Limits and Continuity

1. LIMITS

In the present chapter we shall introduce the important concept of

Fimit and continuity ofa function whose domain is an interval and whose
range is contained in R. Since we shall throughout be concerned with
Such functions only, the word function willstand for afunction whose
domain is an interval and whose range is a subset of R.
1-1.One-sided limits
pefinition 1-1. A functionfdefined on aset Scontaining lc, d[ is
said to tend to (or approach)a number las x tends to (or approaches)
crom the right (or from above), ifgivene> Owe canfind a8> 0such
that
c<x<c+ð’ |f()- l|<E.
In symbols, we then write
lim fr) = 1, orf(c + 0)= 1,
X’c+0

lim f(x) =1.

Itis important to note thatf(c+0) can exist withoutf being defined

at x = c. What we need is that fmust be defined at all points of an open
interval Jc, d| having cas the left hand end point.
If we have to show that f does not tend to a limit as x tends
from
It.
the right, we have to negate the above definition. Let us attempt to do
If it is not true that 'for every [ >0, there is some8>0 suchthat
C<x<c+ Ó’ |fx) - l|<E,
then there is E>0, such that for every 8>0, there is some xsatisfy-
ing someSbut
c<x<C+
If there is
not I f() -l< 8. This means that :
SomeeE> 0, such that for every >0 there is an x for
which <x <c+ Õand
c
and II fx) - 1|>E, then f does not approach las x
approaches cfrom the right.
 Lmits and

Thus toshow that f does not tend to las x tends to c. from the right,
il suftices 1oproduce an E >0such that for each 8 > 0 there is some x
for whichc<x<c+ôand |f(r) - |e.
VDefinition 1-2. Afunction defined on aset S containing ]b, c[ is
said to tend to(or approach) a number I as x tends to (or approaches)
cfrom the left (or from below) if given [> 0, we can find a 8> 0 such
that
C- 6<x<clf(r) |<E.
Insymbols, we then write
lim f) = , orf(c 0) =l, or lim f() = l.
X’c-0

The negation of the above definition can be easily seen to be the

following:
If there exists an E>0suchthat for each &>0. there is somex for
which c-O<xcand I f(x) -I|E then f(x) does not tend to l as I
tends tocfrom the left.
Illustrations
1.Letfbe the function defined on R -{0} by setting
1-2. Limit as x approaches e
Befinition 1-3. Let f be afunction defined on Some
neighbour
hood Nof c, except possible at x = c.j is said to approach a
approaches c if for every &>0, there is some Ü>0such that
.
limit |
as
0<lx-cl<Ó’f()|<E.
Insymbols, we then write
lim f(x) =l.
If we have to show thatfdoes not
approach l as x approaches c, we
have to negate the above definition. Let us attempt to do it.
If it is not true that
for every e>0, there is some &> 0 such that
0<lx-cl<ð’
then there is some &>0, lf(x)Il<E,
such that for every Ô>0, thee is some xsatisl)"
ing 0<lx-cl<6but not
This means that: satisfying lf(x) |<E.
If there is some
E>0, such that for every S>0 there isS an xfo
which 0<x-cl< Sand | f(x) -|>e, then last
approaches c. fdoes not approacn
Thus to show thatfdoes not itsuftices
to produce an [>0 approach / as x
such that for each &>0, approaches c whia
SOme xfor
0<x-cl< and |f(x) -l|2E. there is
Remark. Let us emphasize that for lim f) to exist, itisnot
all necessary thatf be eo>
/
be defined defined at x =c. It is enough that for some
whenever lx-cl<.
) <
Theorem 1-3. If lim
 Limits and Continuity 233

10. lff)= d) + a, " + a,x + . . . + a,, then prove that

lim f() = f(a).
11. Prove that
() hm f)= lim0- 0 f-).

() lim fll)= lim f).

