BIODIVERSITY

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES ®

BIODIVERSITY AND BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Compiled by G. TARUVINGA

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8.15 TOPIC 7 BIODIVERSITY

KEY OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
CONCEPT Learners should be able to: (ATTITUDES, SKILLS AND LEARNING RESOURCES
KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES
8.15.1 1. identify organisms using  Diagnostic features of the  Observing  ICT tools
Classification diagnostic features of the five five Kingdoms organisms.  Braille
Kingdoms  Diagnostic features of  Classifying software/Jaw
2. use diagnostic features to phyla organisms into the s
divide kingdoms into phyla five Kingdoms.  Samples of
3. state the taxonomic hierarchy  Kingdom organisms
 Phyla  Collecting and
 Class classifying  Dichotomous
 Order organisms. key
 Family  Outlining the
 Genus taxonomic
 Species hierarchy.

4. observe the rules of binomial  Binomial nomenclature  Discussing the

nomenclature  Genus and species names rules of binomial
nomenclature.

8.15.2 1. describe the socio-economic — socio-economic  Discussing the  ICT tools

Importance importance of the five importance of socio-economic  Brail
of Kingdoms I. Kingdom Prokaryotae importance of the software/Ja
Biodiversity  fermentation five kingdoms. ws
 bio-technology
 food spoilage
 decomposition
II. Kingdom Protista
 Plasmodium sp -malaria
 Schistosoma sp –
schistosomiasis
 Trypanosoma sp -
Trypanosomiasis
III. Kingdom Fungi
 Fermentation
 Penicillin production
 Decomposition
 Food spoilage
 Food
IV. Kingdom Plantae
 Producers
 Carbon sink
 Timber
 Medicinal use
 Tourism
V. Kingdom Animalia
 Tourism
 Food
 Hunting
 Leather
 Fishing

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BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is a measure of:
 the variety of different species in a particular area.
 the numbers of each of those species in a particular area.

Biodiversity is important as it provides:

 food and potential foods
 industrial materials
 new medicines
 and enhances human well-being.

As noted earlier under the Ecology topic, biodiversity and endangered species can be conserved and
protected by:
 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
 Sites of Special Scientific Interest
 captive breeding programmes
 national parks
 seed/sperm banks
 local biodiversity action plans.

CLASSIFICATION

 Biological classification is the scientific ordering of organisms in a hierarchical series of groups on

the basis of their relationships such as morphological, evolutionary and others.
 Biological classification involves placing living organisms in a series of increasingly specialized
groups. This is based on their similarities and difference in structure and origin that indicate a
common relationship.

Advantages of classification

The foremost advantage of classifying organisms is that it makes the study of a wide variety of
organisms very easy and convenient. It also shows the interrelationship between various groups. In
biology, there is a basic need to identify organisms correctly and place them in the right category. This
helps in learning about the large numbers of organisms in an accurate manner. Classifying organisms
also helps in increasing the scope of biological sciences.

General Principles of classification

- Systems of classification are hierarchical i.e. each successive group contains more and more
different kinds of organisms
- Taxonomy is the study of grouping of organisms according to their relationship.
- A group of similar organisms is called a taxon, and the science of classification is called taxonomy.
- Phylogeny is the study of evolutionary traits
- Natural classification of organisms is based on evolutionary relationship
- In taxonomy groups are based on similar physical or molecular properties, and groups are contained
within larger composite groups with no overlap.
- There are seven taxa ( taxa is plural for taxon) that organisms can classified into:

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 Kingdom
 Phylum (Plural: Phyla) or division in plants
 Class
 Order
 Family
 Genus
 Species

— The smallest group of similar organisms is the species; closely related species are grouped into
genera (singular genus), genera into families, families into orders, orders into classes, classes into
phyla (singular phylum), and phyla into kingdoms.
— The kingdom is the first and largest rank and species is the last and smallest.
— So you need to remember KPCOFGS. The mnemonic is King Philip Called Out For Genuine
Scientists.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

 Kingdom is the largest grouping of organisms‘ e.g. Animalia

 Phylum consists of organisms with many similarities e.g. bryophyte, cnidarians etc.
 Class consists of organisms which are grouped into several orders with few similarities
 Order is a group of apparently related families
 Family is a group of apparently related genera
 Genus is a group of similar and closely related species
 A Species is a group of organisms that can freely and naturally interbreed to give rise to a fertile
(Viable) offspring.
An example is goats interbreed to produce goats because they belong to same species.
 In animals except human beings, the term breed is used while in plants the term variety is preferred.
 As we go through the taxon hierarchy from kingdom to species, the groups get smaller and the
animals are more closely related.
 This shows how the seven taxons are used to classify humans, earthworms, mushrooms and garlic.

Humans Earthworm Mushroom Garlic

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Fungi Plantae
Phylum Chordata Annelida Mycota Angiospermophyta
Class Mammalia Oligochaeta Basidiomycota Monocotyledonea
Order Primates Terricolae Agaricales Liliales
Family Hominidae Lumbricidae Agaricacae Liliaceae
Genus Homo Lumbricus Agaricus Allium
Species sapiens terrestris campestris sativum

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

 This is a system of giving two scientific names in Latin to organisms. It was pioneered by a
scientist called Carolus Linnaeus and the names given are Generic (genus) and Specific (Species).
 Scientific names are used as they are universal. Language barriers or the use of common names
for organisms could be confusing. The use of these names from the binomial system by all
scientists avoids any confusion.

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Procedures followed

1. The generic name is written first followed by the specific name

2. The generic name starts with a capital letter and the rest are small letters. The specific name is
written in small letters.
3. The two names are underlined when handwritten e.g. Ceratotherium simum (white rhinoceros)
and Loxodonta africana (African elephant)
4. The names are italicized (written in Italics) when printed to indicate that the names are specific
e.g. Panthera leo (lion) and Panthera tigris (tiger).

ARISTOTLE‟S CLASSIFICATION
 Aristotle (BC 340) was the earliest to attempt a scientific classification of organisms. He classified
plants as herbs, shrubs and trees while animals as those with red blood and without red blood.

TWO-KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
 It was proposed by Carlous Linnaeus (1758).

Drawbacks of 2-kingdom classification-

A. It does not distinguish between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
B. It does not distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organisms.
C. It does not distinguish between photosynthetic (e.g. green algae) and non- photosynthetic (e.g.:
fungi) organisms.
D. Included bacteria, blue-green algae and fungi in kingdom plantae because of the presence of cell
wall.
E. A large number of organisms did not fall into either category.

FIVE-KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
 It was proposed by R.H. Whittaker (1969).
 Living organisms were placed into five groups namely Prokaryotae (formerly Monera), Protista
(Protoctista), Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

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This classification was based on-
(i) cell structure, (ii) thallus/body organisation, (iii) mode of nutrition, (iv) reproduction and
(v) evolutionary relationships.
 The five kingdoms can be put into two groups based on cell type as prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.
- The prokaryotes consist of one kingdom, Kingdom Prokaryotae (formerly Monera).
- The eukaryotes consist of four kingdoms namely Protista (formerly Protoctista), Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia.

THE DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF THE FIVE KINGDOMS

The diagnostic features of each of the five kingdoms is summarised in the following table.
Feature FIVE KINGDOMS
Prokaryotae Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Cell wall Non-cellular Present in some Present Present Absent
(Polysaccharide + (Polysaccharide (Cellulose)
Amino acid) + Chitin)
Type of 70s (small) 80s (larger) 80s (larger) 80s (larger) 80s (larger)
ribosome
Type of Circular DNA Linear DNA Linear DNA Linear DNA Linear DNA
DNA (plasmid)
Body Unicellular or groups Unicellular or not Multicellular but Multicellular & Multicellular &
organisation of cells differentiated not differentiated differentiated into differentiated into
into tissues into tissues. Yeasts tissues tissues
are
single-celled
Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
nutrition (photosynthetic & (photosynthetic) and (saprophytic or (photosynthetic) (holozoic,
chemosynthetic) and heterotrophic parasitic) saprophytic etc)
heterotrophic
(saprophytic/parasitic)
Reproduction Asexually by binary Both asexual and Asexual Both by sexual Reproduce
fission or sexually by sexual. reproduction by and asexual. sexually or
conjugation, spore formation asexually
transformation and
transduction.
Motility Have flagellum if Some have flagella or Never motile Motile male Often motile
motile. Non-motile cilia for locomotion. (not self- gametes in mosses
have no flagellum. propelled) and ferns
Examples Eubacteria, Algae, protozoa, Yeasts, moulds, Mosses, ferns, worms
archaebacteria, slime moulds mushrooms conifers, arthropods
cyanobacteria flowering plants chordates

THE FIVE KINGDOMS IN DETAIL

1. KINGDOM PROKARYOTAE
 This kingdom consists of organisms commonly known as bacteria and the bacteria are of three
types namely eubacteria (aka ‗true‘ bacteria), archaebacteria (aka ‗ancient‘ bacteria) and
mycoplasma.

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Classification of Prokaryotae

Eubacteria:
— Called ‗true‘ bacteria having a rigid cell wall, and if motile a flagellum.
— Unicellular, colonial or filamentous, marine and terrestrial.
— Colonies are surrounded by gelatinous sheath.
— Their cell wall contains peptidoglycan (aka murein) and muramic acid.
— Eubacteria are ubiquitous (i.e. found almost everywhere) and can be photosynthetic autotrophs,
chemosynthetic autotrophs or heterotrophs.
 Eubacteria are characterized based on their nutrition, shapes and Gram‟s staining.
— Eubacteria are classified into four groups according to their shapes as: coccus (spherical),
bacillus (rod-shaped), vibrio (comma-shaped) and sprillum (spiral shaped).
 Based on the mode of nutrition bacteria are broadly classified into Autotrophic and
Heterotrophic bacteria.

 Autotrophic bacteria - Bacteria which prepare their own food are autotrophic e.g. Cyanobacteria.
 Heterotrophic bacteria - Bacteria which are dependent on other organisms for their food are
heterotrophic e.g. Escherichia coli.
— Heterotrophic bacteria are dependent on other organisms either directly or indirectly for their
nutrition. They are the most abundant and are important decomposers. Some are helpful in
curdling milk, production of antibiotics, in nitrogen fixation and some are pathogens.
 Heterotrophic bacteria:
 Mostly decomposer.
 Helpful in making curd from milk.
 Produce antibiotics.
 Symbiotically associated with leguminous plants and fix nitrogen.
 Some are pathogenic causing diseases like cholera, typhoid and tetanus.
 Heterotrophic bacteria can be parasitic and saprophytic.
— Parasitic bacteria are those which depend on the host for nutrition and cause harm to the host.
— Saprophytic bacteria feed on dead and decaying matter.
 Autotrophic bacteria can be Chemosynthetic or Photosynthetic.
— Chemosynthetic bacteria (aka chemosynthetic autotrophs) are those which prepare their food
with the help of inorganic substrates. These bacteria oxidise substances like nitrites, nitrates,
ammonia etc. They help in recycling substances like nitrogen, sulphur, iron etc.
— Photosynthetic bacteria are autotrophic bacteria which prepare their own food by the process of
photosynthesis.
— Cyanobacteria, in the past mistakenly referred to as blue green ‗algae‘, are a type of eubacteria
which obtain energy through photosynthesis. They have chlorophyll similar to plants and hence

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they are photosynthetic autotrophs. They are marine and terrestrial and they may be unicellular,
colonial or filamentous. The colonies are surrounded by gelatinous sheath. Some of these can fix
atmospheric nitrogen by specialized cells called heterocyst, e.g. Nostoc and Anabaena.
 Problem: How have cyanobacteria been misclassified in the past?
 Cyanobacteria have previously been classified as algae. While they do have the same type of
chlorophyll found in algae, chlorophyll a, they lack membrane-bound chloroplasts or other
organelles, and thus are prokaryotes.
 Symbiotic bacteria – This is where the bacteria are in mutual relation with other organisms.
— Symbiosis is of two types; mutualism and commensalism.
— Mutualism is where the bacterium and the other organism are benefiting due to the
relationship.
— Commensalism is a relationship where the bacterium is benefiting while the other organism is
not affected by the relationship.
— Commensalism is the relation where the bacterium receives benefits from the other organism
without damaging it.
 Classification based on Gram's staining
Gram's staining is a test on cell walls developed by Hans Christian Gram. This method helps
classifying bacteria into Gram positive bacteria and Gram negative bacteria.
— Gram Positive Bacteria - The bacteria's cell wall is made up of protein-sugar complex that
takes on purple colour during gram staining.
— Gram Negative Bacteria - The gram negative bacteria has an extra layer of lipid on the outside
of the cell wall and appear pink during the Gram staining procedure.
 Eubacteria reproduce mainly by binary fission; also produce spores in unfavourable conditions.
 Reproduce sexually by transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another, a process called
conjugation.
— Cyanobacteria, in the past mistakenly referred to as blue green ‗algae‘, are a type of eubacteria
which obtain energy through photosynthesis. They are photosynthetic autotrophs.
 Problem: How have cyanobacteria been misclassified in the past?
 Cyanobacteria have previously been classified as algae. While they do have the same type of
chlorophyll found in algae, chlorophyll a, they lack membrane-bound chloroplasts or other
organelles, and thus are prokaryotes.
Archaebacteria (aka archaea):
— Differ from eubacteria by having a different cell wall structure.
 Archaean cell walls do not have peptidoglycan, but they may have pseudopeptidoglycan
(aka pseudomurein) or polysaccharides, glycoproteins and proteins.
— They are called extremophiles since they live in extreme and most harsh habitats.
— Archaea and eubacteria that are adapted to grow under extreme conditions are called
extremophiles, meaning ―lovers of extremes.‖ Extremophiles have been found in all kinds of
environments: the depths of the oceans, hot springs, the Arctic and the Antarctic, in very dry
places, deep inside Earth, in harsh chemical environments, and in high radiation environments,
just to mention a few.
— Extremophiles are identified based on the conditions in which they grow best. See table below:

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TABLE: Extremophiles and their preferred conditions
Extremophile Description Conditions for optimal growth
Acidophiles High acidic conditions pH 3 or below
Alkaliphiles High alkaline conditions pH 9 or above
Halophiles Salt-loving Salt concentration of at least 2M
Thermophiles In hot springs (High temperatures) Temperature 60oC to 80oC
Hyperthermophiles Very high temperatures Temperature 80oC to 122oC
Psychrophiles Very low temperatures Temperature -15oC to10oC
Thermoacidophiles High temperatures and high acidic Temperature 60oC to 80oC and pH 3
conditions. or below.
Osmophiles Osmosis tolerant High sugar concentration.
Methanogens Salty, marshy places, ruminant Anaerobic, salty and acidic
stomachs and organic wastes. conditions.
Produce methane.
— Methanogens: These are strictly anaerobic bacteria which produce methane (CH4) by
decomposing organic waste. They are present in salty, marshy places, in the stomach of cattle and
in organic matter or sewage. Methane gas produced in biogas plants (biogas digesters) is due to
these archaebacteria. They are also called halophiles as they have an affinity for salt. They can
cause spoilage of salted fish.
— Methanogens produce biogas (mixture of methane and carbon dioxide) by decomposing organic
waste in ruminant guts, biogas digesters and waste dumps.
— Sulphur- dependent bacteria: These are aerobic archaebacteria which convert sulphur either
into sulphuric acid (H2SO4) or into hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Hence, they are present in hot
sulphur springs and volcanic vents. They are also called Sulfur Reducers because they use the
abundant inorganic sulfur in volcanic vents, along with hydrogen, as food. They can tolerate
highly acidic pH (pH=2) and high temperature (about 80oC). Hence, they are also called
thermoacidophiles.

