits implementation flip-flops and buffers are used at

output stage with PLA devices while in combinational circuits only buffers are
used.

4. Compact circuits can be built using PLA’s, which covers less space.

Q 19. On what basis do we characterize various type of memories.

Ans. Memories can be characterized on various parameters.

1. Characterize based on Principal of operation.

2. Characterize based on Physical characteristics.

3. Characterize based on Mode of Access.

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4. Characterize based on Fabrication Technology.

Q 20. The difference between static and dynamic memories.

Ans.

Q 21. Give the classification of memories.

Q 22. What are the characteristics of memories?

Ans. Characteristics of memory:

1. Memory organization and capacity

2. Physical dimensions

3. Packing of memory

4. Power consumption

5. Cost etc.

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Q.23. A certain memory stores 8 k x 16 bit words. How many data
input lines, data output lines and address lines does it have ? What
is its capacity in bytes?

Ans. Memory is M x N form where M are memory locations and N are data
input lines.

Here M = 8K

N = 16

Q 24. What are the various types of ROMs? Discuss their relative
advantages and disadvantages.

Ans. ROM: In ROM, read and write operation cannot be performed with
equal ease always read operation is easier than write operation. It is used to
store information which is (I) Permanent group includes; masked ROM and
PROM (ii) Semi permanent group include; EPROM and EE-PROM. Five types
of ROM-masked ROM, PROM, EPROM, EE-PROM and flash memory are
described in the following paragraphs.

Masked ROM: Programming is done through masking and metallization.

process. Manufactures provides programmed ROM; user cannot write into
this memory.

PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory user can program (write) the
PROM through special PROM programmer. It can be written (programmed)
once only, user cannot rewrite this memory.

EPROM: Erasable Programmable ROM. This memory stores a bit by charging

the floating gate of an FET. The chip can be reused may times i.e., user can
write this memory many time.

Erasing is done using UV light through a window over the memory chip
called quartz window. Erasing process cannot be done byte by byte or block
by block, entire information will be erased at once, - after exposing the ROM

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in U.V. light. Therefore, erasing process is slower and time consuming it
takes 15 to 20 minutes.

EEPROM: Electrically Erasable PROM. This memory is functionally similar to

EPROM, except that information can be altered by using electrical signals at
the register level rather than erasing the information i.e., it can be erased
information byte to byte.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:

1. Low cost

2. High speed

3. Flexibility in system design

4. ROM is non-volatile memory

Disadvantages:

1. In EPROM selective erasing is not possible. One time all the locations are
erased.

2. IROM has to be removed from socket and put in eraser for erasing.

Q 25. State and explain the difference among ROM, PROM, RAM,
SRAM and DRAM.

Ans. ROM: Read only memory (ROM) is the type of memory from which
data can be repeatedly read out. We can’t write data in this memory. It is a
non-volatile memory i.e. it can hold data even if power is turned off.

PROM: Programmable ROM is a ROM into which data is permanently stored

by special programming device. A PROM can be programmed once after its
fabrication. However, another category of PROM is reprogrammable i.e. it
can be programmed again and again and is referred erasable and
programmable.

If the erasing of PROM is using ultraviolet then it is EPROM i.e. Erasable

programmable ROM.

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If the erasing of ROM in using electrical voltage, then it is known as
electrically alterable ROM i.e. EAROM.

RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) is the memory that can be used for
read as well as written operation. Here access time is same for each
location. RAM is a volatile memory so it loses the stored data when power is
turned off. RAM is of two types SRAM and DRAM.

SRAM: Static RAM uses the flip-flop for its basic storage element. It is
possible to store data as long as power is applied to the chip. It make use of
cross coupled TTL multiemitter bipolar transistors or cross coupled MOSFETs
for its construction.

DRAM: Dynamic RAM make use of capacitive element for storing the data
bit. Binary information is stored as charge. If charge is present at a
capacitive element, it represents a logic 1 and in the absence of the charge a
logic 0 is stored. DRAM’s consumes less power as compared to SRAM’s.

Q 26. What are content Addressable Memories (CAMs)? Explain.

Ans. CAM: The content addressable memory (CAM) is a special purpose

random access memory device that can be accessed by searching for data
content. For this purpose, it is addressed by associating the input data,
referred to as key, simultaneously with all the stored words and produces
output signals to indicate the match conditions between the key and the
stored words. This operation is referred to as association or interrogation
and this type of memory is also known as associative memory.

After identifying the locations whose contents match the key, read or write
operations

can be performed to these locations. The key to be used may either consist
of the entire data word or only some specific bits of the data word, i.e. the
other bits can be masked.

