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A 5-30 kg/s Orifice Plate Cooling Water Flow Meter Design

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 International Journal of Recent Development in Engineering and Technology
Website: www.ijrdet.com (ISSN 2347 - 6435 (Online))Volume 8, Issue 2, February 2019)

A 5-30 kg/s Orifice Plate Cooling Water

Flow Meter Design
Saleh B. Mohamed1, Mustapha S. Mansour2, Elhadi I. Dekam3
1
Associate Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Azzaitouna University, Tarhoona, Libya,
2
M. Sc. Senior Engineer, Reseach Section at Industry Sector, Libya,
3
Professor in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Tripoli,
Tripoli, Libya.

1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
3
[email protected]

Abstract— The flow measurement is a very Z Local elevation, m

important task specifically in industry sector. This is g Gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
because of its widespread use for accounting purposes A Cross-sectional area, m2
and because of its applications in manufacturing 
m Mass flow rate, kg/s
processes. In the research laboratory, advanced flow Dt Orifice plate diameter, m
measurements provide new insights into a wide range D1 Pipe diameter, m
of engineering flow problems in hydrodynamics, D2 Vena contracta diameter, m
combustion, aerodynamics, and performance  Orifice plate beta ratio (Dt/ D1)
predictions. The main objective of this work is to ∆P Static Pressure difference, Pa
generate an awareness and understanding of the Cd Orifice discharge coefficient
range of contemporary flow measurement techniques Re Flow Reynolds number
available with the emphasis on devices and techniques Indices;
associated with wide applications in the engineering 1 Upstream inlet
field. The focus is devoted to cheap meters with 2 Vena contracta section
reasonable accuracy; the differential pressure flow t Orifice openning section
meters are employed to measure the flow rates,
according to pressure drops across restrictions in the
flow passages. An orifice plate meter is designed to I. INTRODUCTION
measure the required flow rate to cool a nuclear
reactor at a design point of 20 kg/s. Meter operation Flow measurement can be defined as the
at off design conditions; 5 and 30 kg/s flow rates with process of determination of the quantity of the
maximum allowable orifice pressure drop of 200 kPa fluid running through the passage, either as a
was investigated. An orifice plate meter with a
diameter ratio of 0.7 is designed to satisfy the rate or as an integrated value. There are
constraints over the desired operating range. several types of flow measurement; each one
has to have specific considerations, including
Keywords— Behavior of differential pressure flow accuracy constraints, cost implications, and
meters, Design of Flow meters, Flow measurement, using flow characteristics in order to obtain the
orifice plate meters
desired end results [1,5,6,7,8]. Normally, flow
NOMENCLATURE meters used to measure flow indirectly by
measuring related common dimensions;
Symbols Description differential pressure across the flow restriction
 Fluid density, kg/m3
or the flow velocity in the desired passage
p Local Static Pressure, Pa
V Average flow velocity, m/s where fundamental physical principles should

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 International Journal of Recent Development in Engineering and Technology
Website: www.ijrdet.com (ISSN 2347 - 6435 (Online))Volume 8, Issue 2, February 2019)

be used in the analysis of the flow through generally be used for many applications
measurement devices. [5,7,9,10,11].

Differential pressure flow meters deduce the

flow rate from measurements of pressure
drops across restrictions in pipes and ducts for
many years. They represent the reliable
method available. They have a wide popular
usage despite the development of higher
performance modern devices, mostly on
account of exceptionally well researched and
documented standards.