2. CONTÊNUOUS FUNCTIONS

Definitions 2-1. Let fbe a function whose domain I is an open

intenval and whose range is contained in R. and let xÍ ¬ I. fis said to be
continuous at o. t givenE> 0, we can find a 8> 0 such that
Ix-l< ×’|f) - f )l<e.
If f is continuOUs for each xo ¬ I, then we say that fi
continuous on /.
Itcan be easilyseen that the above definition of continuity is equiva.
lent to the following
Afunction defined on an open interval I is said to be continuous a
o ¬ Iif lim f() exists and equals f(x).
pefinition 2-2. Afunction f defined on an open interval l is said
to be continous from the left at Xo¬l, if X’x0
lim-0 fr) exists and equals
fa). Also, fis said tobe continousfrom the right at xo if ’lim0-0 fu)
exists and equals fx0).
From the above definitions it is clear that for a functionfto be con
tinuous at Xo, it is necessary as well as sufficient thatfbe continuous from
the left as well as from the right at xo
Definitions2-3. Afunction fdefined on the closed interval [a, b)
is said to be continuous at a if it is continuous from the right at a. Also.
fis said tobe continuous at b if it is continuous from the left at b. Fur
ther, f is said to be continuous on Ja, b] if (i) it is continuous on la, Dl
(i) continuous from the right at a and (üi) continuous from the left ar
Remarks. 1. The intervallin definitions 2-1 and 2-2 may
any one of the following forms:
Ja, b[, ]- , [, Ja, o|, ] o, b[.
2. Continuity on intervals of the type (a, b[, Ja, b]. [a, o
can be defined in the same manner as in definitions 2-3.
 Real Analysis

function is not continuous at aa point, then it is said to be

3. Ifa point.
discontiauOUS at that
ATheorem 2-1. Afunction f defined on lcR is continuous at
which converges to p, we have
pelitfor for crery sequence <p,> in I
lim f(p,)=fp).
Proof. Let us first suppose thatfis continuous atp and that <p,> is
sequencein Isuch that lim P,=P.
1n’oo

Lete be a positive number. Sincefis continuous at p, therefore, we

pen can find ð>0 such that
he -)fn)
 and I’p+0 lim x’p-0 I’p+0 X’pt0
I’p-0 3. staated have be ifx
lim lim
lim lim tof(P). equal point
functio n
lim fhas fu) TYPES Since discussed
has fx) (üi) fx)
f f f(x) f fa) (üi) p
has has (i)f Let fEbe in
Remark. 0,
and 10. Since Here
fx)
continuity
sts.
a does
discontinuity
not
a does has f exists
di
discontinuity
not a but s
a exists
cont i n uit y
a exists has
f
a
has 1,
athen a OF
functwe
discontinuity removable
ion lxl-00ll<<ölSif(«f))-f(0)
th
without eorem
2-1. In
-f(0) in Let
detail
f(0) fbe
=
lim x,
’
k,

of
exist.
discontinuity
exist.
unequal.
are
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not
is
but
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is DISCONTINUITY
say
defithat ned
using
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s d
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f| lim ContLiminituisandty
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the
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ofequal ofequal discontinuity above
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be Icont 0. fis
fe> inuous
n’o
lim fa,)
second of the of on
second the first to to the
f(p). first f(p).
an intielrestustirnatgions
l<E,l=lx 0 defined x, =k-
|,
be
second first atinterval thRerefore, I#f(k).
kind
atp kind
kind kind
kind X’p
p
if I.
thereftoore,fis (1/si:n) given, on R.by
on

if from
kind at from
from
lim Iffbe examine havewe thensettingf(*)
The f
neither
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is at =0. need 239
and
 continuous 40
f0-0) Also Here In Since Here
Let
fact.
at
Illustrations
Let
(0+ fbe fhas a
=
lim 1-0
f)= lim 1. fbe
f0) 1.= f(x) = the a 0. f)
removable f(0) 0.
=f)= the
lim = 0) function
h-»0 e =1 h>0 = exists function
h-’0
]+e lim h>0
lim = e-e
5.Fi1g5. but Anulysis
Real
2/h 21h
|-e defined
discontinuity is defincd
te -e 0.
if
+1 2/h 2/h not
on equal on
1/h x0, if
R
by at R
to by
setting x setting
= f(0),
0.
therefore.

