~

The same tune sounds different when it is

played on different instruments. Some sounds
are higher or louder than others. When two
loudspeakers simultaneously play the same
sound there are some positions between them
where the sound is quiet and some positions
where the sound is loud. These facts can be
explained by learning what decides how high
or loud a sound is and what happens when
two or more sound waves combine.

You will learn about:

• What determines the pitch of a sound
• What determines the volume of a sound
• What happens when two sound waves combine
You will build your skills in:
• Suggesting a hypothesis that can be tested
• Making and explaining predictions using
scientific ideas
• Planning ~n investigation, including how you will
collect evidence to answer your question
• Evaluati_ng how well evidence supports or
co'ntrad1cts a prediction
• Describing the use of science in society, industry
and research
• Evaluating issues using scientific understanding
 m1,PGmer;;J
oudness and
You will learn:
• To understand how to draw and label
waveforms and describe the links between
I
loudness and amplitude and pitch and
itch frequency
• To describe trends and patterns shown in a
set of results, identifying, and explaining, any
anomalous resu lts present
• To use scientific knowledge and understanding
to suggest a testable hypothesis
• To plan investigations used to test hypotheses
• To use scientific knowledge to make
predictions
• To collect and record observations and
measurements appropriately
• To interpret resu lts and form conclusions using
scientific knowledge and und erstan ding
• To evaluate how the prediction is supported by
the evidence collected

•••••• •••••••••••••••••••• • •••• ••• • • ••• •••••••••••• • • ••••• • • •• • •• • • ••• • • •• •• • • • •• • •• •

Starting point
Yf?~ ~ Jd~~ifo~~ttiit..'. -,7~~,-::~'vo1u°'shouic(~~·able·to... . . ' ~ ~"' 7/~: ·• ~; ,.~:~

Sound is produced by vibrations Describe how we can represent and explain sound
waves using a model or analogy
Plan an investigation to test a hypothesis
Use your scientific knowledge to predict the
results of an experiment or investigation
Sound travels as a wave
- - - . - r-
Sound travels at about 340 m/s through air
Pitch describes how high or low a sound is
High- and low-pitched sounds can be soft or loud
Volume describes how soft or loud a sound is

Key terms
Why do sounds have different pitches
and loudness? amplitude: the
maximum height of the
You pluck a guitar string, it will make a sound. If you wave, from the centre to
shorten the string it will make a different sound. If you the top or bottom.
Pluck it harder it will make a louder sound. Sounds made by
pitch: how high or low a
aViolin have a higher pitch than those made by a double sound is.
bass. Why is th is?
is because their sound waves are differ~nt. ~ow loud
a sound is depends on the amplitude of v1brat1on of the
~Und wave. The greater the amplitude of the sound wave,

Loudness and pitch 193

the louder the sound. The amplitud e of a sound wave
depe~ds ~n how much energy the sound wave has. Fo~
a musical instrume nt, this depends on how hard you h!t,
blow or pluck the instrume nt. Amplitud e is measured in
metres (m) though sound waves usually have a very small
amplitud e, much less than a millimetr e.
The pitch of a sound depends on the frequency of vibration Making links
of the sound wave. The greater the frequency, the higher ······· ···············•·..
the pitch. Sounds made by a flute have a higher frequenc y Energy is needed to
(and a higher pitch) than those made by a cello. The more make waves, like sound
waves you make every second, the higher the frequenc y is. waves. Waves transfer
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). One wave every second energy from one place to
gives a frequenc y of 1 Hz. another. The amplitude
of a sound depends on
Waves with a high frequenc y will have a short waveleng th
how much energy the
because they will be close together. The shorter the
sound wave has.
waveleng th, the higher the sound. The waveleng th of a
wave means how long one wave is. One waveleng th is the Give an example of one
distance between a point on one wave (for example, where other type of wave that
the particles are closest together ) and the same point on transfers energy from
the next wave. The vibrating strings of a double bass are one place to another.
longer than those of a violin. A double bass, therefore , can
make sound waves with longer waveleng ths and lower
frequenc ies than a violin can. Key terms

... ·-·· ··-· ..