Mycoplasma:
— Bacteria-like microorganisms.
— Completely lack cell wall.
— Smallest living cells.
— Can survive without oxygen.
— Pathogenic/parasitic in animals and plants.
— Can cause pneumonia and urinary tract infection in humans.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM PROKARYOTAE

 fermentation
 bio-technology
 food spoilage
 decomposition
 bioremediation
 nutrient recycling
 pathogens

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Economic Importance of Bacteria. N.B. can be negative (harmful) or positive (beneficial):

1. Fermentation: Bacterial fermentation is used in the manufacture of butter, yogurt, cheese, cakes
and beer. Bacterial fermentation is also used to produce biogas, an alternative source of energy.
2. Bio-technology: Bacillus thuringenesis bacteria can be bio-engineered for the production of
therapeutic proteins like insulin, growth factors and antibodies, etc.
3. Food spoilage: Bacteria cause food spoilage and reduce the shelf life of fruits and vegetables.
4. Decomposition: Bacteria decompose dead organic matter and wastes.
5. Bioremediation: The ability of the bacteria to degrade organic compounds is used in processing
toxic wastes and cleaning oil spills.
6. Nutrient recycling e.g. nitrifying bacteria in the nitrogen cycle.
7. Biological control of pests: In pest control, bacteria can be used in the place of pesticides as these
pesticides are regarded environmentally friendly.
8. Pathogens: Some bacteria cause diseases in animals e.g. vibrio cholerae causes cholera.
9. Parasites: Mycoplasma is parasite that causes pneumonia and urinary tract infection in humans.

TRY THIS QUESTION

State the economic importance of members of Kingdom Prokaryotae (Monera) and for each
economic importance name a suitable or appropriate organism.

- Some bacteria e.g. Vibrio spp cause disease in humans and other animals e.g. Vibrio cholera causes
cholera;
- Clostridium spp and Bacillus spp bacteria are used in retting of flax;
- Lactobacillus spp are important in the manufacture of yoghurt/silage; and lactic acid;
- some bacteria e.g. Streptomyces are used in making antibiotics (Streptomycin);
- organic acids such as acetic and ethanoic acids are made using Acetobacter spp of bacteria;
- some bacteria like the soil bacteria (Bacillus spp) make enzymes used in detergents;
- Escherichia coli (E. coli)/colon bacteria contaminates drinking water and may cause diseases;
- bacteria such as Bacillus spp and are used in making hormones such as insulin through genetic
engineering/modification;
- all saprophytic bacteria such as E. coli/Bacillus spp/Pseudomonas spp are used in the production of
methane/biogas;
- Rhizobium spp of bacteria helps in nitrogen fixation making soils fertile.

2. KINGDOM PROTISTA (aka Protists)

Diagnostic features of Kingdom Protista

 Eukaryotic.
 Many are unicellular
 The cell contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles.
 Mostly aquatic; can live in moist places.
 Consists of eukaryotic organisms that do not fit neatly into the other three eukaryotic kingdoms,
i.e. forms a link between Plantae, Animalia and fungi according to the theory of evolution.
 Contain eukaryotes that are regarded as identical/similar to ancestors of modern plants, animals
and fungi (see the following diagram).

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 Includes algae (which resemble early plants), protozoa (which resemble early animals) and
Oomycota (which resemble early fungi). Also includes slime moulds which produce spores like
fungi and creep over surface and are therefore motile like animals.
 According to the Endosymbiont theory, mitochondria and chloroplasts are the descendants of
symbiotic bacteria.
— The Endosymbiont theory suggests that mitochondria and chloroplasts inside Protists such as
autotrophic algae evolved from prokaryotic photosynthetic bacteria which invaded eukaryotic
heterotrophic animal-like cells and lived symbiotically inside them.
— The mitochondria and chloroplasts were once independent bacterial/prokaryotic cells which
invaded some heterotrophic animal-like eukaryotic cells and lived symbiotically inside them.
— (An Endosymbiont is an organism that lives symbiotically inside (endo-) another organism).

Endosymbiont theory
 The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the Endosymbiont theory
 The Endosymbiont theory suggests that mitochondria and chloroplast in eukaryotic cells were
once independent prokaryotic cells. This basically means that long ago there were three
prokaryotic cells. One was capable of aerobic respiration and converting energy, one was
capable of photosynthesis, and one was incapable of doing either of these processes. However,
the one incapable of doing either of these processes engulfed the other cells
 When this cell engulfed a respiration cell it was then able to make useful energy. When it
engulfed a photosynthesis cell it was then able to convert energy from the sun into stored
chemical energy. Hence, both the mitochondria and chloroplasts were called an endosymbiont:
A cell which lives inside another cell with mutual benefit.
 The process of the Endosymbiont theory :
1) About 2 billion years ago, a host cell engulfed a prokaryotic cell (bacteria) capable of
photosynthesis or cell respiration
2) The bacterial cell and prokaryote formed a symbiotic relationship
3) Over time, that bacteria cell underwent changes to eventually become a mitochondria
4) The same could be said for photosynthetic bacteria and chloroplasts
 Evidence that supports this theory can be seen through mitochondria and chloroplasts:
1) They are about the same size as prokaryotes
2) Divide by binary fission, like prokaryotes
3) Have their own DNA in a circular loop, like prokaryotes
4) Have 70s ribosomes, like prokaryotes
5) Have a double membrane (from when they were engulfed)
6) Genes in the DNA of mitochondria and chloroplasts are more similar to prokaryotes than
the cell in which they are found

Classification of Kingdom Protista

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DIAGRAM: Classification of Kingdom Protista

Algae
1) Plant-like and photosynthetic Protists.
2) Eukaryotic.
3) Nearly all are aquatic; some grow in damp soil.
4) Size varies from unicellular to multicellular.
5) Body is a thallus – an undifferentiated body which lacks true roots, stems, leaves or
specialized conducting systems.
6) Exist as unicellular, filamentous, colonial or thalloid.
7) All have chlorophyll but in many, other pigments are also present which mask the green color.
8) Are flowerless.
9) Reproduction by asexual, sexual and vegetative means.
— Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation.
— Asexual reproduction by zoospores.
— Sexual reproduction by gametes.
— Isogamy, anisogamy are different sexual reproduction types
— In isogamy similar gametes are fused; in anisogamy dissimilar gametes are fused; but in
oogamy one gamete is motile and the other is non-motile.

Examples of Algae
 Algae are classified into groups on the basis of their photosynthetic pigments.

1) Phylum: Chlorophyta (Green algae) e.g. Chlorella

— Green algae include unicellular and multicellular algae.
— Dominant photosynthetic pigment is chlorophyll giving them a green appearance.

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— Chlorophyll a and b present as in plants.
— Eukaryotic.
— Mostly fresh water.
— Body is sheet-like thallus.
— They have cell walls made of cellulose and pectin.
— Food is reserve starch which is stored in pyrenoids (Store carbohydrates as starch in
pyrenoids).

DIAGRAM: Chlorella, an example of green alga.

— Examples of green algae:

 Spirogyra - is a filamentous unicellular green alga.
 Chlamydomonas – is a unicellular, motile green alga.
 Ulva - is a thalloid marine green alga.
 Chlorella – is a unicellular, non-motile green alga.
 Economic importance of Chlorella:
(a). Since chlorella is easily cultured, it has been used as an experimental organism in
photosynthesis.
(b). Being investigated as an alternative source of food (single cell protein).

2) Phylum: Phaeophyta (Brown algae) e.g. Fucus, Laminara

— Brown algae are multicellular.
— Dominant photosynthetic pigment brown and called fucoxanthin. Chlorophyll a and c are
also present.
— Nearly all marine except for three freshwater genara.
— Grow on rocks in shallow water of the sea.
— Store carbohydrates as soluble laminarin and mannitol. Also store fat.
— Fillamentous, thalloid, often large.
— Examples are
 Fucus, a thalloid marine alga
 Laminara, a large thalloid, marine alga; it is one of the kelps.
— Large brown algae are called kelps. Kelps may grow densely in the sea and form kelp
forests. They form important food sources for fish and invertebrates.
— The brown algae growing on rocks are known as rockweed.
— Example of rockweed is Sargassum.

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— Algin is a substance derived from some algae which is used in making ice cream, lotion and
plastics.

3) Phylum: Rhodophyta (Red algae)

— Red algae are mostly large and multicellular.
— They grow in oceans.
— Carragean and agar are glue-like substances in red-algae.

 Economic importance of Phylum Rhodophyta (Red algae)

(a). The algae 'Nori' and Gelidium are used as food, in parts of Asia.
(b). Agar is used as a medium for growing bacteria and other organisms under laboratory
conditions.
(c). Agar is also used to make gelatin capsules and a base for cosmetics.
(d). Carragean is used as a stabilizer and thickener in dairy products.
(e). Carragean is also used to give toothpaste its creamy texture.

4)Phylum: Bacillariophyta (Diatoms)

— Most of them are photosynthetic. Diatoms are the chief ‗producers‘ in the oceans.
— They are found in fresh water as well as in marine environments.
— They are microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton).
— The cell walls form two thin overlapping shells. The walls are embedded with silica and thus
the walls are indestructible. Thus, diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall deposits
in their habitat; this accumulation over billions of years is referred to as „diatomaceous earth‟.
Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.

Economic Importance of Algae

1) Produce oxygen needed for aquatic life

2) Uptake of carbon dioxide.
3) Food source and energy for animals.
4) Algin derived from algae is used in making soap, lotion, plastics, gelatin and foods such as ice
cream.
5) The algae 'Nori' and Gelidium are used as food, in parts of Asia.
6) Agar is used as a medium for growing bacteria and other organisms under laboratory
conditions.
7) Carragean and agar are glue-like substances in red-algae.
(a). Agar is also used to make gelatin capsules and a base for cosmetics.
(b). Carragean is used as a stabilizer and thickener in dairy products.
(c). Carragean is also used to give toothpaste its creamy texture.
8) Cause eutrophication of water bodies.
9) ‗Diatomaceous earth‘ (cell wall deposits of diatoms), being gritty this soil is used in polishing
and filtration of oils and syrups.

Protozoa:
— Unicellular, animal-like cells.
— Aquatic – freshwater or marine forms, or endoparasites
— Heterotrophs - predators or endoparasites.
— Nutrition—Holozoic or holophytic.

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— Believed to be primitive relatives of animals.
— Skeleton – may or may not be present; if present then either calcareous or siliceous.
 Foraminifers have external shell of CaCO3 (e.g. Polystomella), whereas Radiolarians have
internal plates of silica
— Osmoregulation is by contractile vacuole in freshwater protozoans. Contractile vacuole is absent
in parasitic and most of the marine forms.
— Symmetry—radial, bilateral or absent (asymmetrical)
— Digestion intracellular within food vacuole. Reserve food material- Glycogen or Starchlike
bodies
— Respiration – exchange of gases occurs through plasma membrane
— Excretion –excretory product NH3 (Ammonotelic). Excretion occurs through general body
surface or plasmalemma.
— Blood and nervous tissue absent. Sensory structure stigma (eyespot) present in Euglena
— Reproduction – Asexual or Sexual. Asexual by budding, spore formation, binary fission or
multiple fission. Sexual by Conjugation (Paramecium) or gamete formation (Plasmodium)
— Locomotion by cilia, flagella or pseudopodia, or absent
— Protozoans are divided into four major groups on the basis of locomotery organelles they have:

 Phylum Rhizopoda (aka Amoeboid protozoans):

— Move and catch prey using pseudopodia (false legs), e.g. Amoeba.
— Pseudopodia (aka pseudopods) are temporary outgrowths used by Amoeboid protozoans as
organs of feeding and locomotion.
— Many forms have silica shells on their surface.
— Some of them are parasitic e.g. Entamoeba.

DIAGRAM: Amoeba.
 Flagellated protozoans:
— They have flagella.
— Either free living or parasitic.
— Cause diseases like sleeping sickness (Trypanosomiasis), e.g. Trypanosome

 Phylum Ciliophora (aka ciliates or Ciliated protozoans):

— These are aquatic, actively moving organisms due to presence of thousands of cilia.

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— Unicellular
— Heterotrophic
— Fast beating of cilia causes movement of the organism.
— The cilia are also used to sweep food particles into the organism.
— Definite shape due to presence of a pellicle (a thin, flexible outer region of cytoplasm which is
covered by the cell membrane).
— They have a complex cell structure with a macronucleus and micronucleus.
— They have a cavity called gullet that opens to the outside.
— Example: Paramecium - It is a ciliate protozoan found in stagnant fresh water and ponds with
decaying organic matter.
— Paramecium shape resembles a slipper and so it is commonly known as the slipper animal-cule
(see the diagram that follows).
— The body of Paramecium is blunt at the front (anterior) and tapered at the back (posterior).
— Between cilia are holes which lead into chambers called trichocysts.
— Sharply tipped fine threads are discharged from trichocysts and used for anchorage during
feeding.
— Ectoplasm, a clear firm cytoplasm layer in the form of gel, contains basal bodies which produce
cilia.
— Network of fibres between basal bodies coordinate the beating of cilia.
— Endoplasm is the bulk of the cytoplasm in which most of the organelles are found.
— The gullet and oral groove are lined with cilia which beat and cause water currents to flow
towards the cytostome (mouth), carrying food particles such as bacteria in suspension.
— Food particles are ingested into food vacuoles formed by endocytosis in endoplasm. The vacuole
move through the endoplasm ending at the cytoproct or anal pore where the undigested food is
egested by exocytosis.
— Digestive enzymes, added to the vacuoles by lysosomes, digest food and the products of
digestion are absorbed into the surrounding cytoplasm.
— Contractile vacuoles in the cytoplasms are responsible for osmoregulation, i.e. maintenance of a
constant water potential in the cell. Water constantly enters the cell by osmosis since the
Paramecium lives in fresh water. This water is pumped out by active transport to prevent the cell
from bursting. Canals radiating outwards around each contractile vacuole collect water and
empty it in the main vacuole.
— The cell contains two nuclei. The polyploidy macronucleus controls reproduction and metabolic
activities. The diploid micronucleus controls reproduction and formation of macronuclei during
division.
— Paramecium reproduces both sexually (by conjugation) and asexually (by transverse binary
fission).

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DIAGRAM: Paramecium caudatum-structures visible under the light microscope.

 Phylum Apicomplexa (aka Sporozoans):

— Parasitic spore-forming protozoa.
— Lack any locomotery organelle. Moved by body fluids of the hosts they infect.
— All members are parasitic.
— Definite shape due to presence of a pellicle.
— Produce spores during sexual and asexual reproduction.
— Have infective spore like stage in life cycle, e.g. Plasmodium which causes malaria.
Phylum Oomycota
— Close relatives of fungi but more ancient than fungi.
— Have cellulose cell walls for strength and not chitin as in fungi.
— Hyphae are aseptate (have no cross walls).
— Parasitic and pathogenic e.g. Phytophthora infestans which causes potato blight and Pythium
which cause soft rot (‗damping off‘) in plant seedlings.
— Phytophthora infestas is an obligate parasite (a parasite which only grow and survive in living
cells) whereas Pythium is a facultative parasite ( a parasite that brings about the death of the
host before living saprotrophically on the remains).
Slime moulds:
— Saprophytic Protists.
— Very bright in appearance.
— Unicellular
— Live in moist soil, decaying plants and trees.
— During favourable condition they form multicellular aggregations called plasmodium.

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— During unfavourable conditions, plasmodia differentiate to form fruiting bodies bearing spores at
the tip. These spores possess resistant true walls, which help in survival for a long time during
adverse conditions. These spores disperse by air currents.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM PROTISTA

 Pathogens e.g. :
— Plasmodium sp - malaria
— Schistosoma sp – Schistosomiasis
— Trypanosoma sp-Trypanosomiasis
— Phytophthora infestans - Late potato blight
— Pythium – soft rot in plant seedlings.
 Source of food, medicines, mineral salts and commercial products
 Biological research.

Economic Importance of Protists. N.B. can be negative (harmful) or positive (beneficial).

1. Pathogens: Some protists are harmful as they cause human/animals diseases e.g.
 the Plasmodium species cause malaria,
 the Schistosoma species causes Schistosomiasis (bilharzia)
 the Trypanosoma causes Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).
 Eimeria – causes Coccidiosis in poultry birds.
2. Pathogens: Some protists are harmful as they cause plant diseases e.g.
 Phytophthora infestans causes late potato blight.
 Pythium causes soft rot (‗damping off‘) in plant seedlings.
3. The Protists are useful in the following ways:
(a). Source of food - Some protists like kelps are edible.
(b). Source of commercial products - Marine protists are sources of useful substances like algin,
agar, carragean and antiseptics.
(c). Primary producers of aquatic ecosystem - Many protists are primary producers; they play a
basic role in food chains, providing food and oxygen.
(d). Source of medicines - Sodium laminaria sulphate, Fucoidin, Heparin are algal products used
as blood coagulants. Lyngbya produces an anti-cancer compound.
(e). Source of minerals - Kelps are rich in sodium, potassium, iodine etc, they are good source of
minerals.
(f). Biological research - They are used in biological research, e.g., Chlorella, a unicellular, non-
motile alga.

3. KINGDOM FUNGI

 Fungi are eukaryotes that lack chlorophyll and therefore are heterotrophic like animals.
 Have rigid chitinous cell walls.
 Are non-motile like plants.

Characteristics of fungi

 Structure:

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— With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, all other fungi are multicellular and
filamentous.
— Consists of fine tubular filaments called hypha.
— Network of hyphae called mycelium.
— Uninucleated or multinucleated (coenocytic).
— Cell wall made of complex polysaccharide, chitin and glucans. Chitin has a high tensile
strength, so gives shape to hyphae and prevents osmotic bursting of cells.
— Body is usually a mycelium (a network of hyphae). These may be aseptate (no cross-walls)
e.g. Mucor or septate (have cross-walls) e.g. Penicillium (see diagram on the next page).

 Nutrition:
— Heterotrophic nutrition: Require an organic source of carbon (from carbohydrates) and
nitrogen (from amino acids etc); inorganic ions such as K+ and Mg2+; trace elements such
as Cu, Zn and Fe; and organic growth factors such as vitamins.
— Nutrition is absorptive; digestion takes place outside the body and nutrients are absorbed
directly. Digestion does not take place inside the body, unlike animals.
 Fungi feed on dead or decaying organic matter and are classed as saprophytes. Their
hyphae penetrate the dead material and form a branching network called a mycelium.
 The tips of the growing hyphae produce enzymes which digest the organic material.
The soluble products are absorbed into the hyphae.
— Saprophytic, parasitic, symbiotic/mutualists (Lichen).
— Non-chlorophyllous, therefore non-photosynthetic.
— Carbohydrate is stored as glycogen, not starch.

 Growth and reproduction:

— Reproduce asexually by conidia or sporangia containing spores.
— Grow in warm, humid and shady places.
— Moulds grow on damp organic matter e.g. bread, leather, decaying plants and dead fish.
— Unicellular yeast grows on sugary surfaces of ripe fruits.

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DIAGRAM: Structure of septate fungi, Penicillium, showing asexual reproduction. Penicillium

has a characteristic brush-like arrangement of conidia.

DIAGRAM: Rhizopus is a mould fungus which grows on stale bread or rotting fruit. It
reproduces asexually by sending up vertical hyphae, each of which swells at the tip to produce a

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sporangium. The cytoplasm in the sporangium divides repeatedly to produce a mass of spores,
each with a nucleus. When the sporangium dehisces (breaks open), the spores are dispersed in
the air, and each can grow to form a new mycelium if it lands on suitable material.

Classification of Fungi

(i) Phylum Zygomycota

 Asexual reproduction by conidia or sporangia containing spores.
 Found in aquatic habitat, on decaying wood in moist and damp places.
 Some of them are obligate parasite on plants.
 Aseptate (non-septate) hyphae and large well-developed branching mycelium.
 Examples:
— Rhizopus stolonifer, common bread mould, a saprotroph.
— Mucor, common moulds, saprotroph.

(ii) Phylum Ascomycota:

 Commonly known as ‗sac fungi‘.
 Unicellular (e.g. Saccharomyces/yeast) or multicellular (e.g. Penicillium).
 Saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic.
 Mycelium branched and septate hyphae.
 Asexual reproduction by conidia.
 No sporangia.
 Asexual spores are called conidia produced exogenously on the conidiophores.
 Conidia on germination produce mycelium.
 Examples:
— Aspergillus and Penicillium are saprotrophic moulds.
— Saccharomyces (yeast) is a unicellular saprotroph.
— Erysiphe are obligate parasites causing powdery mildews in barley.

(iii) Phylum Basidiomycota:

 Common known forms are called mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.
 Mycelium branched and septate hyphae.
 Asexual spores generally are not common.
 Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation.
 Sexual reproduction by fusion of vegetative or somatic cells of different strains to form
basidium produced in basidiocarp.
 Examples:
— Agaricus campestris are saprotrophic field mushrooms.
— Ustilago.

(iv) Class Deuteromycota (aka Fungi Imperfecti)

 Called ―Fungi Imperfecti‘ as sexually reproductive stage (perfect stage) is not known for
them.

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 Once sexual form is discovered the member is moved to Ascomycota or Basidiomycota.
 Mycelium is septate and branched.
 Are saprophytic, parasitic or decomposers.
 Examples: Alternaria, Colletotrichum.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM FUNGI

Can be positive (beneficial) or negative (harmful/detrimental):

1. Beneficial (Positive) roles of fungi

(a). Decomposition/nutrient recycling: increase soil fertility by decomposing dead matter. e.g.
saprophytic fungi
(b). Decomposition/sewage treatment: Some fungi decompose sewage.
(c). Fermentation: used in brewing industry and baking industry, e.g. yeast
(d). Penicillin production: antibiotics formation e.g. Penicillium produce useful penicillin.
(e). Enzyme preparations: Cultures of Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus oryzae are used to produce
amylase enzyme which breaks down starch.
The enzyme invertase is extracted from yeast (Saccharoymces cerevisiae). It is used in industry
to hydrolyse sucrose to glucose and fructose.
(f). Study of genetics: The slime molds (Physarum polycephalum) are used in research as
experimental organism for the study of DNA synthesis and meiotic cycle.
(g). Study of the laws of heredity: Red bread mold (Neurospora sitophila) completes its sexual life
cycle in a few days and thus makes ideal organisms for the study of the laws of heredity.
(h). Food: act as food sources, e.g. mushrooms are rich in protein
(i). Bio-control Agents: Fungi are used to parasitise insects which help control pests. Spores of fungi
are sprayed on crops, this method is cheaper and environmentally friendly.
(j). Mycorrhizae are fungi associated with roots of plants. Roots benefit in getting minerals from the
environment while fungi get food from the plant in return through such mycorrhizal association.
(k). Gibberellins are plant hormones produced by the fungus Gibberella fujikuroi which cause a
disease of rice accompanied by abnormal elongation. Gibberellin is used to accelerate growth of
several horticultural crops.
(l). Cheese moulds (Penicillium spp) are used in the refining of cheese to give cheese a characteristic
texture and flavour.
(m). Production of vitamins: Yeast is used to produce vitamin B complex, vitamin D and riboflavin
which are essential in human and livestock diet.

2. Harmful (Negative) roles of fungi

(a). Pathogens/parasites: causing human diseases, such as ringworm and athlete‘s foot.
(b). Pathogens: causing plant diseases and reducing yields, e.g. wheat rust, mildews and smuts.
(c). Parasites: Erysiphe are obligate parasites causing powdery mildews in barley
(d). Food spoilage: cause food spoilage, e.g. Mucor and Rhizopus (bread moulds).
(e). Mushroom poisoning: Mushroom toxins produced by poisonous mushrooms cause abdominal
pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, liver damage, complete unconsciousness, psychiatric disturbances and
death.
(f). Decomposition of wooden buildings e.g. Fusarium negundi and Coniophora cerebella.
(g). Decomposition of textiles e.g. Mucor and Fusarium decompose cotton and woollen fabrics.
(h). Decomposition of paper/books by Mucor, Fusarium and Cladosporium.

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(i). Aflatoxins a potent carcinogen, produced by Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium islandicum on
dried foods and groundnut meal, causes liver cancer in humans and livestock.
(j). Biological weapons: Aflatoxins produced by Aspergillus can be stored and used as biological
weapons by terrorists.

TRY THIS QUESTION: State the economic importance of members of Kingdom Fungi and for
each economic importance name a suitable or appropriate organism.
 Yeast is used in the production of alcohol; and raising dough in baking; production of vitamins B2
and B12 and for beer brewing;
 some mushrooms are used as food;
 Saprophytic fungi such as Mucor spp/Rhizopus spp cause food spoilage; are also used in retting of
natural fibres such as flax; and in the curing of tea and tobacco;
 The fungi also decompose organic matter helping to clean the environment and recycle nutrients.
 Saprophytic fungi are also used to make silage; compost; and digesting sewage in sewage
treatment plants;
 Penicillium spp is used for the manufacture of antibiotics;
 Fungi is used for making ghee and cheese in dairies;
 parasitic fungi such as Phytophthora spp infest crops e.g. potatoes and tomatoes and destroy
them/cause blight;
 some fungi such as Aspergillus spp produce food poisons and is also used in the synthesis of
enzyme amylase;
 Mycorrizae fungi enable trees e.g. pinus to absorb water and mineral salts more efficiently in
silviculture/man-made forests;
 some fungi such as Tinus spp cause diseases such as yeast infections (Candidiasis, ‗Athlete‘s
foot‘) and ‗ringworms‘ respectively;
 some Candida spp is used in making enriched food/single-celled proteins used in animal
feeds/silage;
 Gibberella spp is used in the synthesis of Gibberellins for plant growth; it also causes poor crop
growth through bolting of plants e.g. rice and wheat.

4. KINGDOM PLANTAE

 Kingdom Plantae includes multicellular, photosynthetic, autotrophic and eukaryotic organisms.

Their cell contains rigid cell wall primarily made up of cellulose. The plant body may be thalloid
(undifferentiated mass of tissues) or well-differentiated into stem, root, and leaves. They may or
may not have a vascular system for transport of materials.

— DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF PLANTS (What makes a plant a plant?)

 Eukaryote
 Multicellular
 Autotroph (photosynthetic)
 Embryo develops within female parent
 Lignin & cellulose for structure
 Distinct tissues: roots, stems, leaves
 Diplohaplontic life cycle
 Cellulose Cell walls
 Glucose stored as starch
 Symbiotic relationships with fungi and animals

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 Adaptations to dry land even deserts
 Tissues and organs (roots, stems, leaves)
 Organ systems (1. the shoot system, and 2. the root system).
— The shoot system is above ground and includes the organs such as leaves, buds, stems,
flowers (if the plant has any), and fruits (if the plant has any). The root system is below
the ground and consists of the roots and root hairs.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM PLANTAE

Can be positive (beneficial) or negative (harmful/detrimental):

Beneficial
 Producers of food for consumers by the process of photosynthesis.
 Drinks: natural fruit juices
 Producers of oxygen used by animals during respiration.
 Carbon sink: absorb CO2 from air thereby reducing the greenhouse effect/global warming.
 Timber used for construction and furniture, e.g. pine trees.
 Paper for print or written communication.
 Medicinal use e.g. herbs
 Cosmetics e.g. Aloe vera and lavender oil.
 Tourism: Eco-tourism generates forex and jobs.
 Clothing fibres e.g. cotton.
 Decoration of businesses and parks e.g. flowers/ornamental plants.
 Habitats: Plants are habitats for many animals.
 Transpiration release water vapour for the water cycle.
 Firewood and charcoal: fuels for cooking and heating.
 Fossil fuels: oil, coal and natural gas were derived from ancient plant reserves.
 Nitrogen fixation: Legumes host bacteria that fix nitrogen.
 Prevent soil erosion as plant roots bind soil particles together.

Harmful
 Invasive plants outcompete and drive out native plants.
 Weeds compete with crops and reduce yields.
 Many plants produce pollen, which can cause allergies.
 Plants may also produce toxins that harm human health e.g. poison ivy causes allergic skin
rashes.
 Some plants contain harmful chemicals; some extracted and ingested or smoked e.g. tobacco
and Cannabis sativa. Tobacco tar is carcinogenic/ causes lung cancer.

BASIS OF CLASSICATION OF ORGANISMS OF KINGDOM PLANTAE

 Vascularization: The first level of classification is based on whether the differentiated plant body
has special tissues for the transport of water and other substances within it.
 Seed production: The second level of classification looks at the ability to produce seeds.
 Naked or enclosed seeds: The third level of classification looks at whether the seeds are naked or
enclosed within fruits.
 Types of seeds: Lastly the classification looks at the type of seeds, whether they have one
cotyledon or two cotyledons.

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CLASSIFICATION OF KINGDOM PLANTAE

 Plantae are classified as follows :

Kingdom Plantae is classified as follows:
1) Phylum Bryophyta: Amphibians of plant kingdom, non-vascular.
2) Phylum Filicinophyta: True root, stem and leaves, vascular tissue present.
3) Spermatophyta: Seed producing, vascular tissues present.
 Spermatophyta (aka Seed–bearing plants) are further divided into:
a) Gymnospermae naked seeded plants. Seeds not enclosed in an ovary; are further divided into
four phyla namely:
(i) Phylum Coniferophyta (aka conifers)
(ii) Phylum Ginkgophyta (one living species: Ginkgo biloba)
(iii) Phylum Cycadophyta (aka cycads)
(iv) Phylum Gnetophyta (three genera: Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia)
b) Phylum Angiospermae (aka Angiospermatophyta or angiosperms or flowering plants):
seeds enclosed in the ovary wall; are further divided into two classes:
(i) Class Dicotyledonae: embryo with two cotyledons.
(ii) Class Monocotyledonae: Single cotyledon in the embryo.

DIAGRAM: Classification of Kingdom Plantae.