These devices consist of a primary element

that restricts the flowing stream resulting in a
pressure difference (pressure drop) across the
element. The related secondary devices consist
of a differential pressure measuring unit with Figure 1 An orifice plate flow meter with
connecting piping and other measuring units vena contracta.
required to define the flowing variables of the
III. SELECTION CRITERIA
fluid, such as pressure, temperature, and
composition. The pressure and differential- It needs a lot of effort to select a suitable flow
pressure transducer are often combined into a meter for a particular application. There are a
single unit, as shown in Figure 1, [8,9,10]. wide variety of flow meters in the market. It
requires a considerable evaluation of many
II. TYPES OF FLOW METERS factors. These include the total cost, fluid
A flow meter is then a device that meters state, flow conditions, fluid properties, range
movement of fluids in a conduit or an open ability, mechanical installation constraints and
channel. Fluids could be water, chemicals, air, accuracy requirements. The chief engineer
gas, steam or solids. There are various kinds of should determine exactly the design operating
the flow meters available in the market and conditions. Pressure and temperature of the
classified into mechanical and non-mechanical fluid flow should be provided to help in the
types. Non-mechanical types are also known selection process. A specific gravity or density
as pressure difference flow meter and include; analyzer could be required to account for
Orifice plate, Venturi tube, Pitot tube, Nozzle variability in stream composition. Referring to
and variable area (Rotameter) types. the economic analysis, one should be aware of
Mechanical type flow meters include; Positive the equipment cost, installation cost,
displacement; Velocity and mass flow meters. maintained cost, and operating cost. These
The Positive displacement types are; must be carefully evaluated in terms of meter
Reciprocating piston; Oval gear; Nutating disk size and operating pressure [7,8,9]. For
and Rotary vane types. While the velocity example, small sized Venturi meters could be
types are, Turbine, Vortex shedding, Swirl; of comparable cost to an averaging Pitot tubes.
Electromagnetic; Ultrasonic Doppler And However, as the size increases the cost of the
Ultrasonic Transit-time. The mass flow Venturi rapidly exceeds that of the averaging
meters types are; Coriolis and Thermal. Other Pitot tubes for a given pipe size. Similarly, as
meter types include the optical type meters. the design pressure increases the cost has to go
These meters are made of several basic up with the same effect.
technologies and each type has a niche and can
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 International Journal of Recent Development in Engineering and Technology
Website: www.ijrdet.com (ISSN 2347 - 6435 (Online))Volume 8, Issue 2, February 2019)

Accuracy is a common term used in flow IV. ORIFICE PLATE METERS

meters for flow measurements. Accuracy term The orifice plate meters are very simple
is perhaps misunderstood. It is considered to devices that installed in a straight run of pipes
be a sales tool widely used in the commercial and ducts. The orifice plates are thin plates
world by suppliers and users of flow meters. manufactured with openings usually in the
The supplier wins the bid according to the middle of the plates. The going flow
accuracy best number. While, users sometimes experiences an increase in the flow velocity
require accuracies beyond the capabilities of which leads to practice a static pressure drop.
any flow meter available. In previous decades, Here, the differential pressure could be related
accuracy was the term most commonly to the flow rate. As the flow approaches the
employed to describe the ability of flow orifice plate opening, the flow is to be forced
meters to measure flow. This was defined as to converge in order to go through the small
the ratio of an indicated measurement to actual opening. The maximum convergence section
measurement. The term of uncertainty is an of the peak uniform velocity actually occurs in
expression for the maximum possible limit of a section shortly downstream of the position of
error at a defined confidence target. Accuracy the orifice. This section with a minimum
remains, then very important for flow meters cross-sectional area is called “vena contracta”,
because it is related to money. For example, as shown in Figures 1 and 4. As it does so, the
referring to a flow meter unit for measuring velocity and the pressure changes. Beyond the
products of $2 million per day, with measuring vena contracta, the fluid expands and the
inaccuracy of ± 0.2%, could lead to lose velocity and pressure change once again. By
$4,000 per day, which equals to $1,460,000 measuring the difference in fluid pressure
per year. This amount is high enough to justify between the upstream normal pipe section and
making considerable investment in order to at the vena contracta, the theoretical
improve the accuracy of flow measurements. volumetric and mass flow rates can be
The same inaccuracy could happen in a station obtained directly from Bernoulli's equation
measuring products of a value of $1,000 per [1,8,13,14]. There are three tap arrangements;
day. This leads to lose only $2 per day. Here, corner taps, flange taps, and D & D/2 taps, as
where the judgment is necessary, low benefits indicated in Figure 2.
lead to move with limited investment in order
to improve measurement accuracy.

Differential type flow meters are cheap to

install and manufacture being the orifice type
meters typically the less expensive with
reasonable accuracy. In addition, with the
exception of the orifice meter, almost all flow
meters require a fluid flow calibration at flow
and temperature conditions closely
approximating service operation in order to
establish accuracy [8,9,11,12]. Thus, without
requiring direct fluid flow calibration and have
no moving parts, orifice meters remains
simple, rugged, widely accepted, reliable and Figure 2 An orifice geometry and pressure
relatively inexpensive. tap locations [7,8,13].