fis
not
 X=0. so the
the
therefore.fis
therefore,fis first
that firstkind
WeLet Here A. Here. Remark.3 Since
5. Sincef(0- kind
shall us we Let
Let have Letfbe f(0
examine from
fbecontinuous
fbe from
continuous +
first f0 f(0 f(0+ the The the 0)
a the the 0)
show f(0) 0.= fx)sin = the
discontinuity + fx) =f(0) f(x) =
it function 0) function right 0) 0) = functiongraph left f(0) =
for x=0.=0,ifx<0,
= if
=-1, = =0. = = 0, from
atf(0
Continuity
Limits
and
that 1,f(0 1, at +f(0 from h>0 h’0+e
|
lim
h>0 h’0 e h>0
lim
ontinuity if of x
f(0
if x=0. defined f =the
defined defined
x> =0. xthe + is 0).
when#0x of - -1/h -, as right 0),
left 0),
+
0) the 0) 0, I/h
if shown
at = on at x on at=
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does
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R =0
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and 0
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a discontinuity of
both discontinuity
the
sides 241
of
 Limits and Continuity

PROBLEMS

1. Letfbe the function defined on [0, 1|by setting

1 1
f )= - , when 2"+1
2" 2"
n=0, 1,2, 3..
f0) = 0.
Show that fiscontinuous except at the points
1 1 1
X=
2 22 2"
Describe the nature of discontinuity at each of these points.
2. Letfbe the function defined on [0, 1] by setting
f(x) = (- 1)', when r+]

r=1,2, 3, .....
f0) = 0,
f )= 1.
.
 3 St<2,
f(t + )=f(), for all te R.
Show that f is continuous for all te R.
6. Examine the functionf, defined on R by
setting
-x', when xs0,
5x4, when 9,xsl,
fr) =
4x-3x, when I<x<2,
3x+4, when x2,
for points of discontinuity.
1. Let fbe the function defined on [0, 1]as follows :
1
f0) =0.f() = -x if 0<< 2
2 2

3 -x if
fx) = << 1, and f(l) =1.
2 2

and continuous at all

Show thal fis discontinuous at x=0, 27:
each case
otLefher bepoints.
State the nature of discontinuity
the function defined on R byselling
in

fx) =[x), for allre R, exeedng . Show that/

where \x\x] denotes the greatest integer not
point A = 0, ± I,
t2. t 3,
und is

discontinuous at Ihe
Linuous at every other p01nt.
9.Lenfbe the function defined on Rby selling
J(a) =X- [x1, for all x E R.
t
=0, , ±2, #3,
 (a) fr) = (r- [l), for all x >0
(b) fu) = [x] + (r- [x])", for all x 20.
4 ALGEBRA OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
S0 vÍheorem 4-1. Let f and g be defined on an interval I. Iff and a
are continuous at p ¬ I, then f+g is continuOus at p.
Proof. Let us assume that f and g are both continuous at pe .If
<P,> be any sequence converging to p, then
lim f(p,) =fp),
|-’oo

and lim g(p,) = g(p),

sincefand g are both continuous at p.

Now, lim (f+ g) (P,) =lim (f(P,) +&(p,)).
= lim f(p,) + lim g(p).
-fp) t gP),
=(ft g) (P).
showing thatf +g is continuous at p.
fheorem 4-2. Letf and g be defined on an interval 1. 03*
are continuous at pe 1, then fg is continuous at p. atpeLI
Proof. Let us assume that f and 8 are both continuous
<p,> be any sequence covering to p, then
 Real Analysis

lim fp,) = f(p).

lim gp,) = g(p).

Eeranigare bboth continuous at p.
Now. Iim Ug) P,) = lim

= lim f(p,) limn g(p,).

