SQL Commands

o SQL commands are instructions. It is used to communicate with the database.

It is also used to perform specifc tassss functionss and queries of data.

o SQL can perform various tasss lise create a tables add data to tabless drop
the tables modify the tables set permission for users.

Types of SQL Commands

There are fve types of SQL commands: DDLs DMLs DCLs TCLs and DQL.

1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

o DDL changes the structure of the table lise creating a tables deleting a tables
altering a tables etc.
 o All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save
all the changes in the database.

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

o CREATE

o ALTER

o DROP

o TRUNCATE

a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME

COLUMN_NAME1 DATATYPES(size)s

COLUMN_NAME2 DATATYPES(size)s

--------------

COLUMN_NAMEN DATATYPES(size)s

);

Example:

CREATE TABLE EMP

EMPNo VARCHAR2(20)s

EName VARCHAR2(20)s

Job VARCHAR2(20)s

DOB DATE

);
b. DROP : This statement is used to drop an existing database. When you use this statement,
complete information present in the database will be lost.

Syntax
DROP DATABASE DatabaseName;
Example
DROP DATABASE Employee;
The ‘DROP TABLE’ Statement
This statement is used to drop an existing table. When you use this statement, complete
information present in the table will be lost.
Syntax
DROP TABLE TableName;
Example
DROP Table Emp;
c. ALTER
This command is used to delete, modify or add constraints or columns in an existing
table.
The ‘ALTER TABLE’ Statement
This statement is used to add, delete, modify columns in an existing table.
The ‘ALTER TABLE’ Statement with ADD/DROP COLUMN
You can use the ALTER TABLE statement with ADD/DROP Column command
according to your need. If you wish to add a column, then you will use the ADD
command, and if you wish to delete a column, then you will use the DROP COLUMN
command.
Syntax
 ALTER TABLE TableName ADD ColumnName Datatype;

 ALTER TABLE TableName DROP COLUMN ColumnName;

Example
--ADD Column MobNo:
ALTER TABLE Emp ADD MobNo Number(10);
--DROP Column MobNo:
 ALTER TABLE Emp DROP COLUMN MobNo ;

The ‘ALTER TABLE’ Statement with ALTER/MODIFY COLUMN

This statement is used to change the datatype of an existing column in a table.
Syntax
ALTER TABLE TableName ADD COLUMN ColumnName Datatype;
Example
--Add a column DOB and change the data type to Date.
ALTER TABLE Emp ADD DOB date;
d. TRUNCATE
This command is used to delete the information present in the table but does not delete
the table. So, once you use this command, your information will be lost, but not the
table.

Syntax:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:

TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;

2. Data Manipulation Language

o DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form
of changes in the database.

o The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently

save all the changes in the database. They can be rollbacs.

Here are some commands that come under DML:

o INSERT

o UPDATE

o DELETE
a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data
into the row of a table.

Syntax:

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

(col1s col2s col3s.... col N)

VALUES (value1s value2s value3s .... valueN);

Or

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

VALUES (value1s value2s value3s .... valueN);

For example:

INSERT INTO EMP(ENamesJob) VALUES ("SCOTT"s "MANAGER");

b. UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a

column in the table.

Syntax:

UPDATE table_name SET column1= values column2= values

columnN = value WHERE CONDITION;

For example:

UPDATE Emp SET Ename = 'SMITH' WHERE EmpNo = '1003';

c. DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.

Syntax1:

DELETE FROM table_name;

Syntax1

DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Example1: Delete all rows from emp table

DELETE FROM Emp;

Example2: Delete all rows from emp table whose Ename is SCOTT

DELETE FROM EName WHERE EName="SCOTT";

3. Data Control Language

DCL commands are used to grant and tase bacs authority from any database
user.

Here are some commands that come under DCL:

o Grant

o Revose

a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

Example

GRANT SELECTs UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USERs ANOTHER_USER;

b. Revoke: It is used to tase bacs permissions from the user.