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 International Journal of Recent Development in Engineering and Technology
Website: www.ijrdet.com (ISSN 2347 - 6435 (Online))Volume 8, Issue 2, February 2019)
V. METER WORKING PRINCIPLE measurements are based on accelerating the
As the flow approaches the orifice plate, the flow stream through an opening as shown in
flow cross-sectional area converges gradually Figure 4. There would be a flow separation at
where the flow velocity increases and the flow the sharp edges of the opening throat, causing
static pressure decreases according to mainly a recirculation zone that leads to form a flow
Bernoulli Equation. The pressure continues to wake as shown by dashed line downstream
decrease all the way upstream of the vena from the opening. As indicated above, the
contracta. Downstream of the vena contracta main flow stream continues to accelerate from
the pressure gradually increases along the flow the throat to the vena contracta section. The
passage to approximately 5 to 8 diameters to flow then decelerates again to fill out the duct.
reach a peak static pressure point. This peak At the vena contracta the flow area is a
value is lower than the entrance pressure value minimum, where the flow stream lines are
upstream of the orifice. This is due to the mild essentially straight and parallel. This leads to
resistance of the flow meter. In other words, as have a uniform pressure across the channel, as
the flow leaves the section of the vena shown in Figure 4.
contrcta, the static pressure increases and tends
to return to its original value. The pressure
drop is not recovered completely due to
friction and turbulence losses in the flow
stream. It is well known that the measured
differential pressure drop is proportional to the
square of the velocity. Hence, if all other
factors remain constant, then the differential
pressure should be proportional to the square Figure 3 Geometries of the orifice plate.
of the flow rate [4,6,7].

VI. METER APPLICATIONS

Orifice plates are usually installed in flow
pipes. They are employed mostly for
continuous measurement of fluid flow. Also,
they are used to measure flow rates in small
river systems at locations where the river
passes through a culvert or drain. There are a Figure 4 The selected control volume for the
limited number of rivers that are appropriate flow analysis in the flow meter [7.8.10].
for the use of orifice meters, since the meter
should be remain completely immersed. That The theoretical flow rate may be related to the
requires full approach pipe and rivers should pressure drop by applying the continuity and
be substantially free of debris. These orifice Bernoulli equations. The empirical correction
meters are devices cover a very wide factors may be applied to obtain the actual
applications including dirty fluid flows in flow rate. The basic integral equations
large pipe and duct diameters sizes. Generally, according to the selected control volume can
the orifice plate has three different geometries, be represented as follows [1,3,7,8,10];
concentric, eccentric and segmental as shown
 
in Figure 3, [2,3,7,8,13]. 0 
c.v. t
dV  
c.s.
n̂.VdA (1)
VII. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
A considered number of the non-mechanical p1 V12 p V2
  gz1  2  2  gz 2  const (2)
flow meters used for internal flow  2  2
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 International Journal of Recent Development in Engineering and Technology
Website: www.ijrdet.com (ISSN 2347 - 6435 (Online))Volume 8, Issue 2, February 2019)

Where p is the static pressure, V is the average Usually, the actual vena contracta flow area,
flow velocity, z is the local centerline A2, is unknown. The upstream velocity
elevation, is the fluid density, A is the cross profiles are uniform only at high turbulent
sectional area, and g is the gravitational flow Reynolds numbers. Frictional effects
acceleration. The considered assumptions may could be considered especially downstream
include the following; region from the meter when the meter contours
are abrupt. In addition, the location of static
1. Steady flow pressure taps influences the differential static
2. Incompressible flow pressure readings.
3. Flow along stream lines
4. Frictionless flow
5. Uniform velocity at sections 1 and 2
Here, The theoretical equation is adjusted, for
6. No streamline curvature at sections 1 or 2,
hence, the pressure is uniform across each the above points including the effect of
section. Reynolds number and diameter ratio Dt/D1, by
7. Horizontal pipe installation, i.e. z1=z2 defining an empirical discharge coefficient Cd
such that, replacing (Eqn. 6), we have;
From Bernoulli equation we may have;

Applying continuity equation, the static

pressure drop becomes;

Here, 1/ is defined as the approach

factor for the velocity. The combination of the
Solving for the theoretical velocity V2, we discharge coefficient and velocity of approach
obtain; factor is frequently represented by a single
flow coefficient;