=f(p) g(P).
= (fg) ( p).
oing that fg 1s continuous at p.
p4Theorem 4-3. If is continuous at a point pand c eR. hen cf is
Contunuous at p.
Proof. Let us assume thatf is continuous at p. If <p,> be any se
quence converging top, then
lim f(p,) =f(p).
Snce fis continuous atp.
Now. lim (cf)(Pa)= lim cf(p,).
n’ n’o

=c lim fp).,
n’o

= cf(p),
= (cf)(p).
Moing that cfis continuous at p.
0rheorem
BP)z0. Iff and4-4.g areLetcontinuous
f and gbeat pedefined
l, thenonflganis intenval
continuousIandat p.let
Proof.
at Let<p be any sequence converging to p. Since gis con-
Uuous p.
therefore,
lim g(p,) = gP).
AgaiP,) n, since
0,
8(p)#0, theretore, there is apositive integer msuch
Also, Sincewhenever
fis
n >m.
continuous at p., therefore,
lim fp,) =f(P).
n’
 Limits and Continuity
25$
Now, lim (flg)(p,) = lim {fp,)/g(p,) ).,
= lim f(p,)/ lim gp,).

=f(p)/gp),
= (flg) (p).
showing that f/g is continuous at p.
BeTheorem 4-5. Iffis continuous, 1hen lflis continuouS.
Proof. Letp be any point belonging to the domain offandd
be a sequence converging to p. let<p>
Then lim lfI(p,) =lim lf(p,)l =l lim f(p)l=lf(p) l=ifl(p)
In’ oo

so that Lflis continuous at p.

S0 theorem 4-6. Letfand g be defined on an interval I. If they are
both continuous at pel, then the functions max. (f., g} and min. {f, e)
are both continuOuS at p.

Proof. max. (f. g}= f+s)+f-el.

min. (f. g} =! (f+g) - 2 If-gl.
2

Now apply theorems 4-1,4-3, and 4-5.

S0 heorem 4-7. Let fand g be defined on intervals I and J respec
tively, and let f(l) cJ.lffis continuous at pe I and g is continuous at
f(p), then gof is continuous at p.
Proof. Let <p,> be any sequence inI converging to p. Since jIs
continuous atp, therefore, <f(p,)> converges tof(p). Also, sincef(/)
J, therefore, <f(p,) > is a sequence in J.
Now gis continuous at f(p) and <f (p)> is a sequence in J
converging tof(p). Therefore, <g(f(p,))> converges to g(f(p). 1en
<(gof) (p,)> converges to (gof (P).
Since <p, > converges to p implies that <(gof p,)> convergesto
(gof) (p), therefore gof is continuous at p.
BOUNDEDNESS OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
MTneorem 5-1. Every function defined and continuous
closed interval bounded above therein. That is,
is iffis continuous
onl

(= la, b]), then there exists areal number u such that

considered, then we say that fis uniformly continuous. More precisely,
we have the following:
péfinition 8-1. Afunctionf definedon an interval I is said to be
uniformly continuous on I, if given[ >0 there exists a 6> 0 such thül
ifx, yare in Iand Ix- yl<&. then lf() -f(y) I<[.
functionfdefined by
Fromthe above discussion we find that the
f(x)=, for all x e R
is not uniformly continuous (though it is continuous). un
but not
As another example of afunction which is continuous
formly continuous, letus consider the function gdefined by settinE
gx) =sin (1/x) for all x > 0. uniformlycot
gis clearly continuous on R. To showthat it is not
no
tinuous on R, we have to show that there is an [> 0 for whichpoints
works. That is, whatever o> 0 we may choose, we can find two}
and x, both in R*, such that
 The following twotheorems express the relation between continuity
and uniform continuity. The first one tells us that uniform continuity al
ways implies continuity. The second one states a sufficient condition un
der which continuity implies uniform continuity.
4Theorem 8-1. Iffbe uniformly continuous on an interval I, then
it is continuous on I.
Proof. Let fbe uniformly continuous on 1, let x, be any point of 1,
and let [ >0be given.
Since fis uniformly continuous on I, therefore, there exists a ð>0
such that if xand y are in Iand lx- yl<à, then
If(«)-f() l<e.
Settingy=x0. we have in particular,
find'
if xe Iand Ix-x< 6, then lf(x) -f() l<[.
This means thatfis continuous at X: