Energy

Manual
SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE

HEGGER
FUCHS
STARK
ZEUMER

Birkhäuser
Basel · Boston · Berlin

Edition Detail
Munich
This book was compiled at the Specialist articles:
Energy Efficient Building Design Unit, Darmstadt Technical University
Prof. Manfred Hegger Chris Luebkeman, Dr. sci. tech.
Department of Architecture, Darmstadt Technical University Arup Research + Development, London
www.tu-darmstadt.de/architektur/ee
in conjunction with the Hermann Scheer, Dr. rer. pol., MdB
Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, Eurosolar, Bonn
Munich
www.detail.de Robert Kaltenbrunner, Dr.-Ing. Architect
Federal Office for Building & Regional Planning, Bonn

Thomas Herzog, O. Prof. em., Dr. (Rome Univ.), Dr. h. c.,

Authors Dipl.-Ing. Architect, Munich TU

Manfred Hegger Karl-Heinz Petzinka, Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Architect

Prof. Dipl.-Ing. M. Econ Architect Bernhard Lenz, Dipl.-Ing., Dipl.-Ing., MEng. Architect
Energy Efficient Building Design Unit, Darmstadt TU Design & Building Technology Unit, TU Darmstadt

Matthias Fuchs Scientific advisers, diagnosis system for sustainable building quality
Dipl.-Ing. Architect (DSQ):
Energy Efficient Building Design Unit, Darmstadt TU Brian Cody, Prof. BSc(Hons) CEng MCIBSE, Graz TU
Sabine Djahanschah, Dipl.-Ing. Arch., Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt
Thomas Stark Thomas Lützkendorf, Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil., University of Karlsruhe
Dr.-Ing. Architect Hansruedi Preisig, Prof. Dipl. Arch. SIA, Winterthur Polytechnic
Energy Efficient Building Design Unit, Darmstadt TU Peter Steiger, Prof. em., Darmstadt TU

Martin Zeumer Library of Congress Control Number:

Dipl.-Ing. 2008931674 (hardcover)/2008931739 (softcover)
Energy Efficient Building Design Unit, Darmstadt TU
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(ISBN 978-3-7643-8385-5)
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4
Contents

Preface 6 4 Building services 110

Sustainable building services 110

Part A Positions 8 Heating 113
Cooling 128
1 Global change Mechanical ventilation 133
Chris Luebkeman 10 Optimising the artificial lighting 136
2 Energy change Generating electricity 138
Hermann Scheer 14
3 Architecture and sustainability – 5 Materials 146
a difficult relationship
Robert Kaltenbrunner 18 Heat flow 148
4 Doing things right – Embodied energy 159
on efficiency and sustainability Materials in the life cycle 165
Manfred Hegger 24
5 Solar Architecture 6 Strategies 176
Thomas Herzog 28
6 Planning and building in life cycles Energy concepts 177
Karl-Heinz Petzinka, Bernhard Lenz 32 Politics, legislation,
statutory instruments 183
Planning process 186
Part B Planning 36 Sustainable architecture 190
Diagnosis system for sustainable
1 Fundamentals 38 building quality (DSQ) 192

Global boundary conditions 39

Energy 43
Climate and comfort 51 Part C Case studies 198

2 Urban space and infrastructure 62 Project examples 1 to 20 200 – 257

Land use 62
Planning to suit the location 65 Part D Appendix 258
Infrastructure and technical services 70
Parameters 258
3 Building envelope 82 Climate data 260
LCA data 262
Maintaining and gaining heat 86 Statutory instruments, directives,
Avoiding overheating 95 standards 268
Decentralised ventilation 99 Bibliography 269
Using the daylight 102 Picture credits 272
Generating electricity 106 Subject index 276

5
 Preface

The Energy Manual – Sustainable Architecture Sustainability affects the totality of the active
not only adds one more title to the series of planning and running of a building, social, eco-
Construction Manuals but also a new dimension. nomic and ecological concerns. It is a develop-
For the first time it is not primarily concerned ment where today’s society considers the
with fundamentals, a building material or a con- needs of future generations. Sustainability is
struction element group. This Manual approaches defined not only in terms of the qualities of the
design and construction from apparently invis- object being built (object quality), but also by
ible qualities: the sustainability and energy- its position (location quality) and its develop-
efficiency of buildings. ment process (process quality). Efficiency in
the use of energy and resources has become
There is a whole range of arguments in favour a key quality indication for a building. The
of this way of looking at things. No other sector instruments of materials- and energy-efficient
of industry uses more materials and energy, building are at the same time architectural
produces more waste and contributes less to methods – lightness and mass, shelter and
material recycling than the building industry. transparency, economical use of space and
For quite some time now, these themes have spatial effect.
also dominated international public discussions
and the process of forming political opinion. There is a considerable difference between
There are many reasons for this; some materials buildings and other objects in daily use. They
are becoming scarce and consequently more already fulfil the requirements for the use of
expensive, others have undesirable effects on renewable energy sources. As a rule they are
the environment and users, and yet others fail connected with the ground and are so near to
to live up to people’s expectations in the long- the surface that they can benefit from the
term. This applies just as much to conventional earth’s even temperature level or from geo-
energy sources. They too are scarce and rapidly thermal heat from deeper strata. They stand in
becoming more and more expensive; and, fur- an unimpeded airflow and can take advantage
thermore, they are considered to be one of the of differences in pressure and wind energy.
main causes of climate change and other envi- They are exposed to daylight and can therefore
ronmental damage. Predictions of how long tap directly into the main energy source avail-
supplies of non-renewable energies such as able to us – the sun. Depending on location,
natural gas and petroleum will last are shorter further renewable energy sources are avail-
than the expected lifetime of many buildings, able: groundwater and rivers, biomass and
and not only the new ones. The global debate biogas, to name but a few.
about reserves is coming to a head, fears about
the safety of supply lines are only all too well Despite having these possibilities so close at
founded. We are becoming increasingly aware hand, where sustainability and energy-efficien-
of the finiteness of many resources and the con- cy are concerned, we in the building trade are
sequences for humankind and the environment. far from the state of development of other
industry sectors. Yet we cannot go on procras-
Architecture and building offer the greatest tinating. Politics sees the need to step in and
potential for a sustainable shaping of the environ- regulate because of foreseeable supply crises,
ment. We will have to strengthen our efforts to conflicts and public opinion, globally, at the
increase materials- and energy-efficiency in European level, nationally and locally. Archi-
construction and the use of buildings. Clever tects and engineers have the chance to make
design and planning decisions could help us their creative opinion-leadership socially effec-
to use resources more sparingly, improve the tive. The potential for improvement is enormous
durability of buildings and reduce environmen- and so far has hardly been exploited. The chal-
tal damage. In this way we can create and lenge of sustainable development in the build-
maintain lasting value and contribute to the ing sector presents opportunities in a business
sustainable progress of our society. sector that for a long time has not been particu-

6
larly renowned for new ideas – including scien- demands for sustainability, which up until now like to thank most heartily all those institutions
tific, technical and design innovations, new have only been expressed and devalued in a and people who worked competently with us,
export opportunities and once again as an im- generalised manner – manageable and family members or friends who relieved us of
pulse generator for long-term social develop- assessable. chores, so that we could work on this project
ments. The fundamentals of planning also provide rel- and those who so generously supported us
evant, comprehensive material on different with resources.
The Energy Manual – Sustainable Architecture ways of looking at the subject. They also show Perhaps our readers can sense this energy.
aims to provide a basis for this, to show exam- that we already have a wide selection of well- The energy input will have been worthwhile if
ples and make suggestions. The overall struc- developed technologies at our disposal for it mobilises further energy that takes up the
ture follows the familiar pattern of Edition Detail using the resources efficiently which Earth social and professional challenges and thus
Construction Manuals. offers us, without spoiling her beauty. It is left to encourages the development of architecture
the reader, however, to use this information to and building.
Part A, “Positions”, concentrates on fundamen- develop a solution that suits the place and the
tal aspects of sustainable and energy-efficient task, and which uses a minimum of means to
building. Guest contributions dealing with glo- achieve maximum benefits. Darmstadt, August 2007
bal change and energy change provide the pri- Manfred Hegger
mary themes. The difficult relationship between When selecting the “Case Studies” described
architecture and sustainability are dealt with, in part C, it was always the interrelationship
also the scarcely used potential of solar archi- between a sustainable approach, an energy
tecture. Key issues such as efficiency and life concept and an architectural position that was
cycles reveal the significance of considering in the foreground. These are predominantly
sustainability in architecture. They elucidate the current projects that stand out thanks to their
need for action and show what dynamics such special architectural interpretation of building
a development in building could bring about. sustainability and energy-efficiency. The texts,
diagrams and drawings portraying the build-
Part B, “Fundamentals”, on the other hand, is ings in each case add up an appraisal of the
action-based. Starting off by illustrating the sustainability approach in accordance with the
general basics of sustainability and energy, DNQ system for diagnosing sustainable build-
climate and comfort, the various planning and ing quality. The examples given make it clear
action dimensions of sustainable and energy- that technologies for the efficient use of
efficient building are dealt with. These include resources and energy open up new architec-
urban space and infrastructure, building enve- tural potential – but at the same time it can be
lope and building services and also choice of seen that the search for suitable architectural
materials. Rapid developments in this field, vocabulary for solving society’s new tasks can
especially in energy technology, made it nec- by no means be considered as completed.
essary to revise this section again and again.
The current standard of knowledge at the time The Energy Manual – Sustainable Architecture
of going to press has been clearly set out. The goes far beyond that which the necessarily
statements made in this part lead to instruc- concise title of the book suggests. Energy is at
tions on how to act regarding development and the centre. The intention was, however, to
energy concepts, and on the organisation of a examine this theme extending from urban plan-
planning process as a precondition for sustain- ning und infrastructure beyond the object
able building and for evaluating sustainable dimension into the forming of planning proc-
building quality. Wherever possible, the state- esses – but particularly within the wider context
ments are backed up by photographs or dia- of the sustainable development of architecture
grams. In the last part of this section the DNQ and building.
system for diagnosing sustainable building
quality is introduced and the most important Working on this book tied up a lot of energy,
assessment criteria for building in tune with the particularly human energy, from the team of
future are summarised. They make the authors, colleagues and the publisher. I would

7
 Part A Positions

1 Global change
Chris Luebkeman

2 Energy change
Hermann Scheer

3 Architecture and sustainability – a difficult relationship

Robert Kaltenbrunner

4 Doing things right – on efficiency and sustainability

Manfred Hegger

5 Solar Architecture
Thomas Herzog

6 Planning and building in life cycles

Karl-Heinz Petzinka, Bernhard Lenz

Fig. A The Earth viewed from the moon

9
Global change

Chris Luebkeman

A 1.1
As far as the design and construction of the looked at individually. The individual categories
built environment are concerned, we can master such as demographic change, global nomad-
almost everything technically. We are capable ism or urbanisation are divided into five areas
of erecting buildings that produce just as much and analysed individually. This procedure
energy as they use. We can create wonderful allows a group to prioritise the individual drivers
spaces and places where people enjoy being. of change and then examine the correlating
We know how to produce materials that in the- influences for each of the other four areas.
ory will last forever – for instance titanium or Each “Drivers of Change” workshop was car-
glass – and the same applies to materials that ried out using the same method. To start with,
degrade if we wish them to. We can fly faster the groups were asked about the four global
than sound or even stop Brownian motion. And models for the future shown in Fig. A 1.4. Eco-
even so – although we can do all these things – nomic growth and global governance formed
we often look into the future nervously and the two axes [4]. The participants were asked
wonder if we are doing everything right. to draw a vector whose initial point showed the
world today and whose terminal point showed
Drivers of change what could be reality in the world in the next 20
The consulting engineers at Arup have carried years. The results were fascinating: the vectors
out more than 10 000 projects worldwide and did indeed vary according to where the partici-
are renowned for their innovative ideas and pants came from. However, there was a clear
multidisciplinary planning achievements [1]. tendency towards a world striving for economic
From 1999 to 2002 I had the privilege of head- growth but at the same time extremely separated
ing the research and development department. and divided: a more differentiated world con-
A team of 35 people with a great deal of knowl- centrating more on localis, than on globalism.
edge about the built environment at their dis- In the second part of the workshop the partici-
posal advised engineers all over the world whilst pants were asked about their observations con-
the latter explored the bounds of feasibility. cerning the reasons for the change in each of
Straight after that, in 2003, I set up a department the STEEP categories. It became apparent that
known by the name of “Foresight, Innovation + there were some things in common globally,
Incubation” (FII). Since then, this department but also a few differing points of view on these
has helped many clients – private individuals, themes.
firms and governments – to collect their thoughts
about the future. The workshop series “Drivers Five theses
of Change” was a part of this process and The built environment is the foundation of soci-
between 2003 and 2006 some 9500 people on ety. It allows social interaction between all lev-
five continents participated [2]. This involved els. At the present time the world is “urbanis-
every participant revealing what they believe the ing” at an unprecedented rate. Due to the enor-
drivers of change to be, both at global and local mous economic growth in China over the past
level. The results show that there are various 25 years, approximately 300 million people have
core themes such as climate, energy or geo- moved to the towns and cities. This increase is
graphical change, which are embedded in expected to rise by 500 million by 2050 [5].
people’s minds everywhere. At first glance this This represents the greatest mass migration in
does not seem to be particularly remarkable. human history.
Bearing in mind the fact that nowadays we look The cities are changing, developing further –
more closely at geopolitical differences than at using materials from all over the world; just
what people have in common, then finding a about all the regions of the world come into
common global opinion is by no means a fore- contact with others some way every day. How
gone conclusion. In the workshops, the STEEP can the built environment be defined in a world
A 1.1 View of a power station in the Soweto district,
system was used to evaluate the core themes with ever-increasing dependencies? Who or
Johannesburg (ZA) [3]. In order to have an evenly matched dia- what determines what should be built and how?
A 1.2 Ubiquitous traffic chaos in Shanghai (CHN) logue about the future, each theme category is And how does the “glocal” environment deter-