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Alternation of generations
 The whole life cycle of members of Kingdom Plantae consists of two stages, haploid stage
(gametophyte generation) and diploid stage (sporophyte generation).
 Both of these stages alternate, thus the life cycle is referred to as alternation of generations.
 The alternation of generations occurs as follows:
— The haploid gametophyte body produces male and female gametes by mitosis.
— The male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote after fertilization.
— The zygote then undergoes mitotic division to produce a diploid sporophyte.
— The sporophyte plant body produces haploid spores by meiosis. The haploid spore again forms a
haploid gametophyte. Thus, the cycle continues from asexual phase to sexual phase.

DIAGRAM: Generalised life cycle of a plant showing alternation of generations. Note the haploid stage (n) and
the diploid stage (2n). The gametophyte is always haploid and always produces gametes by mitosis. The
sporophyte is always diploid and always produces spores by meiosis.

— In bryophytes, the gametophyte generation is dominant. In all other plants the sporophyte
generation is dominant. (See the diagram that follows).

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DIAGRAM: One of the two generations is always more conspicuous and occupies a greater
proportion of the life cycle: this is said to be the dominant generation.

1. Phylum Bryophyta (mosses and liverworts)

 These are also called amphibians of the plant kingdom because they grow on land but require water
for reproduction.
 These grow in the form of mats or cushions over rocks and soils, on trunks and leaves of trees.
 General characteristics of Bryophyta:
— Alternation of generation in which the gametophyte generation is dominant.
— No vascular tissue, i.e. no xylem or phloem.
— Body is a thallus, or differentiated into simple ‗leaves‘ and ‗roots‘.
— No true roots, stems or leaves: the gametophyte is anchored by filamentous rhizoids.
— Sporophyte is attached to, and is dependent upon, the gametophyte for its nutrition.
— Reproduction is by means of spores.
— Spores are produced by the sporophyte in a spore capsule on the end of a slender stalk above
the gametophyte.
— Live mainly in moist, shady places.
 Phylum Bryophyta is divided into classes namely Class Hepaticae (liverworts) and Class Musci
(mosses).
 The characteristics of Class Hepaticae (liverworts) and Class Musci (mosses) are shown in the
table that follows.

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Class Musci (mosses):

 Small, nonvascular land plants.

 No true roots, stems, or leaves.
 Class Musci.
 Most common bryophyte.
 Grow on moist areas (brick walls, as thick mats on forest floors, and on the shaded side of trees).
 Some can survive periodic dry spells & revive when water becomes available.
 Must grow close together and must have water to complete their life cycle.
 Sperm swims to egg through drops of water during fertilization.
 Water moves from cell-to-cell by osmosis.
 Sphagnum moss is known for its moisture holding capacity, absorbing up to 20 times its dry
weight with water.

PICTURE: Funaria hygrometrica, a type of moss. © Copyright Bobby Hattaway 2011 · 5

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DIAGRAM: External features of Funaria, a moss. The gametophyte is shown with the semi-
dependent sporophyte generation attached.

THE LIFE CYCLE OF MOSSES:

 Mosses alternate between a haploid (n) gametophyte stage & a diploid (2n) sporophyte stage.
 Gametophyte is the dominant generation.
 Exhibits alternation of generation.
 The haploid gametophyte stage contains half the chromosome number & produces gametes (egg
& sperm).

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 Gametophyte stage is dominant in the moss‘s life cycle.
 Gametophytes are photosynthetic & have root-like rhizoids.
 The diploid sporophyte has a complete set of chromosomes & produces spores by meiosis.
 Sporophyte of a moss is smaller than, & attached to the Gametophyte.
 Sporophytes lack chlorophyll & depend on the photosynthetic gametophyte for food.
 Sporophyte has a long, slender stalk topped with a capsule.
 Capsule forms haploid (n) spores

Sexual Reproduction in Moss:

 Mosses produce 2 kinds of gametes (egg & sperm)

 Gametes of Bryophytes are surrounded by a jacket of sterile cells that keep the cells from drying
out
 Female gametes or eggs are larger with more cytoplasm & are immobile
 Flagellated sperm must swim to the egg through water droplets for fertilization
 Moss gametes form in separate reproductive structures on the Gametophyte — Archegonium &
Antheridium.
 Each Archegonium forms one egg, but each Antheridium forms many sperm.
 Fertilization can occur only after rain when the Gametophyte is covered with water.
 Sperms swim to the egg by following a chemical trail released by the egg.
 A zygote (fertilized egg) forms that undergoes mitosis and becomes a Sporophyte.
 Cells inside mature Sporophyte capsule undergo meiosis and form haploid spores.
 Haploid spores germinate into juvenile plants called protonema.
 Protonema begins the Gametophyte generation.
 Spores are carried by wind & sprout on moist soil forming a new Gametophyte.

Asexual reproduction in Mosses:

 Asexual reproduction in moss may occur by fragmentation or gemmae.

 Pieces of a Gametophyte can break off & form new moss plants (fragmentation).
 Gemmae are tiny, cup shaped structures on the Gametophytes.
 Raindrops separate gemmae from the parent plant so they can spread & form new Gametophytes.

Ecological importance of mosses

 Help decomposer dead logs.

 Serve as pioneer plants (first colonizers) on bare rock or ground.
 Help prevent erosion.
 Provide shelter for insects & small animals.
 Used as nesting materials by birds & mammals.

Economic importance of mosses

 Food for chicks, birds and reindeers.

 Sphagnum moss or peat moss forms peat bogs (wet ecosystem).
 Peat is harvested and burned as fuel in some areas.
 Peat is used in production of various products like ethyl alcohol, ammonium sulphate, peat, tar,
ammonia, paraffin, dye, tannin materials etc.
 Bio-indicators of pollution.

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 Dried mosses are used as packaging material due to their high water holding capacity. Used as
packing material for shipment of cut flowers, vegetables, perishable fruits, bulbs, tubers etc.
 Used as research tools in various fields of Botany such as genetics.

Class Hepaticae (liverworts):

 Nonvascular land plants.

 Undergo alternation of generations with Sporophyte attached to Gametophyte.
 Gametophytes are green & leafy and the dominant generation.
 Need abundant water for fertilization.
 Reproduce by spores.
 Grow on moist rocks or soil.
 Reproduce asexually by gemmae and by growing new branches.

DIAGRAM: External features of Pellia, a liverwort. The gametophyte is shown with the dependent
sporophyte generation.

Try these questions

(1) Why are bryophytes called amphibians of the plant kingdom?
Answer
Bryophytes are called amphibians of the plant kingdom because they live in soil but require an
external layer of water for their existence so that the male gametes can swim and reach the archegonia.

(2) Why do moss plants produce very large number of male gametes? Provide one reason. What are
these gametes called?
Answer
Moss plants produce a large number of male gametes to increase the chances of fertilisation, as the
eggs are located in the archegonium and the male gametes have to swim in water to reach the eggs for
fertilisation to occur. The male gametes are called antherozoids.

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(3) Draw a labelled diagram of a Funaria plant showing the sporophyte and gametophyte.
Answer

(4) A moss plant produces a large number of antherozoids (motile male gametes) but relatively only a
few egg cells. Why?
Answer
Eggs are stationary / non-motile within the plant body / antherozoids carried by water, lost in transit.
Large numbers of antherozoids increase the chances of fertilisation.

 Some of the economic importance of bryophytes are as follows:

1) Sphagnum, a moss, is used to produce peat moss. Peat moss is harvested and dried and used as
fuel. This bryophyte is also used in horticulture for packing plants during transportation.
2) These can be used as bio-indicators of pollution.
3) These are the first species to colonize a place and make the habitat suitable for other organisms
to grow.
4) These have water holding capacity thus maintain the moisture in the soil.
5) These also recycle nutrients in the forest.

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2. Phylum Filicinophyta (aka Phylum Pteridophyta or ferns)

— Filicinophyta (aka Pteridophyta or ferns) are vascular plants (contain xylem and phloem).
— They do not produce seeds or flowers.
— Commonly found on land but some can be found in water too. They are also found on the
trunks of other plants (epiphytic) and on rocks (epilithic).
 General characteristics of Filicinophyta (ferns):
— Vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) present in sporophyte.
— Sporophyte has true roots, stems and leaves.
— Leaves relatively large and called fronds.

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— Spores produced in sporangia which are in clusters called sori.
— Alternation of generations in which the sporophyte is dominant.
— Gametophyte is reduced to a small, simple thallus.
 Examples of ferns: Dryopteris filix-mas (male fern), Pteridium (bracken).

Fern structure
The fern body consists of 4 major parts – the roots, the rhizome, the fronds (leaves) and the sporangia.

DIAGRAM: Fern structure

Leaves
— The leaves of ferns are often called fronds. Fronds are usually composed of a leafy blade (lamina)
and petiole (leaf stalk).
— The midrib is the main axis of the blade, and the tip of the frond is its apex.
— The frond blade may be simple and undivided or it may be divided into a number of divisions called
pinnae; single leaflets are pinna. Pinna may be further divided, the smallest segments are pinnules.
— Fronds have a dual function. They are there for photosynthesis but they are also there for
reproduction.
— New fronds are produced from the rhizome. They are tightly coiled into a spiral (called a
fiddlehead or koru), and these slowly uncoil as they mature.

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Sporangia
— The spores grow inside casings called sporangia. These are found on the underside of fronds. Not
every frond has sporangia underneath it. Fronds that have sporangia are called fertile fronds.
— the sporangia are found in clusters (called sori). These are the brown, black or orange patches that
you see on the underside of fronds. When the sporangia break open, they release the spores.

Fern Sori
— Sori (singular: sorus) are groups of sporangia (singular: sporangium), which contain spores.
— Sori are usually found on the underside of the blade.
— Young sori are commonly covered by flaps of protective tissue called indusia (singular: indusium).
See the diagram that follows.

DIAGRAM: Sori on the underside of the frond (leaf blade).

The life cycle of the fern
(1) Clusters (sori) of sporangia (spore cases) grow on the undersurface of mature fern leaves.
(2) Released from its sporangium (spore case), the haploid spore is carried by wind to the ground,
where it germinates into a tiny, usually heart-shaped, gametophyte (gamete-producing
structure), anchored to the ground by rhizoids (root-like projections).

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(3) Under moist conditions, mature sperm are released from the antheridia and swim to the egg-
producing archegonia that have formed on the gametophyte's lower surface.
(4) When fertilization occurs, a zygote forms and develops into an embryo within the
archegonium.
(5) The embryo eventually grows larger than the gametophyte and becomes a sporophyte.

DIAGRAM: The lifecycle of a fern showing alternation of generations.

— The typical fern, a sporophyte, consists of stem, leaf, and root; it produces spores; and its cells each
have two sets of chromosomes, one set from the egg and one from the sperm. The sporophyte of
most ferns is perennial (it lives for several years) and reproduces vegetatively by branching of the
rootlike underground stem, or rhizome, often forming large, genetically uniform colonies, or clones.

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A few ferns propagate by root proliferations, and some, especially in the wet tropics, reproduce by
leaf proliferations.
— The spores are haploid . They are produced in spore cases, or sporangia, on the fern leaves (fronds).
Once released, the spores are carried by wind currents, and a small percentage of them fall in
appropriate germination sites to form the sexual plants, or gametophytes. In ferns the gametophytes
are commonly referred to as prothallia.
— The prothallia are tiny (approx. 8 mm long) and heart-shaped. They grow only until the new
sporophyte has been formed by fertilization; then they wither and die in most species. The process
of fertilization is accomplished by sperm and eggs produced upon the same or more commonly
different gametophytes, and both the fertilized egg (zygote) and the resultant embryo are held
within the tissues of the prothallium until the embryo grows out as an independent plant.

FERNS AS INVASIVE SPECIES

— Ferns are uncommon as invasive species outside of their native ranges, although a few occur. The
most notorious is bracken (Pteridium), which spreads quickly by its underground ropelike
rhizome, rapidly invading abandoned fields and pastures in both temperate and tropical regions.
— One species of water spangles (Salvinia auriculata) became a major pest in India, blocking
irrigation ditches and rice paddies.
— Another species (S. molesta) within three years covered 520 square kilometres of the artificial
Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe, cutting off light and oxygen and thus killing other plant life and fish.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FERNS (Phylum Filicinophyta or Pteridophyta)

1) Ferns are grown as ornamental plants.

2) Fiddleheads serve as food.
3) Raw material for medicine.
4) Formed coal millions of years ago.
5) Stop soil erosion.
6) Biofertiliser/ green manure.
7) Bioremediation e.g. Bracken Fern grown in polluted soil, draws heavy metals into their tissues
and out of the earth.

TRY THIS QUESTION

Use the following diagram to describe the lifecycle of a fern.

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Answer
Life cycle of a fern
1. Spores are produced on underside of fronds in clusters of sporangia called sori. Spores
undergo meiosis.
2. Spores are spread by wind, & germinate on moist soil to form prothallus. Prothallus begins
the Gametophyte stage. Mature Gametophytes are small, heart-shaped structures that live
only a short time.
3. Male antheridia & female archegonia grow on the prothalli. Under moist conditions, sperm
are released from antheridium and swim to the egg inside the archegonium to fertilise it.
4. A zygote forms and develops into an embryo within the archegonium.
5. The embryo eventually grows larger than the gametophyte and becomes a sporophyte. This
begins the sporophyte stage. Newly forming fronds are called fiddleheads & uncurl.

SPERMATOPHYTA (Seed-bearing plants)

— Spermatophyta (aka seed-bearing plants) produce seeds.
 A seed consists of an embryo and nutrients surrounded by a protective coat.
— Two main groups of Spermatophyta are Phylum Gymnospermae (aka Gymnospermatophyta or
naked seed plants) and Phylum Angiospermae (aka Angiospermatophyta or flowering plants).

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— Gymnospermae means “naked seed plants”. The seeds are exposed on sporophylls that form
cones.
— Angiospermae means “covered seed plants”. The seeds are found in fruits, which are mature
ovaries.
— Phylum Angiospermae is further divided into two classes namely Class Dicotyledonae and Class
Monocotyledonae.

 TRY THESE QUESTIONS

8) How can you tell the difference between gymnosperms and angiosperms?
Answer
Angiosperms have flowers with seeds in fruit, while gymnosperms have cones and "naked" seeds.
9) If both gymnosperms and angiosperms bear seeds, then why are they classified separately?
Answer
Gymnosperms and angiosperms are classified separately because of the following reasons:
(i) The ovules are naked in gymnosperms but are enclosed inside the ovary in angiosperms.
(ii) In gymnosperms, the wood is non-porous, i.e. the vessels are absent. In angiosperms, the
wood is porous, i.e. the vessels are present.
(iii) In gymnosperms, the endosperm is haploid and is formed before fertilisation and double
fertilisation is absent, whereas in angiosperms, the endosperm is triploid and formed after
double fertilisation.

1. Gymnospermae (Gymnosperms: naked seed plants)

 The word gymnosperm is made from two Greek words ―GYMNO‖ which means naked and
―SPERMA‖ which means seed.
 Gymnosperms are naked seed containing plants.
 They consists of four phyla namely Coniferophyta (conifers), Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta and
Cycadophyta.
 Cones bear the seeds. These do not possess fruits.
 These are called primitive seed plants. The seeds are found exposed to the environment.
 These lack flowers. These are woody and perennial trees.
 In general, they have tap root system.
 They are trees or shrubs, mostly evergreen, with needle-like leaves.
 These include evergreen trees such as Cycas, Pinus, Gnetum, etc.
 Gymnosperms, e.g. conifers such as Pinus, have the following xeromorphic adaptations to
ensure that the tree does not lose too much water from its evergreen leaves during cold seasons
when water is frozen or difficult to absorb from the soil:
— needle-like leaves, reducing the surface area available for the loss of water.
— leaves are covered with a thick, waxy cuticle to reduce the amount of evaporation through
the upper and lower epidermis.
— leaves have sunken stomata to maintain humid air around stomata which decreases water
loss by transpiration.

Try this question

Describe the important characteristics of gymnosperms.

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Answer
— Important characteristics of gymnosperms are:
— The seeds of these plants are not enclosed in fruits.
— The plant-body ranges from medium to tall trees and shrubs. The giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of the
tallest trees in the world.
— The root system consists of tap roots. The coralloid roots present in Cycas are associated with nitrogen-
fixing cyanobacteria.
— The stem can be branched (as in Pinus) or un-branched (as in Cycas).
— The leaves can be simple (as in Pinus) or compound (pinnate in Cycas).
— The leaves are needle-like, with a thick cuticle and sunken stomata. These help in preventing water loss.
— Gymnosperms are heterosporous. They bear two kinds of spores - microspores and megaspores.
— Flowers are absent. The microsporophylls and megasporophylls are arranged to form compact male and
female cones.
— Pollination occurs mostly through wind and pollen grains reach the pollen chamber of the ovule through the
micropyle.
— The male and female gametophytes are dependent on the sporophyte.
— The seeds contain haploid endosperms and remain uncovered.

 Phylum Cycadophyta
— Individuals have large cones and palm-like leaves.
— Example – Cycas revoluta.

PICTURE: Cycas revoluta, a gymnosperm under phylum Cycadophyta. The large cone and
palm-like leaves are characteristic of Cycadophyta.

 Phylum Ginkgophyta
— This phylum consists of a single living species, Ginkgo biloba.
— It has a high tolerance to air pollution and is a popular ornamental tree.

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PICTURE: Ginkgo biloba, the only living gymnosperm under phylum Ginkgophyta.
 Phylum Gnetophyta
— This phylum comprises three genera namely Gnetum, Welwitschia and Ephedra.
— Species vary in appearance, and some are tropical whereas others live in deserts.

 Phylum Coniferophyta (aka conifers)

— This phylum is by far the largest of the gymnosperm phyla.

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— The trees in this phylum are usually referred to as coniferous trees or conifers.
— Naturally the conifers dominate in the northern latitudes.
— Examples include:
 Pine trees such as Pinus sylvestris, Pinus jeffreyi and Pinus nigra.
 Fir trees such as Douglas fir and Bristlecone fir/pine.
 Juniper trees which are coniferous shrubs with berry-like cones, e.g. Junipes horizontalis.
 Cedar trees such as Cedrus atlantica and Cedar of Lebanon.
 Cypress trees such as Sequoia gigantean (aka giant Sequoia).
 Most conifers are evergreens and can carry out photosynthesis year round.
 Male and female cones, male cones are smaller than female cones:
— The tree is the sporophyte generation (2n).
— Male and female cones are produced on the same tree.
— Male cones are smaller than female cones. Male cones produce pollen (a structure that carries
the sperm cells).
— Female cones are larger and produce the ovules (which produces the egg cells and develop
into seeds after fertilization).
— The male cones are about 0.5 cm in diameter, rounded and found in clusters behind the apical
buds at the bases of new shoots.
— Female cones arise in axils of scale leaves at the tips of new shoots, scattered at some
distance from the male cones. Since the female cones take three years to complete growth
and development, they range in size from 0.5 cm to 6 cm. They are green when young
becoming brown or reddish-brown in their second year.
— Both male and female cones consist of spirally arranged, closely packed sporophylls
(modified leaves) around a central axis.

PICTURE: Pine male and female cones.

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PICTURE: Some examples of gymnosperms (naked seed plants) under the phylum Coniferophyta.

The Life Cycle of a conifer e.g. Pinus (Pine tree)

 Four key features of the gymnosperm life cycle are

— Alternation of generations: Sporophyte (2n) and gametophyte (n) generations.
— Dominance of the sporophyte generation
— Development of seeds from fertilized ovules
— The transfer of sperm to ovules by pollen

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DIAGRAM: Life cycle of Pinus (pine tree) showing alternation of generations.

 The life cycle of a pine provides an example:

— The pine tree is the sporophyte (2n) and produces sporangia in male and female cones.
— Each sporophyll of a male cone has two microsporangia or pollen sacs.
— Male cones (small cones) produce microspores (haploid pollen grains) inside each pollen
sac by meiosis, each of which contains a male gametophyte (male gamete).
— Each pollen grain has two large air sacs to aid in wind dispersal.
— Female cones (the familiar larger cones) contain ovules, which produce megaspores that
develop into female gametophytes (female gamete).
— Each sporophyll of a female cone consists of a lower bract scale and a larger upper
ovuliferous scale. On its upper surface are two ovules which are side by side, inside which
the female gametes are produced.
— Wind–pollination takes place during the first year of the cone‘s development, but fertilisation
takes place when the pollen tube grows during the following spring.
— The fertilised ovules become winged seeds and continue to mature during the second year
and are dispersed by wind during the third year.

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— So it takes nearly three years from cone production to mature seed.

DIAGRAM: Male and female cones of conifers e.g. Pinus (Pine tree). This shows a condition called
heterosporous (production of both microspores and megaspores on the same plant).

Economic importance of gymnosperms

 The gymnosperms are economically important for their timber for construction purposes, in
the manufacture of paper and board, resins, tannins, essential and fatty oils, as food
supplements and pharmaceuticals.

2. Phylum Angiospermae (Angiosperms: covered seed plants or flowering plants)

 The word angiosperm is made from two Greek words ―ANGION‖ which means hidden and
―SPERMA‖ which means seed.
 These are flowering plants.
 They have seeds enclosed within fruits.
 Flowers are the most attractive part of angiosperms. It adds to the beauty of these plants. Flowers
are the characteristic features of angiosperms. Flowers attract insects and birds and help in
pollination.
 Reproduction is of sexual type. These undergo double fertilization and endosperms are formed.
 Angiosperms are further divided into dicots and monocots. For example, peas, sunflower, maize,
etc.
 Two classes of Angiospermae are Class Dicotyledonae and Class Monocotyledonae.
 Angiosperms are the most evolved group of the whole Plant Kingdom.

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TABLE: Differences between Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae

TRY THESE QUESTIONS:

(1) How would you distinguish monocots from dicots?
Answer

(2) Name the type of fertilisation which is unique to angiosperms. Describe it.
Answer
Double fertilisation is unique to angiosperms. In this phenomenon, two male gametes are
discharged by a pollen tube into the embryo sac of an ovule. One male gamete fuses with the

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female gamete to form a zygote. This fusion is called syngamy. A second male gamete fuses with
the secondary nucleus to form the primary endosperm nucleus. This is called triple fusion.

(3) Name the two end products of double fertilization in angiosperms. How are they formed?
Write their fate during the development of seed.
Answer
Syngamy - male gamete + female gamete = zygote
triple fusion- male gamete + polar nuclei=Primary Endosperm Nucleus (PEN);
zygote give rise to embryo, PEN forms endosperm.

(4) Mention the reasons for difference in ploidy of zygote and primary endosperm nucleus in an
angiosperm.
Answer
The zygote is formed because of fusion of two haploid gametes; hence, it is diploid (2n). An
endosperm develops from a triploid (3n) primary endosperm nucleus formed because of fusion of male
gamete (n) and two polar nuclei (n).

(5) Where does triple fusion take place in a flowering plant? Why is it so called? Mention its
significance.
Answer
Triple fusion occurs inside the embryo sac (female gametophyte) of angiosperms. It is called so
because one male gamete fuses with two polar nuclei (secondary nucleus) to form a triploid primary
endosperm nucleus. Significance of triple fusion: Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue formed as a
result of triple fusion and provides nourishment to the developing embryo.

Economic importance of angiosperms

1) Crop plants that are used as human food and livestock feed are angiosperms. Wheat, rye, corn,
and other grains are all harvested from flowering plants. Starchy foods, such as potatoes, and
legumes, such as beans, are also angiosperms. Sugars, vegetables, fruits, oils, nuts, and spices
come from angiosperms.
2) Angiosperms and their products serve a number of other needs, such as dyes, textile fibres,
timber, fuels, medicines, and ornamentals.

Plants probably evolved from aquatic green algae called Charophytes

Land plants are thought to have evolved from aquatic/water green algae called Charophytes. The green
algae are likely the photosynthetic Protists most closely related to plants. This conclusion is based on
homologies in:
 Cell wall composition.
 Structure and pigmentation of chloroplasts.
Available evidence supports the hypothesis that plants and green algae called Charophytes both
evolved from a common ancestor. Researchers have found the following homologies between
Charophytes and plants:

1. Homologous chloroplasts.
 Green algae and plants both have the accessory pigments, chlorophyll b and β carotene.
 Green algae and plants both have chloroplasts with thylakoid membranes stacked as grana.
 Compared to chloroplast DNA of various green algae, plant chloroplast DNA most closely
matches that of charophytes.

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2. Biochemical similarity.
 Most green algae and plants contain cellulose in their cell walls. Charophytes are the most
plantlike in wall composition with cellulose making up 20% to 26% of the wall material.
 Charophyte peroxisomes are the only algal peroxisomes with the same enzyme composition as
plant peroxisomes.
3. Similarity in mitosis and cytokinesis. During cell division in charophytes and plants:
 The nuclear envelope completely disperses during late prophase.
 The mitotic spindle persists until cytokinesis begins.
 Cell plate formation during cytokinesis involves cooperation of microtubules, actin
microfilaments, and vesicles.
4. Similarity in sperm ultrastructure. Charophyte sperm ultrastructure is more similar to certain
plants than to other green algae.
5. Genetic relationship. DNA and rRNA similarities in charophytes and plants provides additional
evidence for the hypothesis that charophytes are the closest relatives of plants.

So land plants had to adapt to life on land (terrestrial life) as they moved from water to land during
evolution.

Move From Water to Land: Plant Adaptations to Life on Land

Kingdom Plantae first appeared about 410 million years ago as Charophytes (green algae) moved from
water to land. Though challenging, this transition benefited early colonizers in several ways. Initially,
most living organisms (including plants and animals) were ocean dwelling, making aquatic
environments crowded and highly competitive. In contrast, land was a relatively uncolonized
environment with ample resources and little to no predators or competitors. Terrestrial environments
also offered more light and carbon dioxide, required by plants to grow and survive. Accordingly, new
terrestrial niches were ripe with possibility for the first semi-aquatic algae that transitioned to dry
environments.

However, the stark differences between land and sea posed a formidable challenge to early colonizing
species. These challenges prompted many new adaptations that have resulted in the wide variety of
plant forms observed today. Adapting to life on land required fundamental changes to the structure,
reproductive strategies, feeding and defense mechanisms of plant species. For instance, aquatic plants
generally rely on a liquid environment for the direct absorption of water and nutrients, buoyancy for
physical support, and the transport of gametes through water for fertilization. For land plants, these
strategies became impossible. Such obstacles to life on land played a critical role in the early evolution
of terrestrial plants and continue to shape their evolution today.

One early adaptation was the development of an outer waxy coating, called a cuticle. Cuticles serve to
protect plants from desiccation, or extreme drying, by trapping moisture inside. However, this
adaptation prevented the direct exchange of gases across the surface of plants. As a result, pores
developed on the outer surfaces of plants that allowed the absorption of carbon dioxide and release of
oxygen. These pores, called stomata, can be opened or closed depending on environmental conditions.
By contracting guard cells surrounding the stomata, plants close these openings during dry periods to
prevent excess moisture loss. These adaptations helped to retain water for land-dwelling plants.
However, additional structures were necessary to facilitate the transport of water and nutrients from
soil to the superior portions of the plant. As a result, vascular tissue developed that not only serves to
transport water and nutrients to all areas of the plant, but can also provide structural support as stems
grow taller and stronger.

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To accommodate reproduction on land, several changes occurred to the structures and mechanisms of
plant fertilization and development. First, terrestrial plants developed gametangia, which are
reproductive structures that protect gametes and embryos from the harsh environment outside the
plant. In males, this structure is called the antheridia while in females it is called the archegonia. To
facilitate the transport of sperm from the antheridia to eggs within the archegonia, different strategies
evolved. These include sperm swimming from one structure to the next, being carried by the wind, or
being transported by pollinators like bees and birds. The specific mode used is unique to each
classification of plants. Following fertilization, eggs are retained within the archegonia to protect and
nourish the developing embryo, or sporophyte.

Another important reproductive adaptation was the generation of seeds. Though not all terrestrial
plants are seeded, the use of seeds is advantageous for many reasons. Without these structures, plants
require moist environments to transport gametes from one place to another. Often in such plants, male
and female spores are approximately the same size and both travel. However, seeded plants generally
contain small male spores adapted to be highly mobile, called pollen grains. Pollen travels to female
gametophytes to deposit sperm directly to the egg. Once fertilization occurs, a seed is formed that
contains the plant embryo and a supply of nutrients. Many seeds also have a protective coat and are
able to survive in dry environments and disperse over long distances. Some can even exist in a
dormant state for prolonged intervals of time, ―waiting‖ for the appropriate environmental conditions
to trigger germination. These adaptations have created plant species well adapted to life in terrestrial
environments.

Major Lineages of Plants

Though countless varieties of plants now exist, all can be divided into one of three groups: non-
vascular, vascular seedless, and vascular seeded. Non-vascular plants are the most ancestral and least
complex, including mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. Because these plants lack vascular structures
and seeds and possess only a thin cuticle or none at all, they are reliant on water to survive and
reproduce. Certain species may enter dormancy during dry periods until additional rainfall facilitates
growth or reproduction. A lack of supporting structures in these plants results in forms that are
generally low, seeming to hug the surface on which they are growing. To reproduce, non-vascular
plants release bare sperm that must swim through surrounding water to the archegonia. Though these
plants possesses very few of the adaptations that other terrestrial groups have, non-vascular plants are
specialized to live in the moist environment in which they are found.

Next, the vascular seedless plants include ferns and horsetails. These can be found in wet habitats,
commonly in the understory of temperate rain forests. Unlike non-vascular species, these plants have a
thicker cuticle, functioning stomata, and vascular tissue that allow them to grow taller and actively
transport water and nutrients. Ferns do not have seeds, but instead use spores to transport gametes
though moisture from antheridia to archegonia. As a result, these species represent an intermediate
evolutionary lineage that can live in dry environments, but require moist conditions to reproduce.

The last group, vascular seeded plants, includes all remaining species. This group is the most diverse
and occupies the widest range of habitats2. However, all species are characterized by several common
adaptations, including vascular tissue, highly mobile pollen, and seeds. This large group is split into
two major sub groups, angiosperms and gymnosperms. Angiosperms include all flowering and fruiting
plants, with pollen carried by the wind or transported by pollinators. The development of flowers and
fruits are adaptive for the distribution of pollen and seeds. Many animals, including bees and
hummingbirds, assist in the transport of pollen from one flower to the next. Fruit produced by this
group is extremely important to the diet of many animals, including humans. By its biological

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definition, fruit includes any structure that bears seeds and is formed from the ovary, encompassing
commonly known varieties including apples and oranges in addition to products like tomatoes,
avocados, and cucumbers. Consumption or transport of fruits by humans and other animals can help
spread seeds over large distances. In contrast, gymnosperms are non-flowering plants including
conifers, cycads, and ginkgo trees. These species produce bare seeds not protected by fruit and pollen
carried by wind. Both angiosperms and gymnosperms make up the vast majority of the plants
observed today.

In addition to species that evolved naturally over large spans of time, humans have participated in the
artificial selection and breeding of many species of plants for human use or consumption. For
example, the wild mustard plant within the Brassica group has undergone extensive artificial selection
to produce kale, broccoli, Brussel sprouts, cabbage, turnips, kohlrabi, and cauliflower. Humans have
also changed the landscape of plant life by introducing invasive species to non-native areas. Such
species often outcompete native organisms, as they often lack natural competitors or predators in the
new environment. One example is the water hyacinth, a fast growing freshwater floating hydrophyte
that grows quickly and spreads efficiently. Water hyacinth was intentionally introduced to Zimbabwe
from the Amazon Basin of Brazil as an ornamental plant for ponds. However, once introduced, the
water hyacinth quickly outgrew native species, blocking light and over-consuming resources. The
water hyacinth, considered the worst aquatic weed in the world, has infested Lake Chivero and rivers
such as Manyame. The water hyacinth causes millions of dollars in forestry and agricultural damages
each year. The ecological impacts of this and other invasive species are a major concern to biologists
and economists alike.

Try this question

Describe the adaptations of Kingdom Plantae to Dry Land.

1. Waxy cuticle protects plants from desiccation, or extreme drying, by trapping moisture inside.
2. Specialized opening like stomata for gas and water exchange.
3. Vascular tissue for transport and support. Xylem conducts water and dissolved mineral salts.
Phloem conducts sugar and other organic molecules. Lignin hardens the cell walls of xylem
vessels to provide as the plant grows bigger and taller.
4. Domination by the sporophyte generation.
5. Embryophyte condition in which the zygote is retained in the tissues of the parent.
6. Heterosporous condition (production of both microspores and megaspores on the same plant) leads
to the development of seeds. Microspore produces the male gametophyte. Megaspore produces the
female gametophyte.
7. Meristems are regions of cell division allowing growth throughout life.
8. Sporopollenin allows spores to resist harsh conditions.
9. Non-flagellated sperm.
10. Seed plants generally contain small and light male spores called pollen grains that are adapted to
be highly mobile.
11. Gametangia that protect gametes and embryos from the harsh environment outside the plant.

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5. KINGDOM ANIMALIA
 Eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic organisms that lack a cell wall belong to Kingdom
Animalia.
 Around 1.2 million animal species are classified into 11 phyla, according to some criteria for
making taxonomic studies easier.

BASIS OF CLASSICATION OF ORGANISMS OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA

 The following fundamental features or criteria are used to classify organisms of Kingdom
Animalia:
 Levels of Organisation
 Type of digestive system
 Type of circulatory system
 Body symmetry
 Germ layers
 Nature of coelom (body cavity)
 Presence of metamerism (segmentation)
 Presence or absence of Notochord.

DIAGRAM: Broad classification of Kingdom Animalia based on common fundamental features.

(1) Levels of Organisation

 Four levels (based on organization of cells):
 Cellular level of organization
 Tissue level of organization
 Organ level of organization
 Organ-system level of organization

a) Cellular level of organization:

— Here the body is formed loose cell aggregates.

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— Some division of labour (activities) occurs among the cells.
— E.g. Phylum Porifera (Sponges)
b) Tissue level of organization:
— Here cells performing the same function are arranged into tissues.
— E.g. Phylum coelenterate (Cnidaria), Phylum – Ctenophora.
c) Organ level of organization :
— Here tissues are organized/grouped to form organs.
— Each Organ is specialized for a particular function.
— E.g. Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flat worms).

d) Organ system level of organization:

— Here various organs are grouped into organ systems.
— Each system carries out a specific physiological function.
— E.g. Phylum Aschelminthes, Phylum Annelids, Phylum Arthropods, Phylum Molluscs,
Phylum Arthropods, Phylum Echinoderms, Phylum Hemichordates, Phylum Chordates.

(2) Types of digestive system

a) Incomplete digestive system:
— Here the organism has a single opening which acts as both mouth and anus.
— E.g. Phylum Cnidaria, Phylum Ctenophora, Phylum Platyhelminthes.

b) Complete digestive system:

— A complete digestive system has two openings, mouth and anus
— E.g. Phylum Aschelminthes to Chordates.
— Digestive system absent in Phylum Porifera.

(3) Types of circulatory system

a) open type of circulatory system:
— in which the blood is pumped out of the heart and the cells and tissues are directly bathed in it
— E.g. Phylum Arthropoda, Phylum Mollusca, Phylum Hemichordata.

b) closed type of circulatory system:

— In which the blood is circulated through a series of vessels of varying diameters (arteries, veins
and capillaries).

(4) Body symmetry

 Animals can be classified on the basis of their body symmetry.
 Animals may be asymmetrical, radial, or bilateral in form.
a) Asymmetry:
— Definition: Asymmetry means having no plane of symmetry.
— Asymmetrical animals are animals with no pattern or symmetry; an example of an
asymmetrical animal is a sponge (Phylum Porifera).
— Here the body cannot be divided into two equal halves in any plane.

b) Radial symmetry:
— Definition: Radial symmetry is a type of symmetry with multiple planes of symmetry all cross
at an axis through the center of the organism
— An animal with radial symmetry has a longitudinal (up-and-down) orientation: Any plane cut
along this up–down axis produces roughly mirror-image halves.

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— Any plane passing through the central axis of the body divides the organism into two identical
halves.
— That is, the body can be cut in half across any diameter and the two halves will be identical
(like a circular cake).
— Examples of organisms with radial symmetry are Phylum Cnidaria ( e.g. sea anemone),
Phylum Coelenterata, Phylum Ctenophora, Phylum Echinodermata.
— Radial animals are often sessile or planktonic (drifting or weakly swimming).

c) Bilateral symmetry:
— Definition: Bilateral symmetry is a type of symmetry in which there is only one plane of
symmetry that creates two mirror-image sides.
— Here the body can be divided into identical left and right halves in only one plane.
— E.g. Annelids, Arthropods, Birds, Mammals etc.

DIAGRAM: Body symmetry of animals.

 Bilaterally symmetrical animals have:

 A dorsal (top) side and a ventral (bottom) side.
 A right and left side.
 Anterior (head) and posterior (tail) ends.
 Cephalization, the development of a head.
— Bilateral animals often move actively and have a central nervous system.
— Bilateral symmetry is illustrated in the diagram below using a goat. The goat also has upper and
lower sides to it, but they are not symmetrical. A vertical plane cut from front to back separates the
animal into roughly mirror-image right and left sides. Animals with bilateral symmetry also have a
―head‖ and ―tail‖ (anterior versus posterior) and a back and underside (dorsal versus ventral).

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DIAGRAM: Animals exhibit different types of body symmetry. (a) The sponge is asymmetrical and
has no planes of symmetry, (b) the sea anemone has radial symmetry with multiple planes of
symmetry, and (c) the goat has bilateral symmetry with one plane of symmetry.

(5) Body plan (aka Germ layers).

 Most animal species undergo a layering of early tissues during embryonic development. These
layers are called germ layers. Each layer develops into a specific set of tissues and organs.
 Animals develop either two or three embryonic germs layers:
a) Diploblastic animals:
— The animals that display radial symmetry develop two germ layers, an inner layer
(endoderm) and an outer layer (ectoderm). These animals are called diploblasts (diploblastic
animals).
— Definition: Animals in which the cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, an external
ectoderm and an internal endoderm, are called diploblastic animals.
— An undifferentiated layer, mesoglea, is present in between the ectoderm and the endoderm.
— Definition: Mesoglea is the translucent, non-living, gelatinous layer between the ectoderm and
endoderm.
— E.g. Phylum Coelenterate, Phylum Ctenophora.

b) Triploblastic animals:
— Animals with bilateral symmetry develop three germ layers: an inner layer (endoderm), an
outer layer (ectoderm), and a middle layer (mesoderm). Animals with three germ layers are
called triploblasts (triploblastic animals).
— Definition: Those animals in which the developing embryo has three germinal layers, namely
ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm are called triploblastic animals.
— Here the mesoderm is located in between the ectoderm and endoderm.

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DIAGRAM showing germ layers: (a) Diploblastic (b) Triploblastic.

SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM: During embryogenesis (embryonic development), diploblasts develop

two embryonic germ layers: an ectoderm and an endoderm. Triploblasts develop a third layer—the
mesoderm—between the endoderm and ectoderm.

(6) Nature of Coelom (Body cavity)

 Triploblasts may develop an internal body cavity derived from mesoderm, called a coelom.
This epithelial-lined cavity is a space, usually filled with fluid, which lies between the
digestive system and the body wall. It houses organs such as the kidneys and spleen, and
contains the circulatory system.
 Definition: The body cavity present between body wall and digestive cavity is called
Coelom.
 The body cavity is lined by mesoderm.
 Based on coelom, animals are classified into coelomates, acoelomates and pseudocoelomates.
a) Coelomates:
 Animals with a true coelom are called coelomates (or eucoelomates). A true coelom arises
entirely within the mesoderm germ layer.
— Definition: Animals possessing coelom are called coelomates (or eucoelomates).

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— Examples of coelomates include annelids, molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms,
hemichordates and chordates.
— Animals such as earthworms, snails, insects, starfish, and vertebrates are all coelomates.
b) Acoelomates:
— Triploblasts that do not develop a coelom are called acoelomates, and their mesoderm region
is completely filled with tissue, although they have a digestive cavity.
— Definition: Animals without coelom (body cavity) are called acoelomates.
— Examples of acoelomates include the Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Porifera, Cnidaria and
Ctenophore.
c) Pseudocoelomates:
 A third group of triploblasts has a body cavity that is derived partly from mesoderm and
partly from endoderm tissue. These animals are called pseudocoelomates.
— The body cavity is not lined by mesoderm, but instead, the mesoderm is present as scattered
pouches in between the ectoderm and endoderm. Such a body cavity is called
pseudocoelom and the animals possessing them are called pseudocoelomates.
— Phylum Aschelminthes (Roundworms) are examples of pseudocoelomates.

DIAGRAMMATIC section view of (a) coelomates, (b) pseudocoelomates and (c) acoelomates.

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DIAGRAM: Triploblasts may be acoelomates, coelomates (eucoelomates), or pseudocoelomates.

Coelomates have a body cavity within the mesoderm, called a coelom, which is lined with mesoderm
tissue. Pseudocoelomates have a similar body cavity, but it is lined with mesoderm and endoderm
tissue.

Functions of a Coelom and its Importance

1) Absorb Shock: The coelomic cavity is filled with a fluid known as coelomic fluid, which serves to
separate the organs from the outer body, and ultimately works to protect the organs from
mechanical shock or trauma. The disconnect between the organs and the outer body also allows for
greater ranges of movement and flexibility, as the organs are unperturbed by minor displacement as
the body bends or stretches.
2) Hydrostatic Skeleton: In soft bodied animals, such as earthworms and many other invertebrates,
the fluid filled coelom can act as a hydrostatic skeleton. A hydrostatic skeleton is a type of structure
that functions like a skeleton, but is supported by fluid pressure rather than bones. This allows
movement in soft bodied animals.
3) Immune System Support: Coelomocytes play a key role in the immune system of most
invertebrates. They are macrophage-like cells that are involved in important functions, such as
phagocytosis, inflammation, and the secretion of humoral factors that impart humoral immunity.
4) Circulatory System: The coelomic fluid also facilitates the transport of gases, nutrients, and waste
products between different parts of the body. Nutrients absorbed in the coelomic fluid are
distributed to all parts of the body in a manner similar to that of a circular system, and any un-
needed substances left after metabolic processing are excreted via the coelomic fluid. In fact, the
emergence of the coelom in organisms has allowed for the evolution of larger body sizes because of
this facilitated transport of materials.

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 Protostomes and Deuterostomes:
 Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic coelomates can be divided into two groups based on
differences in their early embryonic development, as protostomes and deuterostomes.
 A protostome is an animal in which the mouth develops first during embryogenesis and a second
opening developing into the anus.
— Protostomes include phyla such as arthropods, mollusks, and annelids.
 A deuterostome is an animal in which the blastopore develops into the anus, with the second
opening developing into the mouth.
— Deuterostomes include the chordates and echinoderms.
 These two groups are named from which opening of the digestive cavity develops first: mouth or
anus.
 The word protostome comes from Greek words meaning ―mouth first,‖ and deuterostome originates
from words meaning ―mouth second‖ (in this case, the anus develops first).
 This difference reflects the fate of a structure called the blastopore, which becomes the mouth in
protostomes and the anus in deuterostomes.
 Other developmental characteristics differ between protostomes and deuterostomes, including the
mode of formation of the coelom and the early cell division of the embryo.

DIAGRAM: Coelomates (eucoelomates) can be divided into two groups, protostomes and
deuterostomes, based on their early embryonic development. Two of these differences include the
origin of the mouth opening and the way in which the coelom is formed.

(7) Presence of metamerism or segmentation

— In some animals, the body is externally and internally divided into segments.
— For example, in earthworm, the body shows this pattern called metameric segmentation and
the phenomenon is known as metamerism.
— In an earthworm each segment is called metamere.
(8) Presence or absence of Notochord
— Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on the dorsal side (i.e. at the
back) during embryonic development in some animals.

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— Based on the presence or absence of notochord animals are classified into Chordates and non-
chordates respectively.

a) Chordata: Animals with notochord are called chordates.

b) Non-Chordata: those animals which do not form notochord are called non-chordates, e.g.,
Porifera to Echinoderms.

Vocabulary
1) Acoelomate: without a body cavity.
2) Asymmetrical: having no plane of symmetry.
3) Bilateral symmetry: a type of symmetry in which there is only one plane of symmetry that
creates two mirror-image sides.
4) Body plan: the shape and symmetry of an organism.
5) Coelom: a lined body cavity derived from mesodermal embryonic tissue.
6) Deuterostome: describing an animal in which the blastopore develops into the anus, with the
second opening developing into the mouth.
7) Diploblasts: an animal that develops from two embryonic germ layers.
8) Eucoelomates (Coelomate): describing animals with a body cavity completely lined with
mesodermal tissue.
9) Germ layer: a collection of cells formed during embryogenesis that will give rise to future body
tissues.
10) Protostome: describing an animal in which the mouth develops first during embryogenesis and a
second opening developing into the anus.
11) Pseudocoelomates: an animal with a coelom that is not completely lined with tissues derived
from the mesoderm as in coelomate (eucoelomate) animals.
12) Radial symmetry: a type of symmetry with multiple planes of symmetry all cross at an axis
through the center of the organism.
13) Triploblasts: an animal that develops from three germ layers.