A CAM differs from the conventional memory organization in that the

addressing of location in the latter has no relation to the memory content. A
CAM has the ability to seam out or interrogate stored data on the basis of its
contents and therefore, can be a powerful asset in many applications. For
example, consider a list containing the names of person, their ages,
professions, and nationalities stored in a CAM. If one is interested in finding
out engineers in the list, the CAM is able to check every memory location
simultaneously by using the coded form for engineer as the key. On the
other hand, if it is required to find the engineers of Indian nationality, the

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key will consist of the combination of the codes corresponding to engineer
and Indian nationality. All the memory locations with engineers of Indian
nationality will be identified and the remaining data (name and age) can
then be retrieved by using the read operation. To do the, same search
process with a conventional memory, each memory word is to be read out
and compared with the key. This search is serial process and hence time
consuming. Thus, CAMs are better suited for information retrieval than the
conventional memories.

CAMs are manufactured using MOS, CMOS, or bipolar technologies. The

most popular CAMs use ECL circuitry because of its high speed operation.

Operation of CAM: A CAM can perform three basic operations : read, write
and associate. Fig. shows a block diagram of a CAM. Its storage capacity is
M x N bits and is organized as M words of N bits each. If has N data input
and N data output lines (one line for each bit of a word). The data input lines
Io through are used to input data to be written into the memory and for
key word in case to associate operation. Data are read out of the CAM at the
data output lined Do through .

The Y lines (Yo through ) are bidirectional. During a read or write

operation, these lines are used to select the storage location. There is one
address input line for each word in the CAM. For example, Yo is the address
line for memory location 0, ‘Y1, for memory location 1 and so on. Notice that
linear selection addressing is used’ in CAMs rather than coincident selection
addressing.

The Y lines serve as match output lines one for each memory location, when
an association operation is performed. For. example, if the keyword matches
with the word stored in memory locations 5 and 8, lines Y5 andY8 will
become HIGH to indicate the match condition.

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The mode control inputs are used to select the required operation. The read
and write operations are performed in a manner similar to that used for
RAM. However, during the write operation, the input data also appear at the
data outputs. The reading of the data is non-destructive.

The word length and/or word size can be expanded by suitably connecting
the available CAM chips in a manner similar to the one used for RAMS and
ROMs expansion.

Q 27. Explain the construction and. operation of charge coupled

device memory.

Ans. The charge coupled device (CCD), a new concept for storage of digital
information, was announced in early 1970 by Bell Telephone Laboratories of
U.S.A. It is an array of MOS capacitors operating as a dynamic shift register,
CCDs are simple, versatile, and low cost devices and can be used wherever a
serially accessed memory is required.

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The operation of CCDs involves the following steps

1. Conversion of digital input signal into charge

2. Transfer of charge through various stages in sequential manner, and

3. Conversion of charge at the output into digital signal

During each charge transfer step, a small amount of charge is lost. Also, due
to thermal effects, undesirable charge may be generated which is known as
dark current. To overcome these defects, the charge is re-circulated around
the shift.

Basic Concept of CCD: Consider a p-type silicon substrate covered with a

thin oxide layer and closely spaced-metallic electrodes, as shown in Fig.
Each metallic electrode (gate) and the substrate forms a MOS capacitor
which can store charge. If a positive voltage is applied at a gate electrode, a
depletion region is formed in the substrate immediately under the metallic
electrode. This happens due to the repulsion of free holes in the substrate
because of the positive voltage at the gate electrode. These holes are driven
downward away from the oxide layer and consequently immobile negative
ions are exposed and a depletion region comes into existence. In Fig., a
positive voltage V1 is applied at the G1 gate and the other two gates are
held at the same potential as the substrate. The depletion region is

indicated below the gate G1. This plot also represents the potential-energy
barrier (well) for electrons, which are the minority charge carriers. Now, if a
packet of negative charge is injected into the depletion region, these charges
can move freely within the well, but cannot penetrate the potential-energy
walls of the well. This means that as long as the voltage V1 is present, the
negative charge will be held (trapped) there.

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In a conventional capacitor, the charges are held on conducting plates,
whereas in a MOS device the charges are held on a conductor and in the
depletion region under the conductor. The stored charge can be moved from
left to right down the channel by applying voltages at the gates in a proper
sequence. We assume that a logic 1 is stored when a negative charge is held
in the depletion region and a logic 0 is stored when the depletion region is
empty. This type of operation makes it possible to make long shift registers
using these devices.

Q 28. Write short note on the following -

Charge-coupled device memory.

Ans. Charge Coupled Devices (CCD) : It is type of sequential memory. It

can store and shift digital information. It. consists of MOS capacitors. If the
capacitor is charged then logic ‘l’ is stored and when it is discharged then
logic ‘0’ is stored.

It is as shown in fig.