Wavelen gth is measured in metres (m). frequenc y: the number
of waves per second .
hertz: the unit of
wavelength
frequency. 1 Hz = one
11.1 The wavelength of sound.
complete wave every
second .

• Two of the strings on a guitar can be used to play two

different sounds.
Sound 1 is produced by playing a string that vibrates
300 times in 2 seconds.
wavelen gth: the length
of one complete wave.

Sound 2 is produced by playing a string that vibrates

1000 times in 5 seconds.
The amplitud es of the two sounds was measured, and
sound 1 had an amplitud e which was twice that of
sound 2.
a) Which sound was the loudest?
b) Which sound had the highest frequency?
c) which sound had the longest waveleng th?
d) Which sound had the lowest pitch?

194 Sound
~
LO oking at sound wave s on an oscillo scope screen
Key term
I
... ..... ··•··· .....-•-··~···---··· ..
vou can use a signal generator or microphone to send
.

waveform: the shape of

II electrical im_pulses to an _oscil~oscope. Signal generators can
111ake electrical waves with different frequencies. If you a wave.
,ttach a signal ge_nerator to a loudspeaker you will get
sound waves of different frequencies. The dial on the signal
generator will tell you what the frequency is.
The oscilloscope displays
theelectrical signals as
I
agra ph on a screen.
Thegraphs are called
traces. The shape of
thewave is called ))
awaveform.
Figures 11.3 and 11.4
show the waveforms vibrating
loudspeaker
ofsome sound waves
on an oscilloscope screen . microphone
oscilloscope
Each screen shows the same
time period, so you can see
how many waves have been
madein a given time. 11.2 Looking at sound waves on an oscilloscope screen.
All the pictures have the
same scale.
....+--+ --+-- wavelength • Volume
• Sound A is quieter than sounds B and C.
J->11o.+-- - amplitude We know this because it has a smaller
111111d A "-'--J li--+~ ~~ amplitude.

• Pitch
• Sound A has the same pitch as sound 8.
__..--i- --1--- wavelength We know this because they have the same
wavelength and frequency. The same
number of waves have been made in a
'-di ' given time.

• Sound C has a higher pitch because it

has a shorter wavelength and a higher
frequency. More waves have been made
in the same time.
I L-M-_..._ emplitud•
....,..c L

'·'1J
~ Lt '- 1w..- _, ..-. ·•-' - . . . - ihown on ,n oscil/oseope scrH
 Figure 11 .4 shows the oscilloscope traces for sound_s ~;
and F. You should use these traces to answer quest10 ~
and 3.

sound E
I
,I
---~\
\ ,_ )
V

I
I
- \
sound F '
\ J

11.4 Sounds D, E and F.

\
- j

r O Which of the sounds is the loudest? How do you know?

8 Which has the highest pitch? How do you know7

Usually, the bigger a musical instrument is, the lower

the
frequency of the notes it can make. This is because the
size of the instrument sets the maximum wavelength
of
the sound waves it makes. The bigger the instrument,
the
longer the wavelength. This is why you can change the
pitch
of the note made by a stringed instrument like a guit
shortening or lengthening the string. ar by

r ---
0 Will shortening a guitar string make the pitch of
the
-
note higher or lower7 Explain your answer.

Science in context: Your uni que voi cep rint

Voice recognition systems can be used to identify
1 a person from their voice. You may ~
be asked to speak a special password or passphra
se. This is then stored electronically (as }
your 'voiceprint') and when you speak that password
... _...,.
or passphrase again the electronic... '
.. ~t • • • - - -
~
- " - - · _ .. .. - · - . ....... .#,,. _.,.~ . _ _ .._ • • • , .... ~- ..

1Qfi <;n11
 ,ttern made by your voice is compared to the pattern stored. This relies on the fact that
~our voice produces a waveform pattern that is different from anyone else's. The pitch,
\lolume and speed of your speech, for example, are unique.
rtiese systems are ~~ effective and even a good imitation of your voice does not give the
same waveform. This 1s because the way you say words depends on biological factors such
as the size and shape of your vocal chords, nose and larynx and how they move when you
speak. Criminals woul~ find _it very difficult to recreate your voiceprint artificially. However
if they record your voice saying the special phrase they could use this to pretend to be you.
1. Give an example of where voice recognition systems could be useful.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this technology. I
I
frequency range of human hearing ;1
ttJU,dt·\,I ""hen th~ ear detects sound, a thin layer of tissue 11
called the eardrum 1s made to vibrate. These vibrations are
Key terms
passed on to tiny bones called ossicles and then on to the ·························..···..·········..··········-··--·····
inner ear before being passed on to the brain in the form of
infrasound: sound
electrical signals.
waves w ith a frequency
The human ear can hear frequencies as low as about 20 Hz too low for humans to
and as high as about 20 000 Hz (20 kHz). hear.
Anything lower than 20 Hz is called infrasound. We cannot ultrasound: sound
hear this but the vibrations are still there. waves with a frequency
too high for humans to
Elephants can hear sound with frequencies as low as 5 Hz,
hear.
but they cannot hear frequencies above 10 000 Hz.
Sounds waves with a frequency higher than 20 000 Hz are
called ultrasound. We cannot hear these but some animals can.
Dogs have a hearing range of about 40 Hz to 60 000 Hz.
Cats can hear even higher frequencies, up to 85 000 Hz.
Dolphins can hear a very large range of frequencies, from
less than 1 Hz to 200 000 Hz. Bats have a range of about 20
Hz to 120 000 Hz. Dolphins communicate with each other
using ultrasound; bats do the same. Bats also judge distances
using ultrasound echoes. This helps them to navigate.

0 Which of the animals dogs, cats, dolphins and bats:

a) can hear the lowest frequency?
b) can hear the highest frequency?
c) can hear over the biggest range of frequencies?

Loudness and pitch 197

 Activ ity 11.1: Tes-- . .......... "-ar.. ina r.1no;., e
.. =--
- • h d nd high-pitched sounds but it ·
•iitJri M,i Please note that this activity uses low-pitc e a
·11
w, not dama ge your hearin • h If
g or cause you _arm.. . . resu the Its cause you concern about J'.
your hearing, please seek medical advice. This act1v1ty is not a medically appro ved hearing !
· test so canno t be used to diagnose hearing issues. :
. . . '
· If you already have hearing issues or are uncomf orta blea bout doing this act1v1ty, please
advise your teacher. '~
· l gener
Set the signa f t low to hear'. Gradu ally increa
ator at a very low requency, 00 h f se (thed :
frequency and note when you can first hear a sound. Keep increa·sing_ •
t e requency an
the pitch of the sound) until you can no longer hear it. Note when this
happ ens.

Activ ity 11.2: Chan ging the pitch

Get a glass beake r and a pencil. Tap the side of the beake r with a penci
l. Listen to the
note that this makes.
A1 What do you think will happen to the note produced if you add a
little more water
to the beaker?
A2 Why do you think this will happen?
Add a little more wate r to the beaker and repeat.
A3 Does the result match your prediction?
Add even more wate r and repea t again. Keep doing this until you can
see a clear pattern ,
to your results.
t
A4 What is the patte rn? Is it what you expected? I
l
AS Explain whet her your evidence is strong enou gh to suppo rt
your conclusion.

Activ ity 11.3: Inve stiga ting musi cal bottl es

You have discovered that adding more wate r to a glass beake r chang
es the pitch of the
note it makes. Are there other ways to change the pitch?
A1 Write down a scientific question you would like to investigate abou
t making music .
with bottles. For example, think abou t what else you could chan ge and •
might affect the sound produced. how this

A2 Predict what will happ en and use scientific ideas to explain your
hypothesis.
A3 Describe how you will obtai n evidence to test your hypothesis
. Include what you will
measure and how you will control any other variables.
\
A4 When yo~ have collected your resul:ts, explain how well your evide
hypothesis. nce suppo rts your !

198 Soun d
 RSB ~12,S b 11 .1
Key facts: Check your skills progress:
1
,1 The pitch of I sound depends on the • I can write a hypothesis based on •
frequency of the sound wave. scientific understanding, and say how tt
can be tested by investiga ting what will
,1 The volume of a sound depends on the happen to a variable when a different
amplitude of the sound wave. variable is changed.
,1 The frequency of a wave Is the number • I can write a plan of how to test my
of waves per second end is measured hypothesis including a descriptio n
In hertz (Hz). of how to make measurements and
,1 The shorter the wavelength of a sound successfully control the remaining
wave, the higher its frequency is. variables.

,1 The size of a mU5k:al Instrument sets • I can use results to draw conclusions
the maximum wavelength of the about a hypothesis.
sound it can produce.

Loudnes s a nd pitch 199

 ' .
Chapter 11 . Topic 2 You will learn:
• To underst and how to represent
Interference th e interaction or reinforcement of
sound w aves using waveforms
• To use scientif ic knowledge t o make
predictions
• To describe the uses, st rengths a nd
limitations of models and analogies

J· ········· ···· ···· ··················· ······· ······· ················ ········· ········

Starting point
o ho I th
Sound travels as a wave Draw waveforms to compare waves of different
amplitudes __ _ _
The amplitude of a wave as shown on a
- - - --- - ---
waveform as the maximum height of the wave
from the cent~e to-~ e t~p- or bottom _
----- --- --------- -- -
The frequency of a wave is the number of
waves per second
The wavelength of a wave is the length of one ,
complete wave

Key terms
What is interference?
crest: the highest point
When we look at a water wave or a waveform on an of a wave.
oscilloscope screen, we can use the amplitude of the wave
to identify some key parts: crests and troughs. These are trough: the lowest point
shown in figure 11.5. of a wave.

a b
water level when direction the wave is moving
crests of the water is calm
the wave
troughs of - - -..loot-__._ _..
the wave L _ - - - _,__J
this water goes up and down as the wave passes through
/ --
' ' - ......
~
,,- -
"' ... -
~
/
/
-'
how we draw a waveform
11.5 a Looking at uests and troughs on a water wave. b Looking at crests and troughs on a waveform shown on
an oscilloscope screen.

Looking at the water wave in figure 11.Sa, we can see

that the crests are formed when the water particles move
upwards to their highest point and the troughs are formed
when the water particles move downwards to their lowest
point.

200 Sound
 the wavefo rm of a sound wave in f 11 .2
fO~ troughs represent the positions w~~~re ~ 1.Sb, !he c~ests
an nd wave are moving with th . e t e particles in
a solJ . eir 1argest amplitude of
'brat1on.
111
Key terms
············ ··-········..···································
What would happen if the water part·
0 Ic1es were
pushe d upward s an~ downwards, using the same
constructive
interference: this
force, at the same time? happens when two or
more waves are added
together to make a
sometimes two or more wa~es will meet each other. When bigger wave.
two waves meet they '?mbin e rather like putting one wave
destructive
on top of the other. This causes an effect called interference.
interference: this
What happens as a result of interference depends on which happens when two or
parts of each wave meet. more waves combine to
make a smaller wave or
The result of a trough meeting a crest will be differen t from
to cancel each other out
the resu It when two crests meet.
altogether.
The result of a wave meeting a wave with the opposite interference: what
amplitude will be differen t from the result when two waves happens when two or
with the same amplitu de meet. more waves meet and
Figure 11.6 shows what might happen when two identical their effects are added
water waves interfer e. together.

0J+ V' =
1\/V \_; vV v
Two identical waves may add together (reinforce) to make a double-heig ht wave, or add together
so as to cancel each other out.
11.6 Different effects of interference.