CLASSIFICATION OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA

 The animals are classified into 35 phyla of which 11 phyla are considered as the major phyla. The
11 phyla and their fundamental features are given in the table below:

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1. Phylum Porifera (aka sponges)

 Porifera are ―pore bearing‖ animals. Porifera is a Latin Name which means to bear pores.

PICTURE: Porifera

 Members of this phylum are commonly known as sponges.

 They are generally marine (Except Spongilla, a fresh water sponge)
 Mostly asymmetrical animals.
 These are primitive multicellular animals and have cellular level of organisation.
 Sponges have a water transport or canal system. Water enters through minute pores (ostia) in
the body wall into a central cavity, spongocoel, from where it goes out through the osculum.
This pathway of water transport is helpful in food gathering, respiratory exchange and removal
of waste.
 Choanocytes or collar cells line the spongocoel and the canals.
 Digestion is intracellular.
 The body is supported by a skeleton made up of spicules or spongin fibres.
 Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite), i.e., eggs and sperms are produced by the same
individual.
 Sponges reproduce asexually by fragmentation and sexually by formation of gametes.
 Examples of Porifera: Sycon (Scypha), Spongilla (Fresh water sponge) and Euspongia (Bath
sponge).

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DIAGRAM: Examples of Porifera : (a) Sycon, (b) Spongilla, (c) Euspongia

Body Plans of Porifera (Sponges)

— There are three different body plans found among sponges and these are asconoid (aka ascon),
syconoid (aka sycon) and leuconiod (aka Leucon).
— The main difference between each body plan is the complexity of the canal system that pumps water
through the animal.

Ascon Sycon Leucon

 Simplest body plan.  More complex body plan  Most complex body plan.
 Choanocytes line spongocoel  Choanocytes lie in canals  most common
single osculum  single osculum  branched canal system with
choanocytes lying in small
chambers
 multiple oscula

— The most basic body plan is called asconoid. In asconoid sponges the two major cell layers
surround a fluid-filled cavity called the spongocoel, the large central cavity of sponges . Water is
pumped directly through pores, called ostia, into the spongocoel and then out of the sponge through
an opening called the osculum (plural oscula). The spongocoel is lined with specialized digestive
cells called choanocytes that filter and take in food.

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— Synconoid is a more complex body plan. In synconoid sponges the ostia lead to a network of
canals that are lined with choanocytes. Water is pumped into the ostia and through these canals
before arriving at the spongocoel. There are no choanocytes lining the spongocoel of synconoid
sponges so digestion takes place in the canals.
— The most complex sponge body plan is called leuconoid. In these sponges the canal system forms
a more elaborate branched network, and the canals lead to digestive chambers instead of a
spongocoel. In leuconoid sponges the choanocytes line the digestive chambers and not the canals.
Once water has passed through the digestive chambers it is released into an exit canal that leads to
the osculum. There is no real spongocoel in leuconoid sponges. One feature that is common to all
three types of body plan is the presence of a holdfast at the base of each animal. The holdfast is
what the sponge uses to anchor itself to a solid surface, such as a rock. This prevents the sponge
from being transported by water currents.

2. Phylum Cnidaria (aka Coelenterata).

— Radially symmetrical animals.
— They are diploblastic
— Cnidarians exhibit tissue level of organization
— They are aquatic, mostly marine.
— They have a central gastro-vascular cavity with a single opening, mouth on hypostome.
— Digestion is extracellular and intracellular.
— Some of the cnidarians, e.g., corals have a skeleton composed of calcium carbonate.
— Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp and medusa.
— Most have life cycles that include two stages:
1) ―Sessile‖ polyp (non-motile – stuck in one spot)
2) ―motile‖ medusa (Free swimming)
The Polyp is a sessile and cylindrical form e.g. in Hydra, Adamsia, etc. whereas, the Medusa is
umbrella-shaped and free-swimming e.g. in Aurelia or jelly fish. Those cnidarians which exist
in both forms exhibit alternation of generation (Metagenesis), i.e., polyps produce medusae
asexually and medusae form the polyps sexually (e.g., Obelia).

TABLE: Comparing the two body forms of Cnidaria

— ―Nettle bearing‖ animals.

The name Cnidaria is derived from the Greek word knide which means nettle referring to the
stinging cells (cnidoblasts or cnidocytes which contain the stinging capsules or nematocytes)
found in the tentacles of the members of this phylum.
— Functions of Cnidoblasts (aka cnidocyte)
 It is used for anchorage,
 It is used for defense and
 It is used for the capture of prey.

Examples:
 Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war),
 Adamsia (Sea anemone),

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 Pennatula (Sea-pen),
 Gorgonia (Sea-fan),
 Meandrina (Brain coral).

PICTURE: Diversity of Cnidarians

Evolution of Body Plan

(1) Cnidarians have two body plans:
Polyp: A sessile form with mouth and tentacles facing upward. Ex. corals, sea anemone)
Medusa: Free-floating (planktonic) form. Looks like a bell with tentacles and mouth facing
downward. (Jellies)

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(2) Body has two germ layers (ectoderm and endoderm) separated by a layer of jelly-like
―mesoglea‖. This is considered a primitive tissue. Ectoderm -> Outer skin. Endoderm -> Inside
skin.

DIAGRAM: Comparison of Body Plan medusa and polyp.

(3) Radial Symmetry – Symmetry around a central axis.

— Cnidarians are radially symmetrical.

DIAGRAM: Radial Symmetry in cnidarians exemplified by a vase.

Feeding and Excretion

— Carnivores that depend on prey coming into contact with their stinging tentacles.
— Tentacles surround the mouth – which leads to a gastrovascular cavity for digestion.
— Two-way digestive system – This means food and waste enter/exit from the same opening

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DIAGRAM: A hydra‘s two-way digestive system

DIAGRAM: Cnidocyte vs. Nematocyst

How do tentacles catch prey?
— Tentacles are covered with special cells called cnidocytes.
— Inside each cnidocyte there is a spring-loaded spear called a nematocyst.
— The group gets its name for these stinging cells! It is the most important defining feature.

Process:
1) The tentacle comes into contact with the prey.
2) Physical and chemical cues cause the nematocyst to shoot out and stick into the prey – delivering
the venom and causing prey to be stuck.
3) Tentacles contract, bringing the prey to the mouth.

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DIAGRAM: Process of cnidocyte action.

Respiration and Circulation

 Just like sponges, no organs/systems to perform these functions.
 Gas exchange occurs through diffusion (O2 in, CO2 out). Based on concentration outside/inside the
cells – movement from higher concentration to lower concentration.

Reproduction in cnidaria
— Both sexual and Asexual reproduction!

Asexual reproduction in cnidaria – two types budding and strobilation.

1) Asexual reproduction through budding.

DIAGRAM: Budding in Hydra

2) Strobilation
— A polyp grows a stack of medusa clones which swim away (Jellies).

Sexual Reproduction in cnidaria

— Sexual reproduction: External fertilization. Males and females ―broadcast‖ their gametes (sex cells)
into the ocean. Eggs and sperm meet and develop into a planula (larvae).
— These planktonic planula will attach to a surface and develop into a polyp or stay as a free-floating
medusa.

3. Phylum Ctenophora
— Ctenophores, commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies.

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— They are exclusively marine, radially symmetrical, diploblastic organisms with tissue level of
organisation.
— The body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb plates, which help in locomotion.
— Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular.
— Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light) is well-marked in
ctenophores.
— Sexes are not separate. Reproduction takes place only by sexual means. Fertilisation is external
with indirect development.
— Examples: Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana

4. Phylum Platyhelminthes

— Bodies flattened from top to bottom, therefore called Flatworms e.g. tapeworms, liver flukes
— Platyhelminthes are more complexly designed than the earlier groups.
— They are bilaterally symmetrical.
— They are triploblastic. This allows outside and inside body linings as well as some organs to
be made. There is thus some degree of tissue formation [organ level of organisation].
— The body is flattened dorsiventrally, meaning from top to bottom, which is why these animals
are called flatworms.
— They may be free-living or parasitic. Hooks and suckers are present in the parasitic forms.
— Some examples are free-living animals like planarians, or parasitic animals like
— Parasites are mostly endoparasites found in animals including human beings. Some of them
absorb nutrients from the host directly through their body surface.
— Acoelomate: There is no true internal body cavity or coelom, in which well-developed organs
can be accommodated.
— Specialised cells called flame cells help in osmoregulation and excretion.
— Sexes are not separate.

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— Fertilisation is internal and development is indirect.
— Some members like Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.

DIAGRAM: Examples of Platyhelminthes (a) Tapeworm (b) Liver fluke

Try this question

What are the peculiar features that you find in parasitic Platyhelminthes?
Answer
 Peculiar features in parasitic Platyhelminthes are:
— They have dorsoventrally flattened body and bear hooks and suckers to get attached inside the
body of the host.
— Their body is covered with thick tegument, which protects them from the action of digestive
juices of the host.
— The tegument also helps in absorbing nutrients from the host's body.

5. Phylum Nematoda (Aschelminthes)

 Unsegmented worms e.g. roundworms, pinworms, eelworms, threadworms and filarial

worms.
 Body in Nematoda (Aschelminthes) is cylindrical [bilaterally symmetrical] rather than
flattened.
 They exhibit organ-system level of body organization [there are tissues, but no real organs].
 They are triploblastic. A sort of body cavity or a pseudocoelom, is present.
 They are free-living, aquatic, terrestrial or parasitic in plants and animals.
 These are very familiar as parasitic worms causing diseases, such as the worms causing
elephantiasis (filarial worms) or the worms in the intestines (roundworm or pinworms).
 The body is circular in cross-section, hence, the name roundworms.
 Alimentary canal is complete.
 An excretory tube removes body wastes from the body cavity through the excretory pore.
 Sexes are separate (dioecious), i.e., males and females are distinct.
 Often females are longer than males.

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 Fertilisation is internal and development may be direct (the young ones resemble the adult) or
indirect.

6. Phylum Annelida

 Segmented worms e.g. earthworms, lugworms, leeches, nereis and Hirudinaria.

 Annelida are aquatic [marine and fresh water] or terrestrial; free-living, and sometimes
parasitic.
 Their body surface is distinctly marked out into segments or metameres [metamerically
segmented] and, hence, the phylum name Annelida (Latin, annulus: little ring).
 They exhibit organ-system level of body organization.
 They are coelomate [true body cavity]. This allows true organs to be packaged in the body
structure.
 They are bilateral symmetric and triploblastic.
 They possess longitudinal and circular muscles which help in locomotion.
 Aquatic annelids like Nereis possess lateral appendages, parapodia, which help in swimming.
 A closed circulatory system is present.
 Nephridia (sing. nephridium) help in osmoregulation and excretion.
 Neural system consists of paired ganglia (sing. ganglion) connected by lateral nerves to a
double ventral nerve cord.
 Nereis, an aquatic form, is dioecious [Sexes are separate], but earthworms and leeches are
monoecious [having both the male and female reproductive organs in the same individual].
 Reproduction is sexual.

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DIAGRAM: Examples of Annelida.

7. Phylum Arthropoda

 Insects, arachnids and crustaceans are members of the largest category of creatures on the
planet: arthropods.
 Arthropods have hard, external shells called ―exoskeletons,‖ segmented bodies and jointed
legs.
 Some familiar examples are prawns, butterflies, houseflies, spiders, scorpions and crabs.
 They exhibit organ-system level of organisation.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, segmented and coelomate. The coelomic cavity
is blood-filled.
 The body of arthropods is covered by a chitinous exoskeleton.
 The body consists of head, thorax and abdomen.
 There is an open circulatory system, and so the blood does not flow in well-defined blood
vessels.
 Respiratory organs are gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal system.
 Sensory organs like antennae, eyes (compound and simple), statocysts or balance organs are
present.
 Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules.
 They are mostly dioecious.
 Fertilisation is usually internal.
 They are mostly oviparous.
 Development may be direct or indirect.

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FIGURE: Examples of arthropods.

Arachnids

 Spiders, harvestmen, mites, ticks and other arachnids are members of the class Arachnida.

Crustaceans

 Crustaceans make up a large group of arthropods that includes animals such as crabs, lobsters,
crayfish and shrimp. They breathe with gills and have two pairs of antennae.

Insects

 In general, insects have three-part bodies (head, thorax and abdomen), six jointed legs,
compound eyes and two antennae.
 Bees, wasps, beetles, mosquitoes, flies, grasshoppers, ants, butterflies and moths, and
dragonflies and damselflies are common types of insects.

8. Phylum Mollusca

 Mollusca are the second largest animal phylum.

 They are terrestrial or aquatic.
 They exhibit organ-system level of organization.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate animals. There is little
segmentation.
 They have an open circulatory system and kidney-like organs for excretion. The anterior head
region has sensory tentacles.
 The mouth contains a file-like rasping organ for feeding, called radula.
 They are usually dioecious and oviparous with indirect development.
 Body is covered by a calcareous shell and is unsegmented with a distinct head, muscular foot
and visceral hump. A soft and spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the visceral hump.
 Examples are octopus, snails and mussels.

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FIGURE: Examples of Mollusca

9. Phylum Echinodermata

 These animals have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles [calcium carbonate structures] and,
hence, the name Echinodermata (spiny skinned organisms).
 They are exclusively free-living marine animals with organ-system level of organisation.
 They are triploblastic with a coelomic cavity [coelomate animals]. The adult echinoderms are
radially symmetrical but larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.
 Water-driven tube system [water vascular system] are used for locomotion, capture and
transport of food and respiration.
 They are triploblastic and coelomate animals.
 Digestive system is complete. An excretory system is absent.
 Sexes are separate. Reproduction is sexual. Fertilisation is usually external.
 Development is indirect with free-swimming larva.
 Examples: Star fish, Sea urchin, Sea lily, Sea cucumber, Brittle star.

FIGURE: Examples of Echinodermata.

10. Phylum Hemichordata

 Hemichordata was earlier considered as a sub-phylum under phylum Chordata. But now it is
placed as a separate phylum under non-chordata.

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 This phylum consists of a small group of worm-like marine animals with organ-system level
of organisation.
 They are cylindrical [bilaterally symmetrical], triploblastic, coelomate animals.
 The body is Circulatory system is of open type.
 Respiration takes place through gills.
 Excretory organ is present.
 Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external. Development is indirect.
 Examples: Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus.

11. Phylum Chordata

 Animals belonging to phylum Chordata are fundamentally characterised by the presence of a

notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate with organ-system level of
organisation.
 They possess a post anal tail and a closed circulatory system.
 Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla: Urochordata or Tunicata,
Cephalochordata and Vertebrata.
 Subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata are often referred to as protochordates and are
exclusively marine.
 In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail, while in Cephalochordata, it extends
from head to tail region and is persistent throughout their life.
 Examples: Urochordata – Ascidia, Salpa, Doliolum; Cephalochordata – Amphioxus or Lancelet.

FIGURE: An example of a Chordate.

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All chordates possess the following features:

1. have a notochord
2. have a dorsal nerve cord
3. are triploblastic
4. have paired gill pouches
5. are coelomate.

Comparison of Chordates and Non-chordates

Chordates Non-chordates (invertebrates)
1. Notochord present. Notochord absent.
2. Central nervous system is dorsal, hollow Central nervous system is ventral, solid
and single. and double.
3. Pharynx perforated by gill slits. Gill slits are absent.
4. Heart is ventral. Heart is dorsal (if present).
5. A post-anal part (tail) is present. Post-anal tail is absent.