It has three gates G1, G2 and G3. This MOS capacitor can store charge. If
positive voltage is applied at the gate electrode, then a depletion region is
formed as shown in fig. If positive voltage is given to G1 and ‘0’ volt is given
to G2 and G2 i.e. they are grounded. So the depletion layer is formed at G1.
This represents the potential energy transistor for electrons. Until the
voltage V1 is applied to G1, the negative charge will be held as it is. Shifting
of stored charge can also take place from left to right by applying voltages at
the gates in sequence of G2 and G3. Logic ‘1’ is assumed as stored data if a
negative charge is held in the depletion layer and logic ‘0’ is assumed as
stored data if the depletion region is empty. In this way CCD is used as a
memory device. Its advantages are:

1. It is very simple.

2. Cost is very low.

3. It has very high bit packing density.

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Q 29. Write short note on

Classification and characteristics of memories.

Ans. Classification and characteristics of memories Various memory devices

can

be classified on the basis of:

1. Principle of operation

2. Physical characteristics

3. Fabrication technology used

1. Principle of operation : The most commonly used memories are

(a) Sequentially accessed memory.

(b) Random access memory (RAM)

(c) Read only memory (ROM)

(d) Content addressable memory (CAM)

(a) Sequentially accessed memories: In this type of memories the time

required to access memory location is different for different locations. These
are of basic two types:

(i) Shift registers

(ii) Charge coupled devices (CCDs).

(b) RAM: Random access memory is the memory which is used for both
read and write operation i.e. data can be read or placed into. Here access
time is same for each location. It is of two types:

(i) SRAM i.e. Static RAM

(ii) DRAM i.e. Dynamic RAM

(c) ROM: Read only memory is the type from which data can be repeatedly
read out but cannot be written into it. It is of two types

(i) Mask programmable ROM

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(ii) Programmable ROM.

In case of Mark Programmable ROM it is programmable at the time of

manufacturing according to the information specified by the customer, and
cannot be changed after packing.

In case of programmable ROM, data is permanently stored but can be

erased either by

ultraviolet light or electrically using electric voltage.

(d) CAM: Content address memory is a special purpose RAM which performs
association operation in addition Read/Write operation.

2. Physical Characteristics: These are of two types:

(a) Erasable or non-erasable

(b) Volatile or non-volatile

(a) Erasable or non-erasable is a memory in. which the data stored can
be erased or non-erased. For example: ROM is a non-erasable memory

RAM is erasable memory.

(b) Volatile or non-volatile: If the data stored in memory is lost where

power is switched off then it is volatile memory. For example: RAM.

But if the data stored is not lost when power is switched off when it is called
non-volatile.

For example: ROM.

3. Fabrication Technology: It is of two types

(a) Bipolar (b) MOS

Static RAM, ROM and PROM can be fabricated using either bipolar technology
or MOS technology. But dynamic RAM, EPROM and EAROM can be fabricated
using MOS devices only.

Q 30. Draw the circuit of a static MOS RAM cell and explain its
operation of Read and Write.

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Ans. Random Access Memory (RAM) is a volatile memory. It can be read as
well as written It has two types static RAM and Dynamic RAM The static RAM
can be implemented using bipolar and MOS technology. The circuit diagram
of static MOS RAM is as:

In this circuit T1 and T3 are loads T2 and T4 are resistances. T9 is used for
write operation and T10 for read operation. X and Y lines are used for
addressing the cell. When X = 1 T5 and T6 will be ON when Y = 1, T7 and
T6 will be ON.

(i) Write operation: To make write operation, T9 is turned ON’ If the data
is logic 1, then T3 is turned ‘ON If data is logic 0 then T1 is ‘ON’

(ii) Read operation: For read operation MOSFET (T10) is turned ‘ON’ This
will connect Data-line to Data-out Hence complement of stored data is read.

Q 31 Explain the architecture and function of programmable logic

arrays

Ans. Programmable logic devices (PLD) are special type of ICs which can be
programmed by the user and hence a combinational or sequential circuit can
be implemented with these PLO s are of various types as programmable
array logic (PAL) and programmable logic array (PLA) etc The block diagram
of PLA device is as shown:

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Input Buffers : These buffers amplify the input signal. These are also used
to avoid the loading of sources connected at the input

AND Matrix: It can be used to implement the product terms in the SOP
form Each AND has two matrix has connections are shown by (X) mark on
the line.

OR Matrix: The OR matrix has ‘OR’ gates of two inputs The connections are
shown by cross (X) mark, on the line.

lnvert/Non-lnvert: Matrix If the output in active low mode is required then

it can be separated with this matrix otherwise it remains active high with
non-invert matrix

Output Buffers: To amplify the output signal and to increase current source
capability these buffers are used.

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