In figure 11.6a, where the two crests meet, the particles

move upwards twice as far (because both waves are pushing
the particles in the same directio n at the same time).
Where two troughs meet the particles move downw ards
twice as far (because both waves are pushing the particles
downwards at the same time). This makes a wave with
~ouble the amplitu de of the original waves. This type of
interference is called constructive interfer ence.
In figure 11.6b, at the crests of one wave the particles
should be at their highest point, but where they meet a~ the
troughs of the other wave the particles should be at their
l~west point. The movem ents are equal size but in opposite
directions so there is no overall movem ent up or down. This
~eans the waves have cancelled each other out. This type of
interference is called destruc tive interfer ence.

Interfer e nce
 • For two overlapping water waves, the waves can
combine to give higher crests and deeper troughs, or
the crests of one wave can fill in the troughs of the
other wave, resulting in flat water.
• For two overlapping sound waves, the waves can
combine to give a bigger particle disturbance and
a louder area, or a smaller or no disturbance and a
quieter area .

I • Two sound waves cancel each other out. Does this

produce a loud or quiet area?

I 1

\
•
0
Two sound waves reinforce each other. Does this
produce a loud or quiet area?

Use your understanding of particle movement to

explain how two waves can cancel each other out.

• a) Which pair of waves shown in figure 11.7 would

combine to produce a wave with the biggest
amplitude?
b) Which pair of waves shown in figure 11.7 would
cancel each other out when they combined?
W X
J\J\J J\J\J
J\J\J rv\.l'
y z
~ ~
./VV \JV\.
11.7 Pairs of waves.

l
t

?
~ '
I

l
~·- - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -
202 Sound
 • ing
fl]Onc interference in everyday life

u
1 This wave pattern was produced by a wave interfering with another
wave reflected from the shore.

Activity 11.4: Interference of sound waves

Your teacher may demonstrate this activity.
A Connect a signal generator to two identical loudspeakers, approximately 3-4 metres
apart.
B Set the signal generator to produce a sound that can be heard easily. The speakers
produce identical sound waves.
(Note, if you don't have a signal generator you can play a single note through two
loudspeakers.)
C Connect a microphone to an oscilloscope.
D Starting at one loudspeaker, slowly move the microphone across to the other
loudspeaker. Look at the amplitude of the waveform shown on the oscilloscope screen.
This will show if there are any changes in the volume of the sound at different points
between the loudspeakers.
A1 Would you expect the volume of the sound detected by the microphone to be the
same at every point between the two loudspeakers?
A2 Explain your answer to A 1.
A3 Do your results agree with your answer to A 1?
A4 Are you confident that your results are good enough to be certain about your
conclusion?
AS You could do this experiment by just walking between the loudsp~akers ~nd listening
to the volume. Why are you likely to get more useful results by usmg a microphone
and oscilloscope instead?

Interference 203
 Scie nce in cont ext: Shut ting out the nois e
Activ e noise-cancelling headphones let you listen to music throu
g~ your he~dphones
witho ut also heari ng all the noise in your surroundings that some
times spoils your
enjoy ment .
The headphones work using the idea of destructive interferenc
e. There are tiny
microphones which detec t sounds around you. These sounds (the
I 'noise') are then
i
processed and their waveforms reversed so that the parts that
were crests become
I: I
troug hs and vice versa. These processed waveforms then comb
the noise and cancel them out.
ine with the wave forms of

There are possible problems caused by using this technology, for

example, walki ng on the
stree t using noise-cancelling headphones means you may not hear
appro achin g traffic .
Use the inform ation in the box above to answer questions 9
and 10.

0 a) Give one advantage of noise-cancelling technology.

b) Give one disadvantage of noise-cancelling
technology.

Key facts :
Check your skill s progress:
fl' Interf erenc e occurs when two or more
waves meet. • I can use the analo gy with wate r waves
to describe how two sound waves can
fl' The wave produced depends on the comb ine to produ ce a loude r sound or
ampl itude of the origin al waves and cancel each other out.
how they combine.
• I can use my know ledge and
fl' 1\No sound waves can reinforce each unde rstan ding to predi ct what will
other to produ ce a bigge r disturbance. happen when two soun d waves
This gives a sound wave with a loude r comb ine.
soun d than the origin al waves.
• I can draw conclusions from my results
~ Two soun d waves can cancel each othe and discuss whet her my results are
out to produce silence. J good enou gh to be confi dent that my
l _ _ _ __ _ _ _ conclusion is right .
_ _ _ _ _ __ :~
204 Soun d
I
,,.-------------
End of chapter review
=-~~~ ~~~ -- -- -
Quick questions
1. What does pitch mean?

2. What feature of a sound wave determines its pitch?

3. What does volume mean?

4, What feature of a sound wave determines how loud it is?
s. Complete the sentence below. Use the correct word from the box.
~igge r smaller longer shorter
When two identic al wave crests meet they make a wave with a _ _ _ _ __
amplitude.

6. How do you lower the pitch of the note made by a stringed instrum ent like a
guitar?

7. Why do large musical instruments usually make deeper sounds than small
musical instruments?

8. When the crest of one water wave meets the trough of an identical water
wave do you get a larger water wave or flat water?

Connect your understanding

9. How could you use a microphone and an oscilloscope to see what the sound waves
made when you speak look like?

10. (a) How can you change the pitch of the sound a drum makes?

(b) Explain your answer.

11. Copy the sound wave in figure 11 .9.

11.9
(a) Draw a sound wave that is louder but has the same pitch.

(b) Draw a sound wave that has the same volume but a lower pitch than the
first wave.

End of chapter review 205

 (c) Draw a sound wave that has a higher pitch and a lower volume than the
first wave.
12. Draw accurate diagrams to show how two identical waves can interfere to
produce a wave which has twice the amplitude of the original waves.

Challenge questions
13. A person makes a sound which starts at a very low pitch. The pitch then becomes
higher and higher. At the same time, the sound gets quieter and quieter. Sketch a
diagram to show what the sound wave would look like.
14. Explain why two waves which have different frequencies cannot cancel each other
out completely.

15. (a) Describe how noise-cancelling headphones work.

(b) Do you think noise-cancelling headphones are a good or bad thing?
Explain your answer.

20j Sound
 End of stage review
~
a) What is the only method of heat transfer that can occur in a vacuum?
1. (
A conduction
B convection
c radiation
(b) Complete this sentence: Convection cannot happen in _ _ _ _ _ _ . This is
because their particles cannot
------
(c) Explain two ways that a vacuum flask prevents thermal transfers in or out.

2. Diante measured the weight of objects made of three different materials in ai~,
then lowered them into water and measured the apparent weight in water. His
results are shown in the table.

Apparent weight
Object Weight in air (N) Upthrust (N)
in water (N)

(a) Complete the table to find the upthrust on each object.

(b) What would you would notice about object C with an apparent weight of
zero.
(c) What can you conclude about the density of object C?
3. (a) In the circuit shown below, the current measured at ammeter 1 is 0.6 A. What
will the current be at ammeter 2 and ammeter 3?

1 A A 3
 (b) Mihail wanted to measure the resistance of a lamp. Draw th e circuit showing
the position of the voltmeter.

(c) Mihail connected his circuit. The ammeter reading was 0.2 A and the
voltmeter reading was 1.2 V. Calculate the resistance of the lamp. Give the
units.
4. (a) Mia uses an oscilloscope to record three sounds.

\ "
I I
(\ (\ (\ r,
I
I I \ j \ /1\
\ I \
V
\
"
' '
J \J
'
sound A sound B sound C

(i) Write the name of the sound that is the loudest.

(ii) Write the name of the sound that has the highest frequency.
(b) Kiran plucks a stretched elastic band and makes a sound identical to sound C.
(i) Draw a diagram to show how Kiran's sound wave could interfere with the
waveform shown as sound C to make the smallest wave possible.
(ii) Is this an example of constructive or destructive interference?