Classification of Vertebrata

— Vertabrata is a sub-phylum of Phylum Chordata.

— Phylum – Chordata – Division In Vertebrata: Cyclostomata, Pisces, Chondrichthyes,
Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.

Vertebrata

 These animals have a true vertebral column and internal skeleton, allowing a completely
different distribution of muscle attachment points to be used for movement.
 The members of subphylum Vertebrata possess notochord during the embryonic period.
 The notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in the adult.
 Thus all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.
 Besides the basic chordate characters, vertebrates have a ventral muscular heart with two, three
or four chambers, kidneys for excretion and osmoregulation and paired appendages which may
be fins or limbs.
 Vertibrates are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomic and segmented, with
complex differentiation of body tissues and organs.

Division In Vertebrata

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Class Cyclostomata

 All living members of the class Cyclostomata are ectoparasites [lives on the outside of its
host] on some fishes.
 They have an elongated body bearing 6-15 pairs of gill slits for respiration.
 Cyclostomes have a sucking and circular mouth without jaws.
 Their body is devoid of scales and paired fins.
 Cranium and vertebral column are cartilaginous.
 Circulation is of closed type.
 Cyclostomes are marine but migrate for spawning [release or deposit eggs] to fresh water.
 After spawning, within a few days, they die. Their larvae, after metamorphosis
[transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages.
Example: Larvae → Tadpole → Frog], return to the ocean.
 Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).

Class Pisces

 These are fish. Their skin is covered with scales/plates. They lay eggs [oviporous].
 They obtain oxygen dissolved in water by using gills.
 The body is streamlined, and a muscular tail is used for movement.
 They are cold-blooded and their hearts have only two chambers, unlike the four that humans
have.
 Some fish skeletons are made entirely of cartilage [Chondrichthyes], such as sharks, and some
with a skeleton made of both bone and cartilage [Osteichthyes].

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Chondrichthyes

 They are marine animals with streamlined body and have cartilaginous endoskeleton. Mouth
is located ventrally.
 Notochord is persistent throughout life.
 Gill slits are separate and without operculum (gill cover).
 The skin is tough, containing minute placoid scales.
 Teeth are modified placoid scales which are backwardly directed.
 Their jaws are very powerful.
 These animals are predaceous [shark].
 Due to the absence of air bladder, they have to swim constantly to avoid sinking.
 Heart is two-chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
 Some of them have electric organs (e.g., Torpedo) and some possess poison sting (e.g.,
Trygon).
 They are cold-blooded (poikilothermous) animals, i.e., they lack the capacity to regulate their
body temperature.
 Sexes are separate. In males pelvic fins bear claspers.
 They have internal fertilisation and many of them are viviparous [give birth to young ones].
 Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (Saw fish), Carchaiodon (Great white shark), Trygon
(Sting ray).

Osteichthyes

 It includes both marine and fresh water fishes with bony endoskeleton.
 Their body is streamlined. Mouth is mostly terminal.
 They have four pairs of gills which are covered by an operculum on each side.
 Skin is covered with cycloid/ctenoid scales.
 Air bladder is present which regulates buoyancy.
 Heart is two- chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
 They are cold-blooded
 Sexes are separate.
 Fertilisation is usually external.
 They are mostly oviparous and development is direct.

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 Examples: Flying fish, Sea horse, Fighting fish, Angel fish etc.

Class Amphibia

 As the name indicates (Greek, Amphi : dual, bios, life), amphibians can live in aquatic as well
as terrestrial habitats.
 The amphibian skin is moist without scales [mucus glands in the skin]. The eyes have eyelids.
A tympanum represents the ear.
 Alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive tracts open into a common chamber called cloaca
which opens to the exterior.
 They have a three-chambered heart (two auricles and one ventricle). These are cold-blooded
 Respiration is through gills, lungs and through
 Respiration is by gills, lungs and through skin.
 Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external.
 They are oviparous and development is indirect.
 Examples: Toad, Frog), Tree frog, Salamander, Limbless amphibia.

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Class Reptilia

 The class name refers to their creeping or crawling mode of locomotion (Latin, repere or
reptum, to creep or crawl).
 They are mostly terrestrial animals and their body is covered by dry and cornified skin,
epidermal scales or scutes. Snakes and lizards shed their scales as skin cast.
 They do not have external ear openings. Tympanum represents ear. Limbs, when present, are
two pairs.
 Heart is usually three-chambered, but four-chambered in crocodiles.
 Reptiles are poikilotherms [cold-blooded animals].
 They lay eggs with tough coverings and do not need to lay their eggs in water, unlike
amphibians.
 Sexes are separate.
 Fertilisation is internal.
 They are oviparous and development is direct.
 Examples: Turtle), Tortoise, Chameleon (Tree lizard), Garden lizard, Crocodile, Alligator,
Wall lizard, Poisonous snakes – Naja (Cobra), Bangarus (Krait), Vipera (Viper).

Class Aves

 All birds fall in this category.

 They have a four-chambered heart. They breathe through lungs. The characteristic features
of Aves (birds) are the presence of feathers and most of them can fly except flightless birds
(e.g., Ostrich). The forelimbs are modified into wings.
 The hind limbs generally have scales and are modified for walking, swimming or clasping the
tree branches.
 Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the base of the tail.
 Endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and the long bones are hollow with air cavities
(pneumatic).
 The digestive tract of birds has additional chambers, the crop and gizzard.
 They are warm-blooded (homoiothermous) animals, i.e., they are able to maintain a constant
body temperature.
 Respiration is by lungs. Air sacs connected to lungs supplement respiration.
 Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is internal. They are oviparous and development is direct.
 Examples : Crow, Pigeon, Ostrich), Neophron (Vulture) etc..

Class Mammalia

 Mammals are warm-blooded animals with four-chambered hearts.

 Most mammals familiar to us produce live young ones. However, a few of them, like the
Platypus and the Echidna lay eggs, and some, like kangaroos give birth to very poorly
developed young ones.
 They are found in a variety of habitats – polar ice caps, deserts, mountains, forests, grasslands
and dark caves. Some of them have adapted to fly e.g. bats or live in water e.g. whales.
 The most unique mammalian characteristic is the presence of milk producing glands
(mammary glands) by which the young ones are nourished.
 They have two pairs of limbs, adapted for walking, running, climbing, burrowing, swimming
or flying.
 The skin of mammals is unique in possessing hair. External ears or pinnae are present.
Different types of teeth are present in the jaw.

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 Heart is four-chambered. They are homoiothermous (warm-blooded).
 Respiration is by lungs.
 Sexes are separate and fertilisation is internal.
 They are viviparous with few exceptions and development is direct.
 Examples: Oviparous – Platypus; Viviparous – Kangaroo, Flying fox), Delphinus (Common
dolphin), Balaenoptera (Blue whale), etc.

BASIC CONCEPTS

Viviparous and Oviparous Animals

 We have learnt that some animals give birth to live young ones while some animals lay eggs
which later develop into young ones.
 The animals which give birth to live young ones are called viviparous animals.
 Those animals which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
 In some animals, the young ones may look very different from the adults. Recall the life cycle
of the silkworm (egg → larva or caterpillar → pupa → adult) or frog (egg → tadpole (larva) →
adult). The transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic changes is called
metamorphosis.

Warm Blooded vs. Cold Blooded Animals

Warm Blooded or Endotherms or Cold Blooded or Ectotherms or

Homoiothermous animals Poikilothermous Animals
All mammals and birds with few exceptions are All reptiles, insects, arachnids,
warm blooded. [Bats, Echidnas, Mole Rats etc. amphibians and fish are cold blooded.
cannot regulate their body temperature]

They maintain a constant internal body Their body temperature changes

temperature irrespective of external environment. according to the external environment. [If
[Can regulate their body temperature by a cold blooded animal is taken to the
generating their own heat when they are in a equator its body temperature increases
cooler environment, and by cooling themselves and if taken to the poles its body
when they are in a hotter environment] temperature decreases]

They can survive in a wide of environments as They cannot survive in a wide of

they are able to regulate their body temperature. environments. [Tropical animals cannot
survive in the polar region and vice versa]
They require a lot of food for their survival. Most Most of the food consumed is converted
of the food consumed is utilized to maintain a into body mass. So they need less food
constant body temperature. compared to warm blooded animals.
They are active in both warm and cold They are active in warm environments
environments. and are very sluggish in cold
environments.

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To stay cool, warm-blooded animals usually Cold-blooded animals often like to bask
sweat. Animals like elephants use their ears to in the sun to warm up and increase their
cool their body [large, thin ears which loose heat metabolism.
quickly].
Some cold-blooded animals, such as bees
Some warm-blooded animals, especially birds, or dragonflies, shiver to stay warm when
migrate from colder to warmer regions in the in a cold environment.
winter.

Mammals have hair, fur and birds have feathers to

help keep them warm.

Warm-blooded animals can also shiver to

generate more heat when they get too cold.
Constant body temperature provide a nice warm Constantly changing body temperatures
environment for viruses, bacteria and parasites to make life more difficult for the parasites.
live in.

Hibernation

• Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in few endotherms [warm blooded
animals – bear, rodents] and ectotherms [many reptiles like snakes, turtles and amphibians like
frogs]. Snakes, lizards, toads, frogs, salamanders and most turtles will mostly hibernate during
harsh winters.
• Hibernating animals usually retreat to a den, a burrow, or a hollow log for protection and shelter.
• During ―true hibernation,‖ the animal‘s body temperature drops, and its rate of breathing slows
down. These hibernating animals are very difficult to awaken.
• Some warm-blooded animals such as bears, rodents etc. hibernate during extreme weather seasons
and unfavorable conditions.
• During hibernation these animals live off of stored body fat and can drop their body temperatures
significantly.
• Most animals will eat large amounts of food before hibernating

ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION SUMMARY

 Porifera includes multicellular animals which exhibit cellular level of organisation and have
characteristic flagellated choanocytes.
 The coelenterates have tentacles and bear cnidoblasts. They are mostly aquatic, sessile or free-
floating. The ctenophores are marine animals with comb plates.
 The platyhelminths have flat body and exhibit bilateral symmetry. The parasitic forms show distinct
suckers and hooks.
 Aschelminthes are pseudocoelomates and include parasitic as well as non-parasitic round worms.
 Annelids are metamerically segmented animals with a true coelom.
 The arthropods are the most abundant group of animals characterised by the presence of jointed
appendages.
 The molluscs have a soft body surrounded by an external calcareous shell. The body is covered
with external skeleton made of chitin.
 The echinoderms possess a spiny skin. Their most distinctive feature is the presence of water
vascular system.

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 The hemichordates are a small group of worm-like marine animals. They have a cylindrical body
with proboscis, collar and trunk.
 Phylum Chordata includes animals which possess a notochord either throughout or during early
embryonic life. Other common features observed in the chordates are the dorsal, hollow nerve cord
and paired pharyngeal gill slits.
 Some of the vertebrates do not possess jaws (Agnatha) whereas most of them possess jaws
(Gnathostomata). Agnatha is represented by the class, Cyclostomata. They are the most primitive
chordates and are ectoparasites on fishes. Gnathostomata has two super classes, Pisces and
Tetrapoda.
 Classes Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes bear fins for locomotion and are grouped under Pisces.
The Chondrichthyes are fishes with cartilaginous endoskeleton and are marine.
 Classes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia have two pairs of limbs and are thus grouped
under Tetrapoda. The amphibians have adapted to live both on land and water.
 Reptiles are characterised by the presence of dry and cornified skin. Limbs are absent in snakes.
Fishes, amphibians and reptiles are poikilothermous (coldblooded).
 Aves are warm-blooded animals with feathers on their bodies and forelimbs modified into wings for
flying. Hind limbs are adapted for walking, swimming, perching or clasping.
 The unique features of mammals are the presence of mammary glands and hairs on the skin. They
commonly exhibit viviparity.

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‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY MADE SIMPLE compiled by G. TARUVINGA 0772 980 253 Page 82
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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ANIMALS

1) Tourism: Tourists visits to game parks boost the economy and create jobs.
2) Food: e.g. Meat and milk from cows and goats, honey from bees, eggs from poultry etc.
3) Wax from bee hives is used to make candles, shoe polish, floor polish and cosmetics.
4) Hunting provides food and income from selling game meat.
5) Leather: Hides of mammals are used to make leather products e.g. shoes, belts and bags.
6) Fishing provides food and jobs.
7) Seed dispersal e.g. fruit bats.
8) Pollinating agents: Animals such as insects (bees) and birds are pollinating agents in plants and
crops.
9) Fabrics: Silk worms produce silk used to make silk fabrics.
10) Lac secreted by lac insects is used to make bangles, varnishes and sealing wax.
11) Biological control of pests e.g. beetles such as lady birds are used to control aphids, Gambusia
fish control mosquitoes by feeding on mosquito larvae.
12) Sponge skeletons are used for bathing sponges.
13) Cattle, horses, donkeys and camels are used as draught power in agriculture.

VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS & LICHENS

 One of the shortfalls of the five kingdom classification is that its classification criteria could not
include viruses, viroids, prions and lichens.

VIRUSES
— Viruses are nucleoprotein having an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.
— When they infect a cell they take over the machinery of the host cell to replicate themselves,
killing the host.
— The name virus (means venom or poisonous fluid) was given by Pasteur.
— D.J. Ivanowsky (1892) discovered viruses as causal organism of the mosaic disease of tobacco.
— M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of the infected plants of tobacco could
cause infection in healthy plants and called the fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living
fluid).
— W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be crystallised.

Structure of Viruses-
It consists of a protein coat and a nucleic acid.

1. Protein Coat
The protein coat (capsid) made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects the nucleic acid.

2. Nucleic Acid
 The nucleic acid or genetic material is either RNA or DNA. It is infectious.
— Plant infecting viruses have single stranded RNA
— Animal infecting viruses have either single or double stranded
 RNA or double stranded DNA.
— Bacteria infecting viruses (bacteriophages) have double stranded DNA.
— Examples for viral diseases- Mumps, small pox and AIDS
 In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein
clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.

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DIAGRAM: Structure of viruses.

VIROIDS
 It is an infectious RNA.
 ‗Viroid’- Virus void (lack) of protein coat.
 Discovered by T.O. Diener (1971) as causal agent of potato spindle tuber disease.

PRIONS
 Prions are abnormally folded infectious proteins.
 Examples for neurological diseases caused by prions-
— Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) / mad cow disease in cattle
— Cr–Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.

LICHENS
 Lichens are symbiotic associations between algae and fungi.
 Phycobiont- The algal component, prepare food for fungi
 Mycobiont- fungal component, provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water for algal
partner.
 Economic importance of lichens:
1) Lichens are good pollution indicators – they do not grow in polluted areas. They actually die
when the land or air is polluted.
2) Lichens are used to produce certain dyes and reagents.
3) Lichens are used to make Litmus, an indicator of acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

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PICTURES: Tree-dwelling lichens

PICTURE: Lichens growing on rock. DIAGRAM: Cross section of a typical lichen.

‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY MADE SIMPLE compiled by G. TARUVINGA 0772 980 253 Page 85