Example

REVOKE SELECTs UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1s USER2;

4. Transaction Control Language

TCL commands can only use with DML commands lise INSERTs DELETE and
UPDATE only.

These operations are automatically committed in the database that's why

they cannot be used while creating tables or dropping them.

Here are some commands that come under TCL:

o COMMIT

o ROLLBACK

o SAVEPOINT

a. Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions to the

database.
Syntax:

COMMIT;

Example:

DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE = 25;

COMMIT;

b. Rollback: Rollbacs command is used to undo transactions that have not

already been saved to the database.

Syntax:

ROLLBACK;

Example:

DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE = 25;

ROLLBACK;

c. SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction bacs to a certain point

without rolling bacs the entire transaction.

Syntax:

SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

5. Data Query Language

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.

SELECT
This statement is used to select data from a database and the data returned is stored in
a result table, called the result-set.
Syntax

SELECT Column1, Column2, ...ColumN FROM TableName;

--(*) is used to select all from the table

SELECT * FROM table_name;

-- To select the number of records to return use:

SELECT TOP 3 * FROM TableName;

Apart from just using the SELECT keyword individually, you can use the following
keywords with the SELECT statement:
o
o DISTINCT
o ORDER BY
o GROUP BY
o HAVING Clause
o INTO

The ‘SELECT DISTINCT’ Statement

This statement is used to return only different values.
Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT Column1, Column2, ...ColumnN FROM TableName;

SELECT DISTINCT MobNo FROM Emp;

Example

The ‘ORDER BY’ Statement

The ‘ORDER BY’ statement is used to sort the required results in ascending or
descending order. The results are sorted in ascending order by default. Yet, if you wish
to get the required results in descending order, you have to use the DESC keyword.
Syntax

SELECT Column1, Column2, ...ColumnN FROM TableName

ORDER BY Column1, Column2, ... ASC|DESC;

Example
Select all employees from the 'Emp’ table sorted by EmpNo:

SELECT * FROM Emp ORDER BY EmpNo;

-- Select all employees from the 'Emp table sorted by EmpNo in Descending order:

SELECT * FROM Employee_Info ORDER BY EmpNo DESC;

-- Select all employees from the 'Empl’ table sorted by EmpNo and EName:

SELECT * FROM Emp ORDER BY EmpNo, EName;

/* Select all employees from the 'Emp' table sorted bsoEmpNo in Descending order and Ename in
Ascending order: */

SELECT * FROM Emp ORDER BY EmpNo ASC, Ename DESC

The ‘GROUP BY’ Statement

This ‘GROUP BY’ statement is used with the aggregate functions to group the result-set
by one or more columns.
Syntax

SELECT Column1, Column2,..., ColumnN FROM TableName

WHERE Condition GROUP BY ColumnName(s) ORDER BY ColumnName(s);

Example
To list the number of employees from each city.

SELECT COUNT(EmpNo), City FROM Emp GROUP BY City

The ‘HAVING’ Clause

The ‘HAVING’ clause is used in SQL because the WHERE keyword cannot be used
everywhere.
Syntax

SELECT ColumnName(s) FROM TableName WHERE Condition GROUP BY

ColumnName(s) HAVING Condition ORDER BY ColumnName(s);

Example
To list the number of employees in each city. The employees should be sorted high to low and only
those cites must be included who have more than 5 employees:*/

SELECT COUNT(EmpNo), City FROM Emp GROUP BY City HAVING COUNT(EmpNo) > 2 ORDER BY
COUNT(EmpNo) DESC;

The ‘SELECT INTO’ Statement

The ‘SELECT INTO’ statement is used to copy data from one table to another.
Syntax

SELECT * INTO NewTable IN ExternalDB FROM OldTable WHERE

Condition;

Example
To create a backup of database 'Employee'

SELECT * INTO EmpNo FROM Emp;