Unit-01/Lecture-01

Central Processing Unit

A central processing unit (CPU) is the hardware within a computer that carries out the instructions of
a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, control
and input/output operations of the system. The term has been in use in the computer industry at
least since the early 1960s.[1] The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the
course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains much the same.

A computer can have more than one CPU; this is called multiprocessing. All modern CPUs
are microprocessors, meaning contained on a single chip. Some integrated circuits (ICs) can contain
multiple CPUs on a single chip; those ICs are called multi-core processors. An IC containing a CPU can
also contain memory, peripheral devices, and other components of a computer system; this is called
a system on a chip (SoC).

Two typical components of a CPU are the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and
logical operations, and the control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes
and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

Not all computational systems rely on a central processing unit. An array processor or vector
processor has multiple parallel computing elements, with no one unit considered the "center". In
the distributed computing model, problems are solved by a distributed interconnected set of
processors.

Memory

Memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequences of instructions) or
data (e.g. program state information) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer
or other digital electronic device. The term primary memory is used for the information in
physical systems which function at high-speed (i.e. RAM), as a distinction from secondary
memory, which are physical devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but
offer higher memory capacity. If needed, primary memory can be stored in secondary memory,
through a memory management technique called "virtual memory". An archaic synonym for
memory is store.

The term "memory", meaning primary memory is often associated with addressable
semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuits consisting of silicon-based transistors, used for
example as primary memory but also other purposes in computers and other digital electronic
devices. There are two main types of semiconductor memory: volatile and non-volatile.
Examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory (sometimes used as secondary, sometimes
primary computer memory) and ROM/PROM/EPROM/EEPROM memory (used for firmware such
as boot programs). Examples of volatile memory are primary memory (typically dynamic RAM,
DRAM), and fast CPU cache memory (typically static RAM, SRAM, which is fast but energy-
consuming and offer lower memory capacity per area unit than DRAM).

Most semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells or bi stable flip-flops, each storing
one bit (0 or 1). Flash memory organization includes both one bit per memory cell and multiple
bits per cell (called MLC, Multiple Level Cell). The memory cells are grouped into words of fixed
word length, for example 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bit. Each word can be accessed by a binary
address of N bit, making it possible to store 2 raised by N words in the memory. This implies that
processor registers normally are not considered as memory, since they only store one word and
do not include an addressing mechanism.

I/O bus: Any path used to transfer data and control information between components of an
I/O subsystem. An I/O bus consists of wiring (either cable or backplane), connectors. and all
associated electrical drivers, receivers, transducers, and other required electronic components.
I/O buses are typically optimized for the transfer of data, and tend to support more restricted
configurations than networks. Generally, an I/O bus that connects a host computer's host bus
adapter to intelligent storage controllers or devices is called a host I/O bus. An I/O bus that
connects storage controllers or host I/O bus adapters to devices is called a device I/O bus. cf.
channel, device, device I/O bus, host I/O bus, network.
 Fig 1.4

System bus
A system bus is a single computer bus that connects the major components of a computer
system. The technique was developed to reduce costs and improve modularity. It combines the
functions of a data bus to carry information, an address bus to determine where it should be
sent, and a control bus to determine its operation. Although popular in the 1970s and 1980s,
modern computers use a variety of separate buses adapted to more specific needs.

Fig 1.5 Example of Single system computer bus