Where, Dt/D1. Hence, in terms of this flow

Hence, the theoretical mass flow rate is given coefficient, the actual mass flow rate can be
by; expressed as;

2  (p1  p 2 ) (9)
 theoretical  A 2
m (6)
1  (A 2 /A1 ) 2
and the volumetric flow rate can be then
As well known, the flow rate is to be directly determined by the following expression;
proportional to the square root of the pressure
drop across the meter taps, which is the basic 2(p1  p 2 )
Qactual  KA t (10)
idea of such devices. As indicated above, the ρ
calculation of the actual mass flow rate
through the meter depends on several factors.
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 International Journal of Recent Development in Engineering and Technology
Website: www.ijrdet.com (ISSN 2347 - 6435 (Online))Volume 8, Issue 2, February 2019)

The flow discharge coefficient found in the

literature have been determined for fully
developed turbulent velocity distribution at the
upstream section of the meter entrance
(section 1). Various relations for the
coefficient are available under certain
conditions. Here, the discharge coefficient, Cd,
can be calculated by employing the following
selected empirical equation (ISO);

Figure 5 Associated pressure drop and

pressure loss in the flow meter.

There are general bench marks for the orifice

meter; The meter is recommended for both
clean and non-clear liquids and for some slurry
Where; β is the ratio of the diameters; Dt/D1, services, the flow rates that can be measured
Re is the Reynolds number, and the constants accurately have approximately a 4:1 range, the
L1=0.4333 and L2=0.47 for the considered D pressure loss across the meter is considered to
and D/2 taps type. The discharge coefficient, be pronounced, typical accuracy is within 2 to
Cd, varies considerably with changes in the 4% of full reading scale, the viscosity effect is
area ratio and Reynolds number. The relatively high represented by the flow
discharge coefficient Cd is around the value of Reynolds number, and the meter relatively has
0.60. This value may be taken as standard low cost.
value, however, the coefficient varies
noticeably at low Reynolds numbers and high VIII. METER DESIGN CONSTRAINTS
diameter ratio, as shown in Table 1. The orifice beta ratio (β) should lie in the
range of 0.2-0.8 [1,3,7,8,10]. However, it is
Table 1 Discharge coefficient as function of
advised to remain below the value of 0.7 and
Reynolds number and diameter ratio
[1,3,10] above 0.2, as this affect strongly the
Discharge coefficient, Cd percentage of uncertainty of the discharge
Diameter Reynolds number (Re) coefficient .
ratio = Dt/D1 104 105 106 107
0.2 0.6 0.595 0.594 0.594 1. The orifice plate is a thin plate with
0.4 0.61 0.603 0.598 0.598 circular concentric hole and with sharp
0.5 0.62 0.608 0.603 0.603 edges.
0.6 0.63 0.61 0.608 0.608 2. The eccentricity of the orifice bore
0.7 0.64 0.617 0.609 0.609 diameter Dt to the upstream pipe bore D1
can result in an error in the discharge
coefficient. The following equation can be
The pressure recovery is limited for the orifice used to maintain the maximum
plates and the permanent pressure loss permissible eccentricity;
depends primarily on the area ratio, refer to
Figure 5. For an area ratio of 0.5, the head loss
is about 70 - 75% of the orifice differential
head.
While in line sizes of nominal 75 mm or less,
the eccentricity should be no greater than 0.8
mm.
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 International Journal of Recent Development in Engineering and Technology
Website: www.ijrdet.com (ISSN 2347 - 6435 (Online))Volume 8, Issue 2, February 2019)
3. The minimum edge thickness of the More detailed expressions and discussions can
orifice e of the orifice shall be equal or be found elsewhere; Mustapha S. Mansour, M.
greater than 0.1 Dt but not less than Sc. Thesis [16].
0.125mm. The maximum shall be equal to
or less than 0.02D1 or equal to or less than IX. METER DESIGN - INPUT DATA
0.125Dt whichever is smaller, but not To be able to design an orifice plate meter,
greater than e (the plate thickness), as
shown in Figure 6.
some important input data should be provided
4. The orifice edge thickness, e, should be such as; the required range of the flow rate to
uniform over the plate area. be measured; the pressure drop permissible
5. The bevel angle shown in Figure 6 should range; the tap type and accordingly the sensors
be approximately 45. position; the liquid type and accordingly its
6. For D and ½ D taps arrangement, the density; the installation pipe inside diameter;
center line of taps shall meet the pipe the liquid kinematic or dynamic viscosity and
center line at right angles to it (±2 deg). finally the off design conditions. All required
For nominal pipe size 50 – 75 mm, the data for the desired design process was
maximum diameter of tap holes is 10 mm. summarized as follows [15];
While nominal pipe sizes > 100 mm, the
maximum diameter of tap holes is 13 mm. 1. The required flow rate to cool a nuclear
reactor at the design point is 20 kg/s
2. The off design conditions are such; The
maximum and minimum water flow rates
required are 30 kg/s and 5 kg/s,
respectively. The maximum permissible
pressure drop is 200 kPa
4. The water temperature is 20 oC, thus its
density is 1000 kg/m3, and the kinematic
viscosity (υ) is 1.03x10-6 m2/s.
5. The pipe line inside diameter is 76 mm.

The design equations were already detailed

above. The sequence and procedure of the
design point calculation has to go with
iterations, peer in mind the contrains including
the limitation of the allawable pressure drop.
Once the convergence is reached the orifice
size is obtained with the desied flow rate range
under different set of conditions. Since, the
nature of the design calculation process is
iterative, and in order to speed up and facilitate
the process all relevant meter, An iteration-
based Fortran language subroutine is written
taking into account the design constraints.
The program flow chart is illustrated in Figure
7.

X. METER DESIGN CALCULATIONS

Figure 6 Standard orifice plate [1,3,8] In order to finalize and confirm the design
calculations i.e. to select the proper orifice
beta ratio (β) (orifice size) with suitable orifice
pressure drop, it is required to check the meter
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 International Journal of Recent Development in Engineering and Technology
Website: www.ijrdet.com (ISSN 2347 - 6435 (Online))Volume 8, Issue 2, February 2019)

at off design conditions by the following XI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

procedure; The calculations for the design point mass
flow rate of 20 kg/s were carried out with
1. Since the meter geometry and the off design different values of orifice pressure drop of 50,
conditions are set, the calculation procedure is 75 and 100 kPa. Here For an orifice pressure
repeated with the design orifice beta ratio (β) drop of 50 kPa, the solution converged with an
(i.e. the obtained meter size) by iterating this
time the orifice pressure drop only until the
orifice beta ratio (β) of 0.76. This is exceeding
orifice beta ratio (β) (i.e. orifice plate the advisable maximum recommended value
diameter) design point value is obtained. of 0.7 and thus excluded from the design
2. On the meantime, the converged orifice compromization.
pressure drop should be ≤ the maximum off
design allowable value. When this requirement However, the solution converges for an orifice
is fulfilled (i.e. design point orifice beta ratio beta ratio (β) of 0.7 with a given orifice
(β) (i.e. size) with its corresponding orifice pressure drop of 75 kPa. This orifice beta ratio
pressure drop, the design calculations are valid (β) consides exactly with the advisable
and accordingly, the design drawings of the maximum recommended value of 0.7, which is
meter can be prepared for production purposes. the optimum recommended maximum value
found in literature that does not affect the
pressure drop coefficient.

For a given orifice pressure drop of 100 kPa,

the solution converges with an orifice beta
ratio (β) of 0.66. However, this is lower than
the advisable maximum recommended value
of 0.7.

Orifice plate meter off design performance

280
260
240 des= 0.7, dorf = 53.3 mm
Orifice pressure drop, Kpa

220 des=0.66, dorf = 50.3 mm

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5
Mass Flow rate, kg/sec

Figure 8 Orifice plate meter off design

performance.

In order to finalize the design process, the

meter off design conditions are investigated at
both extremes; minimum and maximum off
Figure 7 The Orifice plate meter design design mass flow rates of 5 and 30 kg/s,
iteration process chart. respectively.

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 International Journal of Recent Development in Engineering and Technology
Website: www.ijrdet.com (ISSN 2347 - 6435 (Online))Volume 8, Issue 2, February 2019)

For the design point beta ratio (β) of 0.7, the calibration test should be conducted in order to
calculation procedure is conducted with adjust the meter readings with the actual flow
minimum and maximum expected off design rates.
flow rates of 5 and 30 kg/s, respectively. The
iteration process is based this time on the
expected orifice pressure drop only. The
corresponding orifice pressure drop to measure
a flow of 5 kg/s is 3.4 kPa, while to measure a
flow of 30 kg/s, the corresponding orifice
pressure drop is 180 kPa, which are below the
maximum allowable value. Also it is found
that the corresponding orifice pressure drop is
17 kPa for measuring a flow of 10 kg/s.
Figure 10 Orifice plate meter left flange design.
Referring to the design point beta ratio (β) of
0.66, the corresponding orifice pressure drop When dealing with other liquids than water the
to meter 5 kg/s is 4.5 kPa, while to meter 30 density should be replaced in the presented
kg/s, the corresponding orifice pressure drop is mathematical model. Nozzle and venturi flow
245 kPa, which exceeds the allowable meters could be studied similarly for specific
maximum value of 200 kPa. Also to meter 10 tasks; designed, tested, and evaluated.
kg/s, the corresponding orifice pressure drop is Evaluation of the mathematical model and
24 kPa. The variation of the desired mass flow validation should be made including the flow
rate with the cooresponding orifice pressure rate accuracy and sensivity to partial loads.
drop is plotted in Figure 9.

Figure 9 Orifice plate meter assembly.

Figure 11 Orifice plate meter right flange design.
It is clear that the orifice plate meter with a
beta ratio (β) of 0.7 is the most suitable
geometry that satisfies all design contraints
and covers the documented recommendations.
The meter design drawings; the orifice plate
meter assembly, left flange, right flange, and
orifice plate design, are shown below in
Figures 9, 10, 11 and 12, respevtively.

Accuracy and precision of flow meters are the

most important metrological parameters in
most industries. Hence, before field
installation of such meters takes place, Figure 12 Orifice plate design

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 International Journal of Recent Development in Engineering and Technology
Website: www.ijrdet.com (ISSN 2347 - 6435 (Online))Volume 8, Issue 2, February 2019)
XII. REFERENCES 15. UK Environment Agency, Cooling Water
1. ASME MFC-3M, Measurement of Fluid Options for the New Generation of
Flow in Pipes using, Orifice, Nozzle, and Nuclear Power Stations in the UK, 2010.
Venturi, An American National Standard, 16. Mansour, M. S., “Design And Evaluation
revised 1995. Of Orifice Meters Of Fluid Flow In
2. Daniel Measurement and Control, Inc., Pipelines”, M. Sc. Thesis, Mechanical and
Fundamentals of Orifice Meter Industrial Engineering Department,
Measurement, 2010, www. daniel.com. Faculty of Engineering, University Of
3. Engineering Tool Box, Orifice, Venturi Tripoli, Tripoli, Libya, 2017.
and Nozzle flow rate meters, 2012.www.
Engineering ToolBox.com.
4. Fangmeier, D. D., and M. K. Ramsey,
Intake characteristics of irrigated furrows.
Transactions of the ASAE 21(4);696-700,
1978.
5. KLM Technology group, Fluid Flow
Measurement Selection and Sizing
(Engineering design guideline, March
2007.
6. Omega Engineering technical reference,
Introduction to Flow Meters, 2012.
7. International Standard Organization (ISO),
Measurement of fluid flow; Estimation
of uncertainty of a flow rate measurement,
1978.
8. International Standards ISO, Available
from ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York,
NY 10018, 1978.
9. Ree, W. 0., How accurate are shop-made
orifice plates. Transactions of the ASAE
20(2);298-300. 1977.
10. Robinson, A. R., Orifice plates for
furrow flow measurement. Unpublished
report of the USDA-ARS Soil and
Water Conservation Research Division
and Colorado Agric. Exp. Station, 1959.
11. Trout, Thomas I., and Bruce E. Mackey,
Inflow-outflow infiltration measurement
accuracy. Unpublished report to be
submitted to Transactions of the ASAE,
1985.
12. Trout, Thomas I, Orifice plates for furrow
flow measurement; Calibration.
Transactions of the ASAE, 29(1);103-
107, 111 (this issue), 1986.
13. USDA Soil Conservation Service.,
Measurement of irrigation water. SCS
National Engineering Handbook,
Section 15,Chapter 9, pp. 9-5 to 9-9, 1962
14. Tom Bruce, Fluid Mechanics 3 Flow
Measurement Methods The University of
Edinburgh, School of Engineering and
Electronics, February 2006.
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