10
 Global change

mine this [6]? Many questions, five fundamental which developments this discrepancy will give
assumptions: rise to. In 2020 there will very probably be one
• Change is constant; context is variable. A lot billion people in the 60+ age group; 75% of this
is said about change and that it is taking group will live in the industrialised countries,
place at an ever-increasing speed. But it is far and of those 16% will be US Americans, 20%
more interesting to observe the context of Germans and 27% Japanese [8]. Who will look
change, the integrated linking of certain ep- after this ageing population? How will they
ochs, the causality of successful innovations. manage? What changes will we have to make
This profound analysis of causes dependent in designing products and services, places
on a particular time helps us to foresee how and surroundings, to improve their living condi-
future contexts are interconnected with each tions?
other. It should help to work out projections As far as the ageing “baby boomer” generation
for various future scenarios. of the post-war period is concerned, it seems
• Every person has three appraisal systems he probable that perceptions of what constitutes
or she can use: firstly, gut feeling, which pro- acceptable help will change and develop fur-
vides information on a very low, almost animal ther. Those who resist getting caught up in
level; secondly, the heart, which represents technology by arguing that it is a foreign inva- A 1.2
feelings and convictions; and finally, the sion will become fewer as more technology is Asia and North America. We will probably
head or analytical capabilities. The most in- integrated into their daily lives. Many people develop slowly from state citizenship to world
tensive moments are those where all three forget that a simple graphite pencil is an un- citizenship or transnational citizenship. Gener-
are aligned. believable piece of “technology”. Human pro- ally speaking, Europeans learn several foreign
• We have no choice but to learn how to get ductivity is accelerating constantly. The baby languages, spend longer in job training and
along with each other on this one planet. Our boomers have already adjusted and prepared enter the labour market later. Some 77% of stu-
behaviour should therefore support the sus- themselves for a progressive life situation. For dents in the EU speak a foreign language well
tainable use of planet Earth’s resources. instance, they accept medical solutions like enough to take part in a conversation. The larg-
• In nature there are many containers but only artificial hips or knee joints and even cosmetic est English-speaking population in future will
people build boxes with walls and lids! For surgery to prolong their lives and raise their be the Chinese. This poses the question of
this reason, only people can remove the lids standard of living – in a way that previous gen- whether our cities, whilst undergoing systematic
and leave their boxes. Symbolically, this erations knew only from science fiction. So improvement and where every inhabitant will
stands for the necessity of thinking in an inter- probably in the foreseeable future our towns be identifiable, will be able to communicate
connected way rather than on separate will be supporting us “proactively” in our daily with us in the language of our choice. Will we
planes. lives. hear announcements in our mother tongue
• Anything we find inconvenient will not endure. when we are using the London underground or
Eliminating unpleasant conditions appears to Global nomadism the Hong Kong Metro? Which will be the first
have been one of the main causes of innova- Since the 1970s interesting changes have been town to introduce a multimedia town guide with
tion and change throughout history. In order seen in the population density in various regions automated translation? The idea is being con-
to find good ideas for the future, we must of the Earth. These are mainly based on the sidered to provide resources for those people
watch out for these inconvenient things. current availability of cheap fossil fuels and the who do not speak any foreign language fluent-
widening global prosperity gap. A large number ly, so that they can find their way around at air-
Demographic change of people, both educated and uneducated, is ports, for example. Which language would we
Throughout the entire workshop series, demo- on the move seeking work. This migration, from select? Many towns and cities are watching us
graphic change was the most frequently men- the farmer moving into the city to the highly already – how would we feel if they spoke to us
tioned topic. Its significance varies from place qualified doctor leaving his home country, is too?
to place and from region to region. Neverthe- taking place in different sectors in various parts
less, almost everybody is concerned about the of the world. The global economy is unexpect-
question of how the population is changing and edly dependent on these international immi-
how this change will influence the future. A grants and emigrants. The illegal migrant work-
pressing topic relates to the fact that in the built ers in the USA, who over the last decade have
environment the majority of those currently in fundamentally supported the economy there,
employment in the industrialised countries are are one example amongst others. Or medical
about 12 years away from retirement [7]. Fur- staff who are lured from their own countries,
thermore, too few young people are interested where there is no money to be earned, to the
in the construction sector and its future. Soon rich nations with their ageing populations,
the majority of those employed who have fun- whilst at the same time in their home countries
damental experience and specialised know- there is a lack of vital specialists.
how will no longer be available. However, hope Further basic questions arise when we look at
remains that – whilst the infrastructure around developments in the cities. How many interna-
us ages with our society – interest in our built tional immigrants identify with their chosen
environment will increase again. In the richer homeland or place of refuge? Perhaps a new
part of the world, better living conditions and multi-nationalism is the solution with complex
advances in medical care have contributed to multiple obligations. Or maybe the need for a
a reduction in infant mortality and have pro- personal relationship with a local community
longed life expectancy, resulting in long-term will be replaced by a global attachment. In any
changes in the requirements for shaping the case, this conflict between globality and locality
environment. The deterioration of those condi- will play a growing role in shaping our environ-
tions in the less developed areas poses an ment. Today, Europe is home to the the largest
enormous challenge. It is difficult to predict number of international immigrants, followed by

11
Global change

35
Energy consumption [GJ per head]

USA
30
Australia
25

20
EU
15 Japan
South Korea
10
Mexico
Brazil
India China
5 Thailand

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
GDP per head [1000 US dollars]

A 1.3
Energy and prosperity energy remains a fundamental requirement of throughout a region. They would all be inter-
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) research today’s society. It is the basis of almost every- connected with each other and would be pow-
shows that there is a direct correlation between thing we do today. Historically electricity was ered by small wind turbines, fuel cells in build-
economic fluctuations and access to electricity. produced to further growth in small and large ings, solar cells or small gas turbines. This sys-
In Fig. A 1.3 the energy consumption per head industries which were situated in the vicinity of tem-wide approach increases the reliability of
for selected countries is shown in relation to energy sources. Over time the thirst for energy supply on the one hand and reduces the vul-
their gross domestic product (GDP). This clear- exceeded the capacity of local sources. For nerability of the electric power supply on the
ly shows that as an agricultural economy this reason large power stations emerged other hand due to the fact that the producer is
changes into a consumer society through which were closer to supplies of raw materials far nearer to the consumers and end-users.
industrialisation, energy consumption increases than to consumers’ infrastructure. Due to the This method has the added advantage of being
at the same time. During the process there emissions from the power stations these were able to draw on the great store of renewable
seems to be a level at which a society “optimis- built at some distance from the cities and the energy.
es”, i.e. GDP rises and energy consumption resulting enormous transmission losses were Fig. A 1.1 shows the sun rising over a power
remains unchanged. I think however that it has simply accepted as part of the system. station in the Soweto district in Johannesburg.
been more a case of shifting energy consump- However nowadays there are more and more As it was built during the apartheid period it
tion from one country to another, i.e. a state possibilities to decentralise the production of originally only provided energy for a small
imports the majority of its goods from another. electricity. Instead of one large power station group of the population – excluding all those
A classic example for this is the United States: there should be many small ones, spread living directly in that quarter. The power station
part of its energy consumption is transferred as
it were, to China.
Two further aspects must be looked at critically Block islands Reglobalisation
regarding the chart: the first being that the • national economies recover at different speeds + • Iran and USA announce new trade agreements
nation shown to have the highest energy con- • more frequent occurrence of regional economic • United Nations restructured and revived, new
or trade blocks members in Security Council
sumption per head has at the same time used • political initiatives boost local / regional growth • terrorism and geopolitical instability checked
up nearly all its energy resources. The second • ideological differences affect global dynamics • booming world economy
point is that the two most populous countries in • labour market reforms influence growth and • power and influence of WTO (World Trade
the world, China and India, have the lowest employment Organisation) grows
• technological progress and increase in produc- • slow but constant inflation
gross domestic product and the lowest energy • open national economies boost global
tivity as the driving force for economic upturn
consumption per head. Both of these highly dynamics
populated countries are currently striving to
climb up the ladder. If every Chinese person
drove a car then the current known world oil
economic growth

reserves would be exhausted within six

months.
Nowadays traffic jams occur in every town in global governance order
chaos
every country (Fig. A 1.2). Clogged up main
arterial roads, the real motors of the economy,
which pump development potential through
every contemporary society, could drastically Failure scenario Global yoyo effect
restrict our society’s performance-capability. At • L-shaped path of the world economy, i.e. the • W-shaped path of the world economy, i.e. phases
some stage this clogging, this blockade, will economic situation hits rock bottom and hovers of economic upturn alternating with downturn
around without improving phases
reach a critical point. Energy production for the • increasing tendency towards isolationism and • governments and business work closely
society of today has got to change. Industry is protectionism together
moving – albeit involuntarily – from the para- • countries like Switzerland and Japan serve as • financial crises and terrorist attacks curb economic
digm of the centralised Industrial Age towards models for a growing number of national eco- upturns
nomies • national economies suffer due to inflated public
a model which is divided and decentralised in
• consumer climate sinks to an all-time low sectors
a substantially more up-to-date way. This • re-nationalisation of utilities by governments • higher risk of a systemic shock for the global
change is essential politically. If you look at the • United Nations / World Trade Organisation on finance system with increasing risk premiums
energy supply chain two thirds of the energy is the verge of disintegration -
lost during conversion and distribution. Electric
A 1.4

12
 Global change

A 1.3 “Prosperity ladder”: Relationship between energy

consumption and gross domestic product of vari-
ous countries in the period from 1970 to 1997
A 1.4 Global models of the future by 2026
A 1.5 Phoenix (USA) by night – the city as a densely
populated area
A 1.5
represented the centralisation of energy and itations of our growth and that we do our best the ones who will determine the future that we
power on many levels. Today, in a politically to develop within those limitations. It is the only bequeath to our descendants – whether or not
transformed and democratic South Africa, it pro- effective way in the long-term. we take up the challenge.
duces energy for the whole of the population. Whilst looking into the future we are not allowed
Moreover the picture shows – perhaps even to forget the many thousands of years of history.
more significantly – the most important source In 1905 Studebaker, the American automobile
of energy there is: the sun. Can we imagine the producer from the Mid West, advertised for an
fact that all the energy the sun produces is engine type for the “horseless carriage”. The
renewable energy? What will happen when oil car could be fitted out with an electric engine
politics no longer determines the relationships for town journeys and a petrol engine for over-
between nations? Can we imagine no longer land journeys. It seems that even in those days
talking about shortages because producing car producers realised that certain fuels were
renewable energies has become so efficient? more suitable for certain types of journey than
Can we believe that every building produces others. They were providing hybrid vehicles
so much energy that it repays the energy needed 100 years before society recognised that these
to build it? were not only a possibility but, in fact, a neces-
sity. This is just one example of how we can
Urbanisation learn from the past and benefit from what we
We are currently changing into an age in which, have learnt. An American federal judge named
worldwide, more people live in cities than in rural Oliver Wendell Holmes said: “A hundred years
areas. Nevertheless towns take up less than 2% after we are gone and forgotten those who
of the earth’s land surface. Urban populations have never heard of us will have to live with the
are increasing at the rate of 180 000 people a consequences of our actions (...).” It would be
day. The largest increases are occurring in less good if we remembered this prescient sen-
developed countries where it is predicted that tence. The decisions we make every day – as
urbanisation will increase by 50% by the year the creators of the built environment – not only
2020 [9]. While more and more people are pour- determine the places we live in today but also
ing into urban areas, and while over-development have an influence on our environment forever. References:
[1] Arup was founded in 1946 in London and today is
is destroying fertile land and at the same time
one of the leading engineering companies world-
encouraging higher consumption of non-renew- Hopeful developments wide, with over 80 offices and approx. 9000 employ-
able resources, we have to ask ourselves: Population shifts, increasing scarcity and the ees. The company takes on multidisciplinary plan-
Where does this path lead? What will the cities wanton consumption of fertile land and natural ning projects in all fields of structural and civil engi-
look like? How, for instance, will they be provid- – renewable and non-renewable – resources neering.
[2] www.driversofchange.com
ed with food? In 2015, when there will probably could turn out to be a significant global prob- [3] STEEP stands for “social, technological, economic,
be 23 metropolises each with over 10 million lem, a dilemma of disastrous proportions. We environmental and political domains”.
inhabitants, 19 of them in less developed coun- can only hope that global awareness of the fra- [4] Global Governance: a conceptual approach to
tries, we will be faced with considerable prob- gility of our planet will grow. We appear to have answering the questions facing world politics in rela-
tion to the political controllability of world problems
lems with urban planning and infrastructure [10]. reached a critical and sobering point in history.
and globalisation tendencies.
By the year 2030 approximately 60% of the Despite setbacks and mistakes all is not lost. [5] The Source of 5 February 2007
world’s population will live in cities. What sort of There is still time left for corrective steps. We as [6] “Glocal” is a combination of the words global and
growth will this be? Is it possible to make a city individuals in a “glocalised” society must heed local.
centre CO -neutral? Is it possible to make new the warning signs and we will thus be able to [7] In the USA the average age of qualified employees
2
in the building trade is 48 years according to the
cities more plant-friendly? Is it possible for a avoid falling into a downward spiral. How our National Education Association. The “Engineering
city with one million inhabitants to function future looks, and in whichever built environment UK 2006” report gives 55 years as the average age
completely on the “One Planet Principle“[11]? we and future generations experience it, for engineers.
Our future depends on how we control the growth depends in many ways on our decisions. Ulti- [8] United Nations Population Information Network
[9] ibid.
of our cities and solve the problems which mately it will not depend on technology and
[10] United Nations Population Division
arise. It is time that the health of our cities went economics but on what we – people – decide. [11] One Planet Principle: each city dweller has a certain
to the top of the global political agenda. We In the midst of uncertainty concerning the times global area, and a certain amount of resources at his
have to make sure that we are aware of the lim- which lie ahead of us one thing is sure: we are disposal, calculated proportionally.

13
Energy change

Hermann Scheer

A 2.1
The term energy change is being discussed other than protecting the climate, there is
controversially in public more and more often. also the general reason of environmental
The term is, however, somewhat ambiguous. protection. Even if there were no climate
Which elements of the energy supply should problem, there would still be massive ecolo-
be changed and in which direction? Is it a gical reasons in favour of energy change.
question of new sources of energy or only of • Fossil fuels are finite, which is why continuing
the sparing and efficient use of the sources of to use them inevitably leads to rising costs
energy currently in use? Is it about more inter- and also supply bottlenecks and emergen-
nationally uniform or decentralised energy cies. Only the inexhaustible, renewable ener-
structures, or about more competition or a gies open the way for all people to have last-
more ecological or sustainable energy supply? ing, guaranteed energy supplies. This leads
Usually, the term energy change is associated to another reason – permanent and certain
with sustainability, but that does not really make availability.
the term easier to understand. Meanwhile, even • Nuclear and fossil fuel reserves are found in
the use of nuclear power and fossil fuel is being relatively few regions of the Earth; so using
labelled sustainable by the providers if those them requires long international supply
are a bit safer or more efficient than before. chains (Fig. A 2.2). This inevitably leads to
However, sources of energy whose primary higher infrastructure expenditure, and to
resources are only available for a finite period – growing existential dependency and triggers
which applies to oil, natural gas, coal and ura- economic, political and belligerent conflicts.
nium ore, and which, from their extraction right Renewable energies on the other hand are
through to their conversion and use, cause available in a different form, as natural environ-
severe environmental damage and leave resi- mental energy everywhere, and can be ob-
dues – cannot justifiably be labelled sustain- tained with technical assistance – with far
able. Energy change means energy changeover, fewer infrastructure requirements. This brings
i.e. replacing nuclear and fossil fuel sources us to further reasons for changing to renew-
with renewable ones. These are the only sus- able energies, namely economic efficiency,
tainable ones and – with the exception of bio- political independence and preserving
fuels – emissions-free and usable. peace.
• Fossil and nuclear fuels are becoming more
Solar or nuclear power – the fundamental conflict of and more expensive as far as both direct and
the 21st century indirect costs are concerned due to the
With its generally still hesitant attitude to renew- above mentioned conditions. Renewable
able energies, the world is still far short of what energies on the other hand are becoming
is possible and necessary. But on the other less and less expensive due to continuous
hand, it is living far beyond its means where technological improvements, industrial mass
nuclear and fossil fuels are concerned. The full production, intelligent new applications and
spectrum of reasons for a changeover to not least because (with the exception of bio-
renewable energies can be deduced from the energy) there are no fuel costs involved. This
following four elementary differences between results in social and economically strategic
nuclear and fossil energy on the one hand and reasons for change.
renewable energies on the other:
Thus the subject of energy change is a question
• The use of nuclear and fossil fuels causes of renewable energies – the overwhelmingly
massive environmental interference with tec- huge and inexhaustible energy potential, which,
tonic consequences starting with extraction however, is still underestimated. The key reason
and going on to emissions into water, air and for this is that renewable energy sources only
A 2.1 Solar thermal electricity generation near
Alice Springs (AUS)
the Earth’s atmosphere. Renewable energies partially fit into current technical and economic
A 2.2 Comparison of energy provider chains for the on the other hand can, in principle, be used structures for providing energy. For the most
generation of electricity without such consequences. Furthermore, part they are incompatible with the energy sys-

14
 Energy change

tem already in place; in other words they are Enough energy for everyone – the full-scale potential the same area, where they will be used, some-
regarded as intruders and dismissed accord- of renewable energies thing that has been more and more overlooked
ingly. They upset the calculations of the tradi- The structural diversity of renewable energies since the Industrial Revolution, and which is
tional energy business and common thinking makes it so difficult for energy politicians, who therefore unimaginable today. This means that
on energy, too. for decades have been accustomed to the for covering requirements using renewable
But what is stopping those people who are not structures of fossil fuel consumption, to think energies, a much shorter energy supply chain
directly or indirectly involved in the traditional their way into the potential of renewable ener- is needed – if any at all. With the help of modern
energy system from insisting on changing to gies. Whoever wants to recognise the econo- technology this in turn leads to regional or local
renewable energies, firmly and without being mic and technical, cultural and political oppor- self-sufficiency rather than global dependency
afraid of conflict? Why have there not been any tunities cannot and must not just compare the on fossil fuel sources – an opportunity for new
political initiatives, intent on speeding up the individual energy outputs with each other. political, economic and cultural freedom.
use of renewable energies economically and Every isolated cost comparison with fossil fuel The possibility of substituting regenerative for
concretely, just as this was possible for build- sources is an obstacle to viewing the broad fossil resources widens the scope still further. It
ing railways, for space travel, nuclear technol- spectrum of possible uses for renewable ener- allows regions with suitable cultivation and cli-
ogy and, only recently, information technology? gies. What counts is the comparison in each mate conditions to establish their own natural
Why are there still no European or international case of the total energy supply chain, taking resources base (Fig. A 2.1). In this way at least
institutions for renewable energies, similar to the constant and the variable factors into con- the natural resources base will be extended to
the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) sideration. The constant factor is always the considerably more countries, extensive shifts of
or the European Space Agency (ESA) in their source, whereby with renewable energies the industrial locations together with changes in
respective sectors? These questions concern- sources are not only considerably more diverse world trade paths and a new, differentiated
ing the players and the possible activities for but also more widespread. The variable factors division of labour in the world economy could
and against renewable energies have to be – within the scope of each proposed source – arise as a consequence.
addressed so as to identify how the energy result from the varying and constantly improva- At the same time, all of these changes mean
change can be accelerated. ble technical and thus economic effort involved the biggest step towards more energy efficien-
for obtaining energy. As renewable energies cy due to a drastic reduction in enormous ener-
can be found everywhere in the environment, gy losses during the extraction, processing and
there is the possibility of harvesting or collect- transporting of primary nuclear and fossil fuels.
ing them and then using or converting them The focus for investments in the energy business
directly there in the same place, or at least in will shift from supplying energy to providing the

photovoltaic wind power biomass petroleum bituminous coal nuclear energy

cultivation oil production mining uranium mining

transport

harvest refining converting uranium ore

local transport transport transport transport

pressing uranium enrichment

refineries
gasification
storage
pelleting

disposal of enriched
using residues
uranium

transport transport transport

petrol stations petrol stations, oil

traders

photovoltaic system wind turbine biomass plant oil-fired power station coal-fired power station nuclear power station

final consumption transitional storage

final consumption disposal of power
as stand-alone ope- final storage
as stand-alone operation station residues
ration reprocessing

power transmission power transmission power transmission

(high voltage level) (high voltage level) (high voltage level)

power transmission power transmission power transmission power transmission power transmission
(medium voltage level) (medium voltage level) (medium voltage level) (medium voltage level) (medium voltage level)

distribution distribution distribution

distribution distribution distribution (low voltage level) (low voltage level) (low voltage level)

A 2.2

15
Energy change

heating and electricity biomass for nuclear / fossil

from renewable energies energy and energy provision
with energy storage raw materials
extracting energy – • °
energy processing – • °
energy storage • • ° A 2.3 Uniform regional distribution of economic activi-
energy distribution • • •
ties in a comparison of solar and non-solar utilisa-
installation of energy conversion plants • • ° tion of resources
operating of energy conversion plants • • A 2.4 Avoidance of concentration and monopolisation of
° energy sources
maintenance of energy conversion plants • • ° A 2.5 Pipeline in Alaska (USA)
designing of energy provision systems • • ° A 2.6 Theoretical potential of annual solar radiation on
municipal or regional tax revenues • • the Earth compared with annual energy consump-
° tion worldwide and also fossil and nuclear raw
regional credit institutions • • ° materials reserves
• regional variation possible
° regional variation not possible
– not applicable
A 2.3
technical facilities for collecting renewable direct use of solar radiation for generating elec- 5 MW installations producing 12 million kWh
energies regionally and locally and also for tricity and solar thermal energy for heating build- per annum at average wind speeds. In order to
converting them. ings. Solar houses and solar housing areas are produce the same amount of electricity using
no longer dependent on any commercial energy photovoltaic systems, based on a capacity of
Decentralised structures suppliers. They become solar thermal collec- 75 kWh per m2 of solar panels and per annum
A solar plant is both a plant for collecting and tors both for electricity and heating requirements. (which is a relatively low figure under German
for converting energy. This allows autonomous After the costs for the necessary technology solar radiation conditions) – worldwide some
energy provision for buildings, housing estates, have been recouped, the energy used is free of 210 000 km2 of solar cells would need to be
towns and regions. Either no work is necessary charge. The more energy-efficiency you build installed. This is far less than the area covered
for energy distribution anymore or the channels in, the less expensive is the path to renewable by the built environment in the EU alone, where
are short. Instead of just a few external suppli- energies. solar cells could be integrated in a variety of
ers in the form of large energy companies, ways. For solar thermal collectors that would
countless people become self-sufficient and The possibility of a complete energy changeover mean a collector area of 155 000 km2 world-
there are many local or regional suppliers. This By means of the natural potential of available wide, based on a yield of 10 million kWh per
radically changes the ownership structure for technologies, which quantitatively outclass all hectare.
energy plants. A seemingly irreversible mono- traditional energy sources, and of the willing-
polised concentration gives way to diverse ness to think creatively and practically, it can
decentralisation – brought about by the tech- be argued plausibly that it is quite possible to
nology and sociology of renewable energies replace traditional energies with renewable
(Fig. A 2.3 and 4). ones.
Those who think this is utopian should remem-
ber the development of information technologies. Example: electricity
Up until the 1980s there were only mainframe According to the International Energy Agency,
computers in corresponding computer centres. the annual commercial electricity consumption
The development of micro-technologies led to worldwide in 2001 was 15.5 x 1012 kWh. In
the introduction of radically decentralised and order to produce this amount of electricity
even individualised computers, which, however, exclusively by wind power, 1.25 million wind
need fixed networks and communication satel- power installations would need to be set up
lites. These are not absolutely necessary for the throughout the world – based on the use of

nuclear energy coal / gas biomass photovoltaic wind power small-scale solar thermal large-scale solar solar
petroleum hydropower power hydropower/solar hydrogen hydrogen
power stations (large-scale) (small-scale)

primary energy source ° ° • – – – – – – –

primary energy trade ° ° • – – – – – – –

energy processing ° ° • – – – – – ° •

production of
° ° ° ° ° ° • ° ° °
conversion technology
conversion in
° ° • • • • – ° • •
power stations
power transmission /
° ° • • • • – ° ° •
secondary energy trade
financing of
° ° • • • • • ° ° •
power stations

° Concentration and monopolisation processes are preordained (except for cogeneration plants)..
• Concentration and monopolisation processes are technically and politically avoidable or impossible.
– not applicable
A 2.4

16
 Energy change

solar radiation incident on

the Earth

petroleum

natural gas

coal

uranium
annual energy consumption worldwide
A 2.5 A 2.6
Example: heating and, last but not least, political considerations course socially. People could stop worrying
In order to satisfy the current thermal energy and public awareness – social factors. The uni- about energy prices, the air in towns would be
needs of the world’s population using solar formity of the way the structures of energy pro- cleaner, and the number of sick people would
thermal power, based on the 2001 consumption viders and energy consumption based on fossil fall. The towns would take on a different
level of 3.34 x 1012 kWh, 15 000 km2 of solar fuels have developed will be a thing of the appearance, especially the roofs because
collectors would be enough on the basis of past. Every country, every region will have a instead of dull-looking roof tiles there would be
only 225 kWh solar thermal yield per m2 of specific and at the same time diverse energy crystal blue and other coloured solar panels.
collector area. base. Providing the world with energy from After all we are dealing here with a considera-
renewable sources will be “multicultural”. ble part of the solution to the problem – the
These calculations show only some of the Of course many individual efforts will be neces- combined electricity, heating and cooling
options for renewable energies. The example sary to bring about this vision, such as the requirements in buildings.
for electricity clearly shows that each of these German Renewable Energies Law (EEG). Solar conversion for existing buildings and new
three options would be sufficient to cover world- These requirements are, however, no more solar buildings are “golden ground” for the
wide requirements. Natural energy potential complex or costly than the development and building trades, architecture and the construc-
makes more extensive technical applications production of satellite, aviation, communication, tion industry as a whole. The breakthrough in
possible due to the fact that the sun, together medical or weapons technology, and far less the construction industry will come with the
with its derivatives wind, waves, water and complex than nuclear technology. Claims that it number of commissions and the paradigm shift
biomass, supplies 15 000 times more energy is not possible to achieve full-scale energy pro- with architects.
per day than we are currently using in the vision using renewable energies is a discredit More and more citizens will recognise the indi-
form of atomic and fossil fuels (Fig. A 2.6). So to the professionals such as physicists, chem- vidual and social advantages of these develop-
there is neither a lack of energy potential nor ists, engineers, architects, and their creative ments and be guided by them. Since electric-
any technical limitation. With the production potential. ity, heating and cooling requirements in build-
volume required for plants we are looking at ings account for about half of society’s total
production capacities that have long been Opportunities for the building industry energy needs, this new way of thinking is the
achieved in other sectors of industry. Here The building sector with its many different trades most important factor of the energy change, of
too, renewable energy can and will be used in could, together with agriculture, experience the a fundamental change of system. This is
the future. greatest boom with the energy change if it took unstoppable. The only remaining question is
So what is the basic stumbling block supposed advantage of the opportunities offered by solar how long we will take before we achieve this
to be? The calculations presented only serve construction. Numerous new building materials readjustment? In view of the looming energy
to start people thinking. With every step towards and building methods – from glass, which pro- and environment crises there is no doubt at all
a closer and more differential look at the natu- vides both thermal insulation and electricity to that there is no time to waste. Readjusting is no
ral and technical application potential, the energy-saving wooden constructions – could be longer a technological problem and if we get
practical attractiveness of renewable energies used. In order to use free solar energy for heat- the calculations right it is not an economic
increases. The wide spectrum of possibilities ing and cooling optimally, every building must problem either. It is a political and cultural one
presented here shows that, even with the grow- be adapted to suit the topography and the bio- as the accelerating factors are politics and
ing energy needs in the developing countries, climatic local conditions – each building being those society players who, within their own field
providing energy worldwide using only renew- a solar design of its own. of influence, decide for this energy change –
able energy sources is already feasible today. Countless practical examples demonstrate that both in their own and everyone else’s interest.
The ratios differ from country to country, region this is possible. Whether it be houses, including
to region, community to community, house to old buildings, prefabricated houses, schools,
house. Which combination is in fact imple- community buildings or offices, or even pro-
mented depends on many individual factors. duction plants, they can cover all their energy
These include the effects of saving energy to requirements – electricity and heating – autono-
reduce requirements whilst simultaneously mously with renewable energies and some of
expanding the use of renewable energies. them, the so-called energy-plus houses, even
Another aspect is the varying geographic con- produce surpluses. The majority of these prop-
ditions and natural resources. Further factors erty owners are average earners. Let us imag-
include the extent of technological develop- ine more and more property owners rethinking
ment, the degree of industrialisation and increas- in this way, and then in the end everybody else
ing costs, the receptiveness of companies too, because it will have become a matter of

17
Architecture and sustainability
– a difficult relationship

Robert Kaltenbrunner

A 3.1
We probably do not think of Einstein first when Sustainability just does not function like the
sustainable architecture is mentioned. Yet his automobile industry, which is forever proclaim-
findings offer both an unusual and a necessary ing “state of the art” developments of all the
approach to this topic. Classical physics rec- systems.
ognises the three core areas mechanics, elec-
trodynamics and thermodynamics, which are Evaluation of the different approaches
still in existence today. However, since the mid- Although clear criteria and, to some extent,
nineteenth century these three areas have slowly measurable indicators for sustainability could
shifted in their interrelationship like continental be listed on the actual building level, the same
plates. Albert Einstein’s real achievement lies in can hardly be claimed from the point of view of
the fact that he recognised what everyone else urban planning and urban ecology. There is no
failed to see. He realised that, in the fault zones indication here of a workable approach to defin-
between the notional continents, problems ing and bringing about an optimum relationship
occurred frequently at the boundaries, which between density, town size and environmental
the inhabitants of the separate continents only and life quality. The type or position of a build-
noticed marginally. It was only when they were ing site alone can be crucial in changing the
considered from a non-specialist perspective parameters for a sustainable construction
that the extent of their explosiveness was project. For instance, individual economic loca-
revealed, which then led to the starting point of tion decisions taken by households and firms
Einstein’s scientific revolution. on moving nearer to the surrounding country-
“Crossing boundaries” like this is still necessary side lead to considerable uncovered subse-
today. It is true that by now being environmen- quent costs or externalities – particularly in the
tally aware has captured a firm place in socie- areas of infrastructure, traffic, environment and
ty’s canon of values and the obvious climate urban planning. This involves social disadvan-
change is putting considerable pressure on tages, which so far have not been considered
politicians to act. But it still cannot be claimed adequately in the balancing of the costs and
that as a result all possible sectoral fields of benefits of suburbanisation (individually and
action are totally trimmed for sustainability. from an overall economic point of view).
There is still a yawning efficiency gap between In this respect, the balance relating to the
what is economically expedient for business building process depends very much on the
and what is necessary. It is high time that Aris- beholder’s point of view, in fact it is a question
totle’s philosophy was applied to the construc- of your view of the world. On the one hand,
tion sector, that living organisms should not be pressure from the constraints of circumstances
recognised by their appearance but by what is obviously juxtaposed to the crucial broad
they do and by their reactions to their environ- effects of sustainable building, and sometimes,
ment. as a result, quality standards that have already
Seen in this light, a different horizon quickly been achieved – particularly where the financ-
opens which goes over and beyond the individ- ing is private – tend to be cut back rather than
ual building. One or two ecological measures used to set a general minimum standard. On
here and there are not the same as ecological the other hand, for special building projects,
architecture; solar panels and passive use of namely when paid for by the authorities –
the sun, greenhouses integrated into a house, whether it be the Federal Office of the Environ-
green facades and thermal insulation are not ment in Dessau or Norman Foster’s Commerz-
far-reaching enough at all for real sustainable bank Tower in Frankfurt – a lot of emphasis is
building. So far what we are seeing is more an placed on “ecological correctness”, if only for
optimising of – albeit important – isolated aspects reasons of forward-looking marketing activities
A 3.1 Photovoltaic system in the roof surface, workshop rather than a total concept of sustainability- (Fig. A 3.2). This leaves an interpretative gap.
building, Dresden (D) 2003, Haller Morgenstern
Quincke
oriented planning principles. The current ten- Some people sing the hymn of success; sus-
A 3.2 Federal Office for the Environment, Dessau (D) dency is to concentrate on the individual build- tainability is now a recognised objective in con-
2005, Sauerbruch Hutton ing rather than on a whole housing project. struction. Others complain that we are standing

18
 Architecture and sustainability – a difficult relationship

still or have even fallen back, believing that, lysts, without which not even the aseptically and nurturing the basis of our livelihood, but
technically, everything is feasible and controll- thought-out scientific discoveries would be also to have them take effect in thinking and in
able so that consequently the complexity of the conceivable, let alone their use in society [2]. action. This involves precise modelling work on
task is not adequately taken into account. For Photovoltaic, passive-energy building standards, event patterns, their changes and transforma-
the time being this ambivalence can hardly be heat recovery – scientific, technical attempts tions. Before the energy crisis, environmental
resolved. Meanwhile, it is less a question of alone are not enough, as the experts them- damage and the global destruction of the eco-
passing judgement than of drawing attention to selves complain from time to time: “The way system were ever heard of, Fuller was already
some aspects that have perhaps been ignored civil engineers think is predominantly technical working anticipatorily on concepts to solve
so far. and rational and not geared enough to the these future problems. “The source of all pow-
Sustainable, ecological, conserving resources, complexity of human behaviour. The civil engi- ers”, he diagnosed, “which man needs for
environmentally friendly, biological or energy neer lacks socio-political starting points and operating all of his instruments – animate and
saving, no matter which heading we choose, strategies to achieve his goals” [3]. But archi- inanimate – is the sun. … Designing dwellings
building in such a way claims to be decentral- tects are also insufficiently prepared, as current on a scientific basis is closer to the stars than to
ised, integrated and self-sufficient. All these architecture teaching demonstrates. It is either the Earth.” [4]
concepts have one thing in common, however dominated by the primacy of the design or by a Buckminster Fuller’s work had “How to make
– they all originated in the 1960s when the certain subcomplexity in which purely partial the world work” as a motto – as if somewhere in
established system came under fire, above all aspects are in the foreground. the wilderness he had been sent a box full of
from criticism by young people. So they stem machine parts, whole ones and broken ones,
from a social movement, not just from technical which, together with the operating manual and
innovation. Freimut Duve once expressed on Social cultural acceptance improvisation, he has to assemble to make a
their behalf how far this belief went: “The cen- The frequent reduction of sustainability to inno- functioning whole. The information from the
tralistic large technological systems – traffic, vation, science and technology fails to recog- parts for their functioning as a whole becomes
utilities and television – are levelling off the his- nise the extraordinary significance of conceptu- the starting point for Fuller’s “systems approach”.
torical cities. Ecological building, the quest for al inspirers, whose visionary work consisted of The solution strategy begins with the integra-
the lost human dimension in the city could give designing an overall view. This overall view tion of the individual functions. He sees the
it back its face and singularity” [1]. An ambi- suddenly put the countless individual findings Earth as an integrally constructed machine that
tious claim, then, which up until now, on its from scientific and technological research into should be understood and used for the pur-
path to daily reality, has not always been fortu- a different context. Richard Buckminster Fuller, pose of lasting performance capability as a
nate. who made history with his dictum “think global whole. When Fuller calls his writing “Operating
In the discussions held here in Germany, sus- – act local”, coined the expression “cosmic Manual” then he is particularly trying to point
tainability – especially when innovation or high conceptioning” more than six decades ago. out its absence; mankind lives on Earth without
technology are concerned – seems like a trun- What is meant by that is the ability not only to having been given an operating manual for
cated lady, cut off from cultural and social cata- recognise complex relationships for supporting using the Earth correctly. Compared with the
never ceasing accurateness with which all the
details of “Spaceship Earth” have been defined
ab ovo, it would seem that the operating manual
has been deliberately and systematically
excluded. This conscious exclusion does in
fact have a positive effect. It forces us to “use
our intellect, which is our highest ability and
with which we can carry out our scientific
experiments, and interpret the results of those
experiments effectively. For the very reason
that so far there has been no operating manual,
we learn to anticipate which consequences
would result from a growing number of alterna-
tives to prolong our survival and growth satis-
factorily – physically and metaphysically” [5]. It
therefore follows that sustainable development
and sustainable building only exist as a synthe-
sis of technological engineering-type activity
and socio-political value-based and value-ori-
ented “demands”.
In this canon of demands things such as mobil-
ity are not given enough consideration, although
the history of the modern era is also the history
of modern mobility. Building for the society of
the future means accepting and shaping the
interaction between mobility and modern times.
To illustrate this briefly, let us consider Frank
Lloyd Wright, who was one of the first to display
this close relationship with his “Broadacre City”;
and the uncompromising radicalism with which
space is made for cars in Le Corbusier’s “Ville
Contemporaine” or “Plan Voisin” is still unparal-
leled. Yet within the European framework the
arranged and open and later car-friendly town
A 3.2

19
Architecture and sustainability – a difficult relationship

A 3.3 Piazza XXIV Maggio, new layout, Cormons (I)

1990, Boris Podrecca
A 3.4 Mature settlements, old quarter, Prague (CZ)
A 3.5 Passive energy houses, Salzburg (A) 2006,
sps-architects
A 3.3 A 3.4
signalled what was to become the motive for and smaller households and larger and larger buildings a second chance? Despite all the
future development; the car was advancing to living spaces or to put the brakes on using progress already made on new buildings, we
become the spiritus rector of urban planning, space for housing estates is therefore fighting should not lose sight of the fact that the great-
and played a catalyst role where urban concepts not only against the ruthless exploitation of the est ecological potential is to be found in
became split and proved explosive for historical countryside, pleasure-seeking consumerism upgrading what has already been built. A
town structures. Where the 19th century, with and isolation in the cities, but also against the “clever” use of resources must lay the founda-
its administrative buildings and educational historic attainment of individual independence. tions for a paradigm change in architecture
institutions, only invaded existing areas insular- An increasing need for living space poses a and urban planning, which is supported by
ly and even the Second World War could do real concern and this requires a productive dis- society, away from the market economy-
nothing to upset the centuries-old pattern of cussion of the term “sustainable building”, i.e. oriented, fast-moving lifecycle and over to a
parcelling out the land, such limits were literally systematically asking whether it could be that new appreciation of durability.
run over by the dictates of the new urban plan- many people also have good reasons for want- If one of the fundamental principles of sustain-
ning paradigms. In the 1960s the connection ing to hold on to their “harmful” way of living, ability is thinking in cross-linked interdepend-
between automobile and spatial structure as an those being their hopes for individual autono- ences, these interdependences, figuratively
urban reference value was ever-present. The my, for being spared toil and trouble. Only when speaking, go beyond the borders of the grass
forthcoming “liquefying” of space as a conse- we succeed in formulating a new identity-giving verge and also include almost all our social,
quence of automobiles was rated a positive picture of building and living, where striving for economic and political assessments. Sooner or
development and was encouraged through the a pleasant life is reconcilable with the limitations later, sustainable building too will no longer be
extensive expansion of motorways and roads – of life’s natural fundamentals, can the ecologi- misunderstood as a non-binding lifestyle option
thus began an upward spiralling correlation of cally essential be politically feasible and meet with a private view of the world thrown in – and
available infrastructure and the degree of with the approval of the majority. This in turn a fat wallet [7]. The approaches so far repre-
motorisation. Over recent years spatial proximi- implies two things. The first of these is the sent a first step, but are still not a solution. For
ty and the immediate neighbourhood have question of whether needs are affected in a years modern architecture dismissed ecologi-
become less and less important while distance non-state-controlled way. It is received wisdom cal aspects, climate issues and the cost of
has now become predominantly a time cate- in a market economy that supply determines heating as solvable problems and therefore
gory. And therein lies the dilemma; if mobility is demand and this seems to have become sec- attached negligible importance to them, but
the basis of social exchange processes and ond nature in our society. It is hardly ques- now better information and insulation in build-
threatens, in practice, to be choking with traffic, tioned anymore, as if demand was something ings are no longer an alternative but a must.
then it is not just a nuisance but also something fixed rather than the result of wishes, or needs, Unquestionably, much has been achieved
affecting the very substance. which are (can be) awakened again [6]. On the here, over and above “green glamour” as the
other hand, the question arises of whether the expression of salving an individual’s con-
What is meant by “more quality of life”? developments in the structure of housing estates science. Architecture claiming to create some-
The paradigm change in our society – away in recent years really are sustainable. This has thing integrated, interconnected, environmen-
from one-sided economic growth and towards been denied with good arguments but altogether tally aware would in the final analysis remain
more quality of life – also plays a role that the developments reveal a necessary change in nothing but “indifferent technology, no matter
should not be underestimated, but not only a the function and meaning of a town in the 21st whether hard or gentle, so long as subjective,
positive one. Together with this “more quality of century by following neither dynamic nor nor- semantic energies fail to complete the techni-
life” the idea is expressed, for example, that mative laws. Urban planning has a difficult cal construction frame to form a picture of a
families and households have a higher “desire position per se since it demands that citizens, different life” [8]. Planting trees, condensing
for a place to live in” than they used to. Our architects and politicians have a new aware- boilers, solar panels, recyclable construction
society talks about sustainability and is using ness for what already exists, for sustainable, materials and comparisons of energy costs do
up more and more land. According to the Fed- resource-conserving building, more preserva- not suffice. It is quite definitely more a question
eral Statistics Office, in 2005 living space per tion of historical monuments and less prosperity. of willingness, awareness development and
head was 42 m2 throughout the Germany. This Historical building stock, like the land, counts mental change. Architects and property devel-
subject very quickly brings us into the area of as one of the environmental resources that can- opers, residents and business people have
political and cultural values in our society, not be reproduced and certainly not repeated. failed to ask themselves this question with the
including private property, seclusion and our own What does the careful and gentle treatment of necessary intensity [9]. You need not be a fol-
private sphere. These values are inextricably buildings already in existence signify other than lower of fatalism in the philosophy of history to
linked with the hope for individual autonomy. a sustainable strategy that supposes adaptabil- foresee that this topic has not yet reached its
Every attempt to stop the trend towards smaller ity and reusability as a principle and gives old full explosive potential.

20
 Architecture and sustainability – a difficult relationship

Lack of sensivity is a problem In the search for a visual, aesthetic identity for quence, publishing has taken over the role of
To be fair, it has to be admitted that rational, ecological architecture, few concepts, basic establishing a basic consensus when discuss-
scientifically based findings on how sustainable rules, norms etc. have been very helpful so far. ing arguments. And since sustainability is very
construction should be structured are already Including environment energies sensibly, complex and not very striking, other areas con-
available. Transferring these findings to the directly or indirectly, when planning a building tinue to dominate.
construction industry scarcely happens. Neither is bound to have an effect on the form of that
universities nor experts in the media seem very building. The first signs are there that contem- With sustainable construction, apart from any-
committed to this subject. A question seldom porary “architectural language” is picking up thing else, the architects’ self-image is on trial.
broached in public, yet nevertheless of immense the notion of sustainable construction. We only Günter Moewes, for one, is of the opinion that
importance, concerns form and appearance have to look at the concept of “Natural Con- much of what passes as “ecological construc-
because they are fundamental. What does the structions” [11], at Munich architect Thomas tion” is only trying to give the impression of
architecture of sustainable building look like? Herzog with his intelligent and refreshing con- being environmentally compatible. “True eco-
Different relevant tendencies can be mentioned struction concepts. Yet this form of transferring logical building resembles the ‘conventional’
here. The most striking thing is that neither ideas cannot really be regarded as ground- building of the early 20th century more than
architects nor the media are particularly enthu- breaking, and there are no signs of this chang- today’s decision-forming architecture claims as
siastic about it. This basic attitude speaks for ing – and again the media are in no way blame- ecological”. For example, Karljosef Schattner’s
itself, as for instance Peter Eisenman once said: less here. Despite all lip service to the contrary, conversions in Eichstätt or Otto Steidle’s hous-
“To talk to me about sustainability is like talking sustainability has a hard time with them – con- ing construction were “admittedly more ecolog-
to me about giving birth. Am I against giving sidering the sensation-seeking market and ical than many detached, short-lived ‘green’
birth? No. But would I like to spend my time effective selection mechanisms. You only need wooden cottages in so-called ecological con-
doing it? Not really. I’d rather go to a baseball to point out that in our times definitions of what struction” [12]. A keyword for such an assess-
game”. [10] Sustainability seems to be a touchy quality means are subjective, that tastes, to all ment is entropy. This term comes from physics
subject for intellectuals or artistic people and intents and purposes, are lacking in objectivity. and is based on the second law of thermody-
“ecological architecture” a label that puts a lot On the other hand, this freedom of subjectivity namics. According to this law, in a closed sys-
of people off. This is probably attributable to does not really make us happy; we want others tem all processes flow in one direction only,
the fact that early ecological architecture was to share our points of view. As a rule this usually from higher states to lower states. Entropy is
associated with certain living arrangements means listening to those people to whom many the degree of this increasing mixing and diffu-
and lifestyles (e.g. dropout forms, rural com- others are listening. Tastes tend to undergo a sion; it is therefore a condition and not a proc-
munes), which were contradictory to conven- certain homogenisation and conventionalisation. ess. The Earth too represents a more or less
tional forms. Perhaps what is being cultivated This is where the media come into their own. closed system since the only significant quantity
here is subconsciously, yet nonetheless per- They channel public discussion determining entering is by incident solar radiation. Target
ceptibly, the apparent opposite of sustainability what quality is. What is worth talking about in energy can therefore only be achieved by a
and design. the media counts as architecture. As a conse- simultaneous increase in entropy in a different

A 3.5

21
Architecture and sustainability – a difficult relationship

A 3.6
place, as the example of the steam engine A central problem exists in the ratio of invest- the unheated sun lounge is used as a bedroom,
shows, whose power can only be produced by ment costs to operating costs, or in the fact that it is clear that traditional values such as cosi-
an unequally higher production of useless savings are only possible as a result of higher ness and comfort will, de facto, clash with energy
wasted heat. As our whole way of working func- investments and building costs to start with. concerns. In buildings with good thermal insu-
tions like that – and only like that –, we are obvi- Property developers, buyers and the public lation, the user’s behaviour has a decisive influ-
ously faced with a serious problem caused, as authorities find it difficult to accept this. Amongst ence on energy consumption. Lack of knowl-
it were, by the laws of nature. Instead of chang- property owners who do not live in the property, edge, carelessness or technical ineptitude all
ing course now, architecture is just hastening and that usually is the case, there is very little have repercussions. If this is not continually
things along. “This very craving for novelty, born enthusiasm to take action to tackle the running borne in mind, or if it is too hard to regulate, the
of the mechanisms of public relations, leads costs – electricity, water, heating. This part of finest measures are of little use. Those who
into entropy, into the same mush everywhere the overheads will be passed on to the future claim to build in a way that is in tune with the
from something different here and there. If every- tenants, who, on the other hand, are not involved environment and its resources are not permit-
one’s on this individualist trip, then individuality in the primary discussions. Too little heed is ted to insist on closed, highly complicated
is lost. Always the same mixture of extreme paid to the fact that ecological effects become technical systems where people would need a
unique specimens – this would be the pinnacle most apparent the more savings effects can be degree in engineering to be able to regulate
of urban planning entropy [13]. measured in euros and cents. this technology. Schumacher’s axiom “small is
Many well-meant and innovative suggestions beautiful” provides a guideline – less in the ide-
The necessity of down-to-earth examples on the part of the architects obviously fail to re- ological sense than in the tendency to develop
We do not need such exceptionally eco-avant- cognise deep-seated habits. Here is an exam- user-oriented (ergo: small) technologies that
garde projects to anchor the subject of sustain- ple. The concept of thermal zoning – warmer can be managed by the individual rather than
able building more firmly with the general pub- retreat areas at the centre of the house and sun large-scale technologies. If everybody took this
lic and in “normal” building – there are plenty lounges and other similar glass extensions on requirement seriously and worked out a scheme
of those already. Instead, practical examples the south side of the building – presupposes accordingly, it would no longer only mean spe-
should be demonstrated, the use of cost-effec- adequate continuous use. If, due to lack of rooms, cialised division of labour for the working per-
tive, down-to-earth, already tried-and-tested
technologies for the everyday lives of many
should be proven and shown [14]. The so-
called energy-saving houses at Lützowufer in
Berlin were a type of experimental setup [15]. A
further reference project is “Solar City” in Linz.
We can draw fundamental experience from
both projects. Assuming that architecture is
supposed to “speak” to the beholder, the “eco-
logical” part of the houses provided with this
very attribute is not particularly eloquent. They
stick within conventional frameworks, are
“architecture parlante”, only in as far as they
work with well-known and well-recognised pic-
tures of living spaces, if need be accentuated
by a solar thermal collector as a special fea-
ture. This actually turns out to be an advantage.
They clearly show that there is no “eco” style,
not even an “energy-saving” one. Such build-
ings do not require any uniform aesthetics and
no generally binding rules except that of behav-
ing in a sensible way, which does not destroy
(at least does not pollute) the environment. In
this respect the popular contradiction between
form and environmental claims is only a virtual
one.
A 3.7

22
 Architecture and sustainability – a difficult relationship

A 3.6 Conversion of former Friedrich Grammar School,

Berlin (D), 2004, David Chipperfield Architects
A 3.7 Conversion of the Old Courtyard, Munich (D),
2006, Auer + Weber, Peter Kulka
A 3.8 Detached family house, Feldkirch (A), 2003,
Walter Unterrainer
A 3.8
son, but in fact more a changed view of people References: Integral Urban House. Self-Reliant Living in the City.
altogether. To do this it would perhaps be help- [1] Duve, Freimut: Editorial. In: Schwarz, Ullrich (ed.): San Francisco ,1979). Building should almost out-
Grünes Bauen. Ansätze einer Öko-Architektur pace itself here in affecting life; but whether and to
ful to emphasize the enjoyable aspects rather what extent this pioneer project is still valid today is
(Series: Technologie und Politik). Reinbek 1982, p. 6
than seeing it as a sacrifice where there is still [2] Indirectly, this touches on a core problem of the eco- not clear.
always regimentation [16]. logy movement: The notion of the unending natural [15] These were built within the framework of the IBA
The nature of architecture is becoming less and cycle and its laws, to which people should humbly (International Building Exhibition) at the beginning of
less determined by its physical form. Materials conform, can serve at best only to explain an ecolo- the 1980s. The urban planners’ brief was “Restoration
gical authoritarianism, the danger of which being of the urban space on the south bank of the canal
are available in abundance, irrespective of local using a wall made of tightly grouped individual items”.
that it would never find any limits itself anywhere.
or regional conditions, and the same applies to The notion of natural balanced conditions, out of This gave rise to five cubes of about 15 ≈ 15 m,
the technology we can select. Admittedly, which practical norms can be deduced, has some- whose energetic nonsense is highlighted still further
architecture claiming to be sustainable cannot thing relieving about it in the face of conflicts of by their joint pedestal – required to fulfil building
interest and society’s political disputes. This probably regulations on account of ineduquate clearance from
just limit itself to technical or innovative building the boundary.
explains its attraction.
products. Recent history shows that, where [3] Scheelhaase, Klaus: Ist der Bauingenieur fit für die [16] Behne, Adolf: Der praktische Zweck mache das
sustainability is concerned, success is Janus- Zukunft? In: Deutsches Ingenieurblatt, Nr. 7/8 1999, Haus zum Werkzeug, der Spieltrieb des Gestaltens
faced. This success provided the politicians p. 48 zum Spielzeug. In: Der moderne Zweckbau Bauwelt
with respectable arguments for their soothing [4] Buckminster Fuller, Richard: Nine Chains to the Moon. Fundamente, vol. 10. Frankfurt a.M. / Berlin 1964,
Philadelphia, 1938, p. 67 p. 11
tactics in the face of warnings about environ-
[5] Buckminster Fuller, Richard: Einflüsse auf meine
mental catastrophes, without having to ques- Arbeit. In: Bedienungsanleitung für das Raumschiff
tion the system at all. While technical solutions Erde und andere Schriften. Reinbek 1973, p. 32f.
and product innovations were expanding to and p. 103
become a new business sector, they became [6] In the system of the relationship between man and
environment, both poles are the product of human
part of the growth ideology from which the eco- history, i.e. variable in principle, and the possibilities
logical movement was trying to escape with a this opens up can only be judged by standards that
counter-model, the reprocessing industry. follow a desired rather than a natural way of life.
Nevertheless, architecture, as a spatial system, [7] cf. the section “Öko-Architektur – nur was für Reiche?”
In: Beyel, Wolfgang; Nelles, Wilfried (ed.): Wirksame
is still responsible for the way things are
Energienutzung bei der Stadterneuerung – eine soziale
arranged within society. It must, however, bear und ökologische Notwendigkeit. ARCH+ 51/52.
this responsibility in a new and far more com- Aachen, 1980
plex way than before. [8] Schwarz, Ullrich: Ökologisches Bauen – Schritte aus
dem grünen Schattenreich. In: Schwarz, Ullrich
(ed.):Grünes Bauen. Ansätze einer Öko-Architektur
(Series: Technologie und Politik). Reinbek, 1982,
p. 7
[9] It is not only the needs of nature and caring for
resources etc. that determine the direction and type
of changes necessary. It is political objectives and
cultural norms instead that decide how an ecologi-
cally responsible way of life should look.
[10] Hawthorne, Christopher: The Case for a Green
Aesthetic? In: Metropolis. Oct. 2002, p. 113
[11] Applying the diverse building principles found in
nature, whether they be diatoms or soap bubble film,
to architectural loadbearing structures refers to the
fundamental idea of “Nature as the master builder”
or “Instructor”. Today, a lot of work is carried out on
developing this approach – in the area of bionics for
dynamic-evolutionary adaptation processes as an
indication of the potential of changes in nature.
[12] Moewes, Günther: Weder Hütten noch Paläste.
Architektur und Ökologie in der Arbeitsgesellschaft –
Eine Streitschrift. Basel / Berlin / Boston, 1995, p. 204
[13] ibid, p.167f.
[14] The real model of an ecologically sensible way of
building and living was already put into practice in
Berkeley in the 1970s (ct. Farallones Institute): The

23
Doing things right – on
efficiency and sustainability

Manfred Hegger

A 4.1
Research and development, new tools, innova- dratiev’s theory, extended by a long wave,
tive products and global economic development assumes that the fifth cycle, in whose boom
show us time and time again that our living phase our social and economic development
conditions have been rapidly improving, espe- obviously currently find themselves, does not
cially since the beginning of industrialisation. see providing further material goods as a fun-
Progress seems unstoppable. Mankind is clearly damental need, but rather the solving of the
more and more successful in satisfying its problems of the environment. Accordingly, tan-
basic needs. To do this they develop suitable gible goods are shaping our future less than
technologies and appliances, networks and intangible achievements, such as knowledge
synergies. Nikolai Kondratiev’s theory of the networks. This development already seems to
“grand supercycles” in social and economic have progressed so far that we are faced with
development says that, since the beginning of a shortage of transforming or of taking action
industrialisation, in cycles lasting about 50 rather than with a lack of knowledge.
years we have succeeded in covering basic
needs, and that this was always achieved by Doing the right things or doing things right?
groundbreaking innovations. (Fig. A 4.4) [1, 2]. Our actions are mostly marked by an uncondi-
So far, in four long waves since the end of the tional striving for success. Seen superficially,
18th century, it has become possible to make nothing can be said against this. Ultimately, we
work easier (1793–1847), to make resources are trying to achieve a defined objective as
available (1847–1893), to shape towns so they perfectly as possible. But it depends how we
are worth living in (1893–1939) and also to achieve it. Here are some definitions of effec-
foster individuality and mobility (1939–1989). tiveness and efficiency:
Whereas at the beginning of every cycle it A course of action is effective if it achieves its
seemed as if the problems in question were stated objective, no matter how much effort is
unsolvable, by the end, generally speaking, it required for us to achieve this goal [3]. Being
was possible to achieve ambitious aims, at least effective therefore means doing the right things
in the developed part of the world. That was the without sparing any expense.
good news. Efficient, on the other hand, is a way of behav-
It is also correct, however, that a large part of ing that leads to achieving the goal and at the
the world hardly shares in these successes. In same time keeping effort to a minimum.
addition, solving a key problem usually causes ISO 9000 defines efficiency as “the relationship
several new ones. Inevitably, some of these between the result obtained and the means
become the problem to be solved in the next used” [4]. With efficiency it is not just a ques-
long development phase. Others are just left tion of doing the right things, but of doing
unsolved and are seen as unavoidable nega- things right.
tive side issues. This is especially evident in the Economic and ecological considerations are
environmental damage resulting from industrial increasingly questioning the principle of effec-
development and the depletion of natural tiveness, because this principle assumes that
resources. we have more or less unlimited resources at
What are the reasons for this? Is it enough to our disposal. Unfortunately, however, our soci-
blame it on people’s incapability to take a far- ety is largely dependent on non-renewable
sighted view of things? Is the basic tenet of resources. And these are gradually becoming
ecology – everything is connected to every- scarce. Our ability to obtain and burn oil and
thing – too hard for our thoughts? Do we like gas, to produce plastics and metals, and to
A 4.1 Efficient shell: soap bubbles – roof structure always making new work for ourselves? Every create wealth, exceeds the supplies of limited
A 4.2 Synergies from environmental protection and the one of these explanations is justified, but does natural resources. This in turn leads to shortages
economy not offer us any relief. In fact the “collateral and high prices. Using non-renewable energies
A 4.3 Efficient surface: butterfly wings – scaly metal
facade
damage” of our previous successful actions is is changing our climate and the weather.
A 4.4 The grand supercycles of social and economic now endangering our basic living conditions.
development according to Nikolai Kondratiev We are aware of this. It is not in vain that Kon-

24
 Doing things right – on efficiency and sustainability

Reduction in environmental damage Reduction in costs

minimising energy consumption lowering costs in the workplace

minimising use of materials lowering costs in building and in the workplace
minimising toxic emissions lower taxes, lower follow-up costs
low liability risk
minimising waste and scrap lowering costs on the building site
closing material cycles long-term cost security
long-term strategic competitive advantages
increasing the use of renewable resources cost reductions in building and the workplace
A 4.2 A 4.3
The first logical steps have been taken since Many people in the building industry argue Economy and Ecology
the first energy crisis in the 1970s and the re- vehemently that similar efficiency leaps cannot Efficiency is a primary economic category. Yet,
cognition of the limits to growth. They affect our be achieved there. The measures already as the examples mentioned have clearly
daily lives and are noticeable at first hand – taken to reduce the use of energy prove that shown, increasing efficiency and lowering
deposits on bottles and the obligation to take those arguments are clearly unfounded. A costs often go hand in hand with less environ-
the bottles back, refuse separation or meters to house built before 1970 uses on average about mental damage. Fewer and fewer natural
calculate energy costs. They also affect the 25–30 l of heating oil per m2 floor space per resources are being used up; less waste is pro-
economy – in the increasing use of renewable year. If the current legal regulations on energy duced, the air and the atmosphere are less pol-
resources and superior recycling products, in saving in Germany (EnEV) are applied, a new luted. In many areas the objectives of economy
new power station technologies and systems house is only allowed to use a maximum of 6–7 l and ecology match up (Fig. A 4.2). Apart from
for using renewable energies. of heating oil per m2 floor space per year. Other this, there are benefits both for society and for
Efficient thinking is replacing effectiveness countries have similar rules. The 4- and 6-litre the individual. They contribute to a change of
more and more. This is particularly relevant houses are state of the art, and in Germany, if values in society and to a model for sustainable
where resources are scarce and the pressure public grants are used, can be constructed at development.
of global competition dominates. This trend is no extra cost. Over the past 10 years the 1.5-litre Today’s wealth makes it possible to invest in
especially visible with intangible products, house, the so-called passive-energy house, efficient and environmentally friendly technolo-
which are influencing our lives more and more has been built thousands of times. Compared gies. The early period of industrialisation was
– databanks, multimedia, security and environ- with building the 6-litre house the costs were characterised by heavy industry and chimneys
mental technologies, or hardware for informa- about 5% higher. Viewed as a whole this – resource-wasting. Today, the developed
tion systems. The efficiency potential is astound- means that within fewer than 30 years develop- countries are rich and powerful, environmental
ing; we only have to think of the longstanding ment has led to a 20-fold increase in efficiency. damage is becoming noticeably less. This is
so-called half-life period of computers, in which At the same time there have been clearly also shown in Simon Kuznet’s environment dia-
every 18 months computer capacity and mem- reduced emissions and considerably improved gram. It can be seen that society’s develop-
ory capacity double. The use of materials and climatic comfort. ment is going from poor and dirty, then from
energy has attained a high degree of efficiency wealthy and dirty, to wealthy and clean (Fig.
and it looks as if this can still be topped. A 4.6). Economic prosperity therefore leads to

Kondratiev cycles: 1st cycle 2nd cycle 3rd cycle 4th cycle 5th cycle
steam engine, railways, shipping, electricity, chemistry mobility, petroleum, information technology,
cotton steel electronics ecology

analysis projection

peak in development 1825 1873 1913 1966 2015 ?

fundamental needs making work easier making resources making urban life fostering individuality solving problems for
available worldwide worthwhile and mobility our contemporaries
comprehensive networks trade networks transportation networks energy networks communication networks knowledge networks
groundbreaking applications machines locomotives, lighting, telephone, car, intangible goods,
railway stations cinema television, data processing, information equipment
missiles and databases
groundbreaking technologies steam steel electricity electronics multimedia
synergy applications consumer goods shipping chemistry, aluminium petroleum products ecological problem solutions,
traffic systems
technology applications mechanics large drives large-scale plants weapons systems security and
environment technologies

The grand supercycles

of social and economic
development

A 4.4

25
Doing things right – on efficiency and sustainability

an environmentally friendly structure change. • The building industry uses about 50% of all
It is understandable that it is the newly industri- the raw materials processed in the world.
alised countries that are trying to copy this • In Germany, the building sector produces
model. That is why they are building their own more than 60% of the total waste.
heavy industry and their own chimneys. But the • Operating buildings in Germany requires
model that produced our wealth is not repro- approximately 50% of total energy use.
ducible. The once seemingly inexhaustible
sources of raw materials are becoming scarce. Building is an activity with long-lasting reper-
The peak oil point seems to have been reached. cussions. Planning decisions that we have just
The experts are only still debating whether oil taken move considerable resources. With the
will be depleted in 20 or in 50 years. The pic- current usual lifetime of buildings, a building
ture does not look much brighter for other erected today will probably still be in use at the
resources, e.g. precious metals. We are com- end of the oil and gas age. How can architec-
ing up against limits with a lot of natural sys- ture and technology prepare for this?
tems. The overhasty exploiting of resources is
causing a noticeable change in climate, which Fields of action
A 4.5 is endangering the basis of our way of living. The long timescales can preserve building from
The ultimate limit will not necessarily be the short-lived trends and fashions. At the same
scarcity of resources but the time still remain- time, in times of fundamental changes, they put
ing for the Earth’s climate system to be able to
Environmental pollution

a lot of responsibility on architecture and tech-

stabilise. nical services in order to guarantee usefulness,
There are ways out and new models based on safety and comfort permanently. New objectives
vastly increasing resource efficiency. At the are necessary; the fields of action are diverse.
poor and rich and
Wuppertal Institute, for instance, they assume
dirty dirty that by the middle of the century the same Energy
value can be created with only one-tenth of The level of technology we have reached allows
The rich are the biggest
environmental polluter”
“Poverty is the biggest

today’s use of energy and resources, ultimately, high energy efficiency in building. Buildings fit
M. Gandhi, India

worldwide, a tenfold “dematerialisation”. This is for the future will exploit all the possibilities of
environmental

an enormous challenge. Yet the scarcer, and energy efficiency – from the choice of site,
polluters.

thus dearer, raw materials become, the more it shape and alignment of the building, choice of
will be worth producing energy- and resource- material and insulation, technical equipment and
poor and clean rich and clean
efficient products, i.e. avoiding consumption many other parameters. Maybe this will not be
Time and waste, closing material cycles, using renew- enough in a time when we are running out of
A 4.6 able energies and raw materials and finally fossil energy sources. We can suppose that in
achieving a service-oriented economy. A third future two sectional markets will appear, build-
Industrial Revolution seems possible. Here too, ings that are still reliant on fossil energy sourc-
A 4.5 Efficient loadbearing structure: tree – tree column
A 4.6 Environmental chart by Simon Kuznets as is so often the case, risks and opportunities es and those which make themselves com-
A 4.7 International comparison of office space per are so close together. pletely independent. The possibilities for using
employee site-specific, inexhaustible, renewable energy
And building? sources in building are diverse. Geothermal
Environmental and efficiency considerations power via ground couplings and drilled wells,
have scarcely penetrated our building produc- wind power via rotors on or in the building,
Country Average office space tion and the buildings we already have. On the solar energy through activation of the building
per employee in m2 one hand it is hardly surprising. If building envelope, and much more besides. Drawing on
Germany 30 means ensuring the creation and preseration of these energy sources today generally requires
our material environment, striving for “demateri- higher investment. But the cost of running them
Denmark 20
alisation” seems at first glance to be out of offers an advantage that should not be under-
Italy 20
place. Materials to ensure daily survival just estimated – the energy sources will remain safe
Netherlands 20 cannot be replaced by immaterial services or and free of charge on a long-term basis.
Switzerland 20 even information.
Sweden 18 On the other hand, architecture and building Building materials and forms of construction
France 17
cannot remain aloof from a social development The use of materials for a building can be
regarded as urgent. The example of energy reduced considerably as a means of resource
Slovakia 15
saving shows that new requirements need not efficiency. One cubic metre gross volume of a
Spain 15 necessarily sound the death knell for architec- house still weighs about 600 kg on average; a
UK 14 ture, as was still feared in the 1980s, but being normal detached house with a volume of 500 m3
Poland 14 able to promote energy-saving building forms correspondingly ties up approximately 300 t of
Russia 14 and technologies. Another reason why it is not building materials. The possibilities to use
possible to remain apart from general develop- materials efficiently and to integrate building
Belgium 12
ments is that building represents a consider- materials in closed cycles are only being applied
Greece 12
able section of the economy. Almost 50% of the sporadically. Yet legal rulings are already in the
Ireland 12 total invested capital in developed countries is planning stage. The federal government and
Austria 12 tied up in the housing sector alone, approxi- the EU with their “sustainability strategy” and
Hungary 12 mately 70% in existing buildings. the “Construction Products Directive” (CPD) will
Bulgaria 10
Moreover, if you then consider the building formulate their requirements and, probably from
industry’s claims on resources, the pressure to 2010 onwards, demand proof of the environ-
Estonia 10
act becomes even clearer: mental impact of building materials in accord-
A 4.7

26
 Doing things right – on efficiency and sustainability

ance with the life cycle assessments (LCA). It cities. Living in towns and cities is ecological able building for the future. On a planet with
will be even more exciting to undertake crea- and environmentally friendly because density is enormous poverty, a lack of imagination is the
tive steps to develop lighter architecture, not efficient. The necessary technical infrastructure greatest poverty of all. We must not become
only architecture that seems lighter, and to be can only be guaranteed in the long run in used to this poverty. Architects and engineers
consistent in using reusable and renewable densely populated areas. Access to all facilities have the best chance to develop and envisage
raw materials again and again. Using less is improved by nearness and a variety of com- the building blocks for a better sustainable
materials increases the chance of being able to mercial, social and cultural offers are then pos- future and to demonstrate in the great global
use high-quality building materials and thus sible. Local public transport is only economi- context, not as daydreaming, but how towns
reduces the danger of using substances that cally attractive in densely populated areas. The and houses as a whole and in detail could look.
are damaging for homes or the environment. volume of traffic movement is reduced. It is
imperative to ensure continuing density and
Life cycle thus avoid a downward spiral, particularly in
Considering the normally long life of a building, regions with shrinking populations.
it follows that durable and low-maintenance
components should be used. Repairs, techni- Individual and social advantages
cal upgrades, and improving the form are, The fields of action described can only give an
however, unavoidable turning points in the life indication of where action must be taken. The
cycle of a building. Components and materials argumentation on the basis of primarily eco-
for repairs and replacement should preferably nomic grounds is intended to show how closely
be separable without destroying them, and interwoven with each other the areas of environ-
reusable if reinstalled or removed. As already ment and economy have become. These fields
happens with appliances or in the automotive of action also show that with ecological and
sector, there should be a comprehensive obli- economic advantages, the individual and
gation in the building sector to take back build- social benefits increase too. Buildings and
ing elements. An integral consideration of services improved from the point of view of
building costs and running costs, so-called life sustainability also increase our quality of life,
cycle costing (LCC), makes a considerable comfort and often our safety and security too.
contribution with its holistic approach to improv- For example, an energy-saving building enve-
ing the quality of building and processes and lope offers not only thermal insulation in sum-
also to efficiency in building. mer and winter, but also adds to users’ well-
being. Intelligent dimensioning and positioning
Adaptability of windows guarantee good daylight conditions
Before starting to build, a needs-analysis and a and avoid overheating whilst saving energy
utilisation concept have to be worked out. Archi- and costs at the same time. The careful choice
tects are often faced with integral layouts that of materials that are safe from the health point
are neither suitable for the future nor economi- of view and also environmentally friendly plays
cal. Office buildings, for example, are usually an important role in avoiding discomfort and
arranged in a cellular way, highly differential “sick building syndrome”, and avoids the need
and not very flexible. This type of space is very for the expenditure linked with premature dis-
difficult to rent out nowadays because they are posal. The healthy and pleasant quality of the
structured in such a small-format, inflexible air in rooms presupposes good ventilation
way. The office space requirement per person practices, which in turn are energy-saving and
in Germany is on average approximately 30 m2, require robust, simple technology. Adaptable
in other European countries it is below 20 m2 structures without barriers to communication
(Fig. A 4.7) [5]. The basic spatial structure hin- guarantee high quality and long-lasting use.
ders not only communication and productivity, Density and varied possibilities of use create
but also the adaptability and flexibility from a sustainable towns and buildings, and also facil-
construction point of view to make it possible to itate both social contacts and individuality. In
continue using the building even if needs have all of these aspects, economic criteria, environ-
changed. People often overlook the fact that mental qualities and social effects go hand in
the key to a building that combines high archi- hand.
tectural quality with cost-effectiveness and
environmental friendliness lies in the early plan- Outlook
ning phases. In order to achieve this, differenti- Because we are running up against the limits of
ated and carefully developed product specifi- many natural systems, the problems seem to
cations for buildings are required. These be gaining the upper hand. Nine billion people
should include the organisation and foreseea- want to be able to live well on our planet in the
ble changes in the catalogue of requirements year 2050. Architecture is providing important
and go beyond generalisations and, ultimately, requirements for this. Sustainable technologies References:
[1] Kondratiev, Nikolai: Die langen Wellen der
non-committal wishes. are available. Improving the social conditions Konjunktur. In: Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft
of the broad population on our planet seems und
Location and plot feasible. We have the necessary money and Sozialpolitik, Year 56/1926
The choice of location for building and redevelop- sustainability is visibly paying off. The task is no [2] Nefiodow, Leo A.: Der sechste Kondratieff.
ment measures constitutes an increasingly less than reshaping the material basis of our Sankt Augustin, 2007
[3] Grauel, Ralf: Es werde Licht! In: Brand Eins. 10/2004
important key factor for environmental friendliness civilisation. [4] DIN EN ISO 9000:2005: Quality management
and cost-effectiveness. More than half of the The greatest barriers are in our minds – we still systems – Fundamentals and vocabulary
world’s population already lives in towns and cannot imagine a sustainable future or sustain- [5] Die Welt, from 3 August 2006, p. 20

27
Solar Architecture

Thomas Herzog

A 5.1
As far as using solar energy in architecture is applies to office buildings. Nowadays, in office
concerned, there has been a change of posi- buildings heating accounts for less than 10% of
tion. Only a few years ago it was primarily a total energy costs on average, whereas costs
question of just using solar energy to save for cooling have increased by 10 to 20%. At the
heating costs in the winter months or to pro- same time, cooling requires about three times
duce hot water for domestic use. Since then the amount of primary energy per kilowatt-hour,
there has been progress in both fields, regard- so that the energy requirements for cooling can
ing both the development of types of building – be de facto between five and ten times higher.
e.g. large glass surfaces on south elevations, Variable g-values (total energy transmittance)
well-insulated and closed north elevations, are the aim therefore for outer wall construction
zoned plan layouts based on the thermal onion- as a possibility of reacting flexibly to climate
skin principle, a favourable volume-to-surface change. The first experiments – e.g. the facade
ratio, orientation of the building, etc – and also with light-directing elements in the office build-
in improving the active technology (higher effi- ings in Wiesbaden – are proving very success-
ciency and reliability). ful (Fig. A 5.6).
This applies to heating systems and producing New active technologies like solar cooling sys-
warm water, where, meanwhile, technology has tems are very promising since most energy is
reached the stage where even in Central Europe available when the energy requirements are at
it is possible to obtain 60% and more of our their highest. If, however, you reduce the trans-
domestic hot water requirements using solar parent and translucent parts of the building
thermal collectors. envelope so that less daylight can enter the
building, more additional artificial light is need-
Using solar energy ed as a result. According to studies carried
In the 1980s there was disagreement about the out at Cambridge University, lighting accounts
evaluation of the proportion of large glass sur- for on average 30% of the energy requirements
faces on the south elevations of buildings; at in office buildings. These conflicts demonstrate
the time, people were not even prepared to that many aspects play a role in the whole
include solar gains in the data collection of an interrelationship.
energy household. The experts working in the
area of standardisation, and whose aim, they “Smart” building technology
thought, was to draw up state regulations to In relation to the running of buildings, we use
reduce the use of fossil fuels, started off with environmental energies for natural lighting, for
the clear aim of reducing the U-value that ventilation – so far as this is necessary physio-
defines the thermal transmittance through the logically or for maintenance reasons – for heat,
outer walls of a building. The result was a primi- for cooling and, where appropriate, with photo-
tive version of a thermos flask-type of building. voltaic to generate electricity. Frequently, situa-
In terms of method, this mono-causal approach tions arise where these different uses conflict
fails to consider the fact that buildings as a with each other. Depending on the season, the
whole comprise a highly complex interweaving time of day and the weather conditions, the
of functional, technical and aesthetic aspects. type of use, the period and the length of time
Via the transparent, translucent and opaque within the individual building, different claims
parts of their envelope, energy always flows are made on the functions mentioned. It seems
differently in both directions depending on both reasonable to expect “smart” buildings – a
local conditions and the individual parameters buzzword that has now become established –
of the building. to be able to react properly to constantly
A 5.1 Congress and exhibition centre, Linz (A), 1993, changing conditions and situations.
Herzog + Partner Bear in mind the following facts. Improving the It should be noted at this point that to a certain
A 5.2 Roof construction, EXPO Hannover (D), 2000,
Herzog + Partner
thermal insulation where there are large glass extent building control technology represents
A 5.3 Atelierhaus art gallery, Munich (D), 1994, surfaces can increase the problem of cooling in the brain and the nerves in such a system. It
Herzog + Partner the summer months considerably – this often takes over the regulating and controlling func-

28
 Solar Architecture

A 5.2
tions, which are linked to the changing condi- approach flights in passenger planes in the of behaving can follow. Accordingly, electronic
tions in such a way, both in the field of energy fog, ABS or electronic traction control systems systems in a building should serve mainly to
provision for the inside of the building (generat- in vehicles do not seem to me to be suitable guide people and, at best, only cause condi-
ing, distributing and emitting heat) and also in analogies. Extensive and often unnecessary tions in the building envelope to change auto-
manipulating the building envelope (louvres are automation involves considerable risks and matically to a limited extent.
raised and lowered, the angle of inclination is alarming consequences such as vulnerability to So as not to become psychologically and men-
adjusted, automatic switching of supplementa- technical system or component failures, higher tally stunted, people must continue to try to be
ry lighting, ventilation flaps as exhaust open- building costs, avoiding the consequences of aware of their environment - and that includes
ings are opened or shut and the power of the our own inappropriate behaviour, our growing the artificially created one too – with all their
humidifiers is varied, etc,). dependency on newer technical systems and senses in the future too, instead of just mani-
Wide areas of our daily lives are determined by also on manufacturers and maintenance firms. pulating virtual space with a few joysticks. The
such technical processes, which are generally In relation to its effects on the building sector conscious and correct way of dealing with a
electronic controlling and regulating operations and urban planning, however, it is necessary to building presupposes that you understand it.
that react automatically to suit individual situa- encourage the right way of behaving and make So it would be important then for “smart systems”
tions. The question of the correct balance aris- people aware of certain things. Phenomena to show you, for example, whether your behav-
es. Compared with buildings, things like blind must be better understood so that the right way iour – such as leaving a window tilted open
over a thermostat-controlled radiator in winter –
is wasting thermal energy uselessly or whether
by using certain apparatus electricity is being
used unnecessarily. What use is the following
year’s electricity bill in this case? Nobody can
then reconstruct what led to the bill being so
high. Developing systems to do this is a high-
level design task still facing us. In reality, on the
other hand, we have electronic data process-
ing tools for simulations in various areas:

Thermal
• administering climate data
• setting up usage profiles
• working out building technical and geometric
variables

Light technology
• with multiple reflection, where, however,
many things are still confusing in visualisa-
tion.

New components are in development, being

tested or being used for the first time such as:

• vacuum insulation panels (VIP)

• glass types that react to changing solar radi-
ation or can be switched to use special gas
fillings to reach U-values of < 0.5
• electrochromic und thermotropic glass types
with variable g-values
• ventilation components with pre-warming by
solar radiation

A 5.3

29
Solar Architecture

A 5.4
• disintegrated systems (with varying durability, In concrete terms this means that the mixing of purchasing power in an area and, in addition,
varying technical processes within the com- functions should be integrated into building the distances to facilities needed for daily
bination) structures. Outstanding forerunners can be needs are short enough for pedestrians that an
• using (activating) internal masses through seen in the residential buildings of the second effective mixture of operations is possible. At
the heating and cooling of building components half of the 19th century long before people the same time, motor traffic can be reduced by
• highly flexible photovoltaic modules became stranded by mistakenly thinking that a noteworthy order of magnitude. A reduction
• large-format photovoltaic glass (up to 9 m2) the optimum form of housing was on the basis in land use and infrastructure costs naturally
of standardised space requirements, as was goes hand in hand with this, which is significant
Some thoughts about the city the case for decades after the Second World for the communities as regards investment and
As far back as the first half of the 1960s we War. So we need building structures, which in maintenance.
realised that as a result of the separation of their development, land use and use of space It is exactly here that new models are needed
urban functions – housing, production, leisure – are considerably more neutral than is typically that are socially acceptable. The ideal of living
not least due to the demands of the CIAM the case for most residential buildings – partic- in the countryside awakens the totally wrong
“Athens Charter” – there had been losses in ularly the publicly funded ones. One of the con- impression of being an ecologically sensible
quality for the modern city. However, our interest sequences here would be to build as densely strategy. Your own home on the edge of town
then centred on the characteristics of complex- as possible. It is only when there is enough in a low-density development does give you as
ity, which we were supposed to try to regain.
What we were thinking of was concentration,
intertwinement, urban diversity and especially
the effects on urban spaces as a result of
changing usages. Young architects’ hopes at
the time were centred on large, variable struc-
tures, like first of all those designed by Yona
Friedman for Paris, by Eckhard Schulze-Fielitz,
e.g. for slag heaps in the Ruhr area, by Kisho
Kurokawa for large single buildings and by
Kenzo Tange for the Tokyo Bay project. In these
plans suggestions were made for solving the
rapidly increasing traffic problems – especially
car traffic – going as far as keeping large traffic
levels totally free under buildings. This traffic
was never questioned but it was visible, not
only in the models for the future but also in what
was then noticeable in daily reality, caused by
the intertwinement of the functions of the city
already mentioned.
Today, we know that roughly a quarter of all
fossil energies used flow into traffic processes
with the well-known negative effects this entails.
For this reason, our main task is not only to
replace fossil fuels, or reduce their consumption
in relation to individual transport cases, but also
to reconsider the causes of increased traffic
and correct them. It is not a question of extreme
solutions but of combining urban operations –
wherever it seems possible and sensible –
since nowadays physically separating industrial
and polluting processes from residential areas
is no longer insisted on, as was often the case
in the previous century.
A 5.5

30
 Solar Architecture

A 5.4 Design sketches for production halls in

Bad Münder
A 5.5 Semi-detached houses, Munich-Pullach (D), 1989,
Herzog + Partner
A 5.6 Office buildings, Wiesbaden (D), 2001,
Herzog + Partner
A 5.7 Production halls, Bad Münder (D), 1992,
Herzog + Partner
A 5.8 Apartment block, Linz (A), 1999, Herzog + Partner
A 5.6
an individual the feeling of being close to nature Outlook
but makes you dependent on means of trans- Very many of the problems we have today con-
port, increases fuel consumption and pollution, cerning natural resources and due to undesir-
and in addition has devastating social reper- able developments of civilisation are attributable
cussions. This is not really a new experience. to one-sided optimisations that failed to consider
After all, the catchword the “green widow” has adequately their effects on other areas of life.
been around for decades. Success certainly comes more easily if we
For the very reason that there is too little living ignore or close our eyes to unpleasant or dis-
space with real urban structure in our town turbing adverse effects; if when looking for
centres – other than something resembling a superlatives in achievements we look for swifter,
housing estate – do we have millions of com- higher, stronger; the highest possible build-
muters every day. As building structures offer ings, the fastest building times, the fastest
too little potential for change, we have millions acceleration and the shortest braking time for
of square metres of empty space, tied-up ineffi- sports cars; but not when the aim of our actions
cient energy and material resources, which, on is harmony and balance. If this is what we want
top of the opulent average of 40 m2 of living to achieve, one of the essential conditions related
space now available to every citizen in Germany, to the connection between technical processes,
will all mean further expenditure. Whoever is the ecological balance and social responsibility
worried that the density and spatial closeness, seems to be a stronger awareness of our long-
which we admire so much in the streets and term joint responsibility for the common wealth.
lanes of southern countries, are bound to go It has become generally customary for us only
hand in hand with undesirable social and hygi- to be committed to something with an eye to
enic developments similar to those in some our own welfare. A society that wants to develop
urban developments of the past (cf. Heinrich further in humane categories is more than the
Zille’s Berlin “Milieu”) is missing the point that sum of self-centred individuals. A holistic way
the material conditions of our civilisation have of looking at problems is becoming more and
fundamentally improved in these decisive cate- more important. This can only be achieved if
gories. Anyone familiar with the relevant current we manage to intensify the interdisciplinary
technical state of the art – this concerns heat- thinking and working approaches between nat-
ing, ventilation, sanitation, daylight technology ural, engineering, economic and social sciences
and constructional building physics systems – and the arts – and if shaping the environment
can confirm this. seriously is understood as a complex core dis-
The architect’s profession is one of the few that cipline.
is comprehensive in both its subject and its A 5.7
approach to work. Architects work holistically This text is a revised version of the original publication in
Detail 3/1999.
with complex systems from the theoretical con-
cept, then the spatial dimensioning and arrang-
ing and after that the practical use of this large-
scale object, the building. Their methods and
working procedures and also their way of
cooperating with specialists, whether it be in
the scientific area or in putting things into prac-
tice materially, will, however, probably undergo
fundamental changes over the next few decades.

A 5.8

31
Planning and building
in life cycles

Karl-Heinz Petzinka, Bernhard Lenz

A 6.1
The term “life cycle” is already an indication Often an LCC only refers to the individual com-
that both natural and artificial systems are in- ponents of a building, e.g. the facade ele-
volved in a cycle of emerging and fading. So ments. Simulation software available on the
the lifecycle of a building describes the time- market also only considers individual compo-
span between constructing and demolishing a nents and assigns them a certain service life in
building. The realisation that planning in tune accordance with their characteristics, from
with life cycles means a high savings potential which in turn further costs for the building can
is by no means new. This is seen in cost analy- be deduced. Life cycle cost calculations are
ses made by the architects Philocles and Arch- also used when valuing property. However,
ilochos, who built the Erechtheion on the Acro- there are no parameters such as quality of
polis in the 5th century BC [1]. design, comfort, attractiveness and quality of
For contemporary financing and planning mod- the fixtures and fittings. As every building must
els, e.g. public-private partnerships (PPP), life- as a rule yield a certain return, and as this is
cycle-oriented considerations, that means look- influenced by factors like zeitgeist and fashion,
ing beyond the pure investment costs, are indis- a calculation based only on technical aspects
pensable. With PPP projects, where financing, can hardly lead to a meaningful result.
producing and running the property are usually
all in the same hands, total cost benefits of 10%
and more can generally be achieved. These Planning in tune with life cycles
stem not only from a less expensive building Planning accomplishments are only judged by
but also to a considerable degree from the what it costs to carry them out; the running
cost-optimised running of the building. costs are not usually considered. With planning
As erecting a building naturally involves high in tune with life cycles, the total lifetime of a
investment, this only too often means that the building must be taken into consideration. As
investors and property owners only focus on the running costs of a building, unlike con-
examining the investment costs. The question structing it, are hardly under pressure from
of how they will finance future running cost is competition, there is a certain discrepancy with
often ignored. Nevertheless, the costs of run- the HOAI (approved fee scales for architects
ning a building can often be many times higher and engineers), which encourage planners to
than the building costs. Striking economic and work cost-effectively but do not necessarily
energy-saving potential can be gained from result in innovative, sustainable and cost-opti-
analyses in tune with life cycles. mised solutions for maintaining the building.
Investing in an optimised maintenance plan
Life cycle costs can lead to clearly reduced running, in-service
In the life cycle costing (LCC) that goes with and maintenance costs, and can thus result in
the life cycle, the costs for planning, construct- noticeably lower total costs and contribute to
ing, running, maintaining, maintaining the clearly reduced energy consumption. Careful
value, demolishing and disposing of a building planning is crucial here as higher construction
are compiled in the total cost calculation. The costs do not necessarily result in savings in the
LCC stands therefore for a holistic approach to running costs. Particularly in the field of build-
cost-optimised building planning. This is typi- ing services a lesser degree of technology can
cally carried out in the form of a dynamic also contribute to lower running costs (Fig. A
investment cost calculation, although the 6.2). The architect should pay attention as to
A 6.1 Redevelopment of the Centennail Hall, Bochum
(D), 2003, Petzinka Pink Architects parameters, such as future prices and interest which degree of mechanising is ideally justified
A 6.2 Relationship between degree of technology and rate development, are hard to predict. Despite in the building concerned and which technology
life cycle costs these uncertainties, you should not forego an is beneficial for microclimatic location factors.
A 6.3 Typical distribution of running costs for an office LCC as it is an efficient instrument with which to When determining which materials to use, bear-
building
A 6.4 Refurbishment of the Nürnberger Hypotheken-
compare competing one-stop solutions and ing in mind the life cycle and the repair cycles
bank, Düsseldorf (D), 1998, Petzinka Pink evaluate them properly. due to ageing, choices have to be made
Architects between a technical and a reduced service life.

32
 Planning and building in life cycles

other costs
administrative costs 8.6 %
high

electric energy
4.1 %
degree of technology

28.4 %
security
4.7 %
medium

mean value

heating
low

cleaning 12.1 %
31.6 %
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 other
life cycle costs [CHF/ m2ERAa] commodities
ERA = enery ref. area 2.1 %
repairs to repairs to
office buildings nursing homes machines buildings
residential buildings school buildings 4.2 % 4.2 %
A 6.2 A 6.3
The technical service life describes the length times of the different components in such a ments can be carried out relatively simply when
of time a material, when used in a defined way, suspended floor construction, then you have parts are being replaced, and material and
will still achieve full performance. Reduced the following problem; for the concrete and the energy do not have to be used unnecessarily.
service life on the other hand means the time PE sheeting you can assume a lifetime of about
period when the material will show signs of 100 years, the cement screed and the gypsum
reduced performance yet still retain basic plaster will last for about 60 years, the mineral Usage and follow-up costs
effectiveness. Determining the durability of in- wool about 40 years and the carpet about 10 As facility management is becoming more and
dividual materials therefore depends on the [2]. Renewing the mineral wool insulation would more important it seems imperative to consider
situation of the building and cannot be general- mean prematurely removing the cement screed future changes to a building right from the
ised. and the PE sheeting. The PE sheeting must de planning stage. It is not simple, however, to
The proper planning for materials for surfaces facto be removed 60 years and the cement predict future developments in the vicinity of
subjected to heavy wear and tear, like floor screed 20 years before the end of the technical the building or with the potential users. For
coverings, for example, should not be under- lifespan as you cannot reach the mineral wool instance, no accurate predictions can be made
estimated. Here the costs for cleaning and car- without damaging the other things and otherwise about how often the tenants will change, what
ing for surfaces in public buildings can quickly you could not replace the mineral wool. In a different things the building will be used for,
account for over 30% of the running costs – a case like this the construction could be improved how intensely and for how long it will be used.
cost factor that has a considerable effect on just by material synergies. If individual material It is particularly difficult to make predictions
the total costs and, above all, is permanent layers took over some of the functions of the concerning the long-term cost development of
(Fig. A 6.3). If a building is being designed to others, the durability of the whole system would a building.
be particularly sustainable, it is necessary to increase and the number of layers necessary These factors are clearly illustrated in Fig. A 6.5,
consider the durability of the individual compo- could be reduced. So, for example, mastic as it is especially in the early stage of the life
nents and to adjust construction, maintenance asphalt could be replaced by terrazzo, which cycle that the planning decisions taken can
and servicing accordingly. provides a surface that can be used perma- lead to serious changes. Generally, the life
As parts of a building do not age at the same nently. Of course, even with planning in tune cycles of buildings can be subdivided into five
pace, there is usually a very inhomogeneous with life cycles it can never be guaranteed that different phases in which different parameters
picture. The study of costs and material flows materials or components will not have to be should be borne in mind:
within the framework of a life cycle analysis replaced prematurely owing to changing legis-
assumes that individual building components lation, increased intensity of use or technical • initiation
will be used for their entire lifetime and then progress. • planning
replaced. Thus, if components remain in a In general, two opposing strategies can be dis-
building for a long time, the cumulative expendi- tinguished in this type of life cycle planning. On
ture for maintenance and repairs falls in pro- the one hand, the architect can define long
portion. If a building part contains only a mini- cycles which, if possible, include many compo-
mum of different building materials, this results nents and involve more extensive investments
in an improved total balance since there are at longer intervals which can be foreseen well
fewer replacement cycles and these can be in advance. On the other hand, it is possible to
coordinated better. In the interests of sustain- fix relatively short replacement cycles relating
ability and the economy, planning in tune with to individual function zones depending on com-
life cycles must have a structure that lends ponent needs [3]. The latter approach ensures
itself to repair and maintenance. This would there is a constant high return on the structure
involve piling the components on top of each but can mean that, if needs change, compo-
other according to their differing lifetimes and nents that are still working perfectly have to be
also excluding unsolvable combinations. Typi- renewed or replaced. In the end unnecessary
cally, however, planning of this sort is scarcely costs are incurred and there is an unreasonable
feasible from an economic point of view, as the waste of resources. For this reason this strate-
following example demonstrates. We have a gy is only suitable for buildings where it is
reinforced concrete floor with a standard make- assumed there will not be big changes in
up (carpet, cement screed, PE sheeting, miner- requirements. The most important advantage of
al wool, reinforced concrete grade C30/37, long replacement cycles is that adaptations to
gypsum plaster). If you look at the varying life- the building because of changes in require-
A 6.4

33
Planning and building in life cycles

costs
determining the costs

development of costs

A 6.5 Planning dependencies in the various life phases

of a building
A 6.6 Conversion of the Centennial Hall, Bochum (D),
2003, Petzinka Pink Architects
A 6.7 Centennial Hall, Bochum, climate concept:
a principle of stratified ventilation system in winter influences on costs
b principle of stratified ventilation system in
spring or autumn
c status quo in winter initiation planning positioning usage closing down time
A 6.5
• realisation buildings in reconstruction areas a dynamic building can, if necessary, be adapted without
• usage use structure. In the latter case the result is having to pull down parts of it before the end of
• closing down normally a simpler way of building based on their technical life cycle. In order to be prepared
a shorter period of payback on investments. to react appropriately to changes in building
Only if the mutual dependencies and also the Unlike buildings such as, for example, the services requirements, a ring-type installation,
causal interrelationships are recognised and Centennial Hall in Bochum, which are still being accessible from outside, was provided, in addi-
included in considering the life cycle is it possi- used decades after their predicted lifetime, tion to the vertical shafts. In this way decisions
ble to plan, build and operate precisely and there are also projects like the town of Wulfen, can be made in a decentralised way, inde-
sustainably. whose roughly 100 housing units were pulled pendently of the user; this is a great advan-
As, owing to unclear future developments, in down again after only 10 years of use, i.e. long tage in the rapidly changing requirements of
the end no accurate decisions can be taken but before the stated lifetime. Apart from earnings it media input.
only ones based on what is presumed to be the is often a lack of utilisation quality or technical One of the most important preconditions for
way things will develop, those decisions taken deficits that lead to a premature partial or total sustainable building planning is a long, and if
during the initial phases of the life cycle (initia- dismantling of a building. An example of a possible foreseeable, usage period since volume
tion/planning) must leave room for flexible reac- building that was partially dismantled because changes – which occur with new buildings –
tions to various developments. With buildings of a faulty shell and also due to weaknesses in always entail a high consumption of resources
we are looking at an asset with a long life, utilisation flexibility is the Nürnberger Hypotheken- and energy. Apart from the constructional bio-
which is why cost prognoses and the probable bank in Düsseldorf (Fig. A 6.4). The end of the logical aspects of efficiency and consumption
figures for future monetary and consumption cost-effective period in this case led to the of resources, the so-called soft skills especially
values are extremely complex. The cost-effec- demolition of some parts of the building before – flexible characteristics of a building (e.g. vari-
tive life, which is the starting point for profitability their technical life cycle had run out. After work- able layout possibilities) – are of fundamental
calculations for investors and owners, is based ing out a flexible utilisation concept, which was importance. If a building has such parameters,
on the expected returns on the structure. This supposed to guarantee a modern and forward- it is possible to react to unforeseen changes
in turn means that the cost-effective and the looking way of using the building, the massive and in so doing make an important contribution
technical lifetime of a building are not neces- parapets were demolished and the loadbearing to sustainability.
sarily identical. If, despite the location of a structure was improved. Since the refurbish- The influence factors that can lead to adapting
building, only lower revenues are possible ment work, heavier design loads, together with a building vary a great deal. For example, stricter
because the building cannot be let or only at a adaptable interior fittings and an innovative legislation, energy-efficiency upgrade measures
reduced rent, then the end of the cost-effective facade, have made it possible to react flexibly or adaptations because of changing use
use of the building has been reached but not in future to changing developments in the sur- requirements can all interfere with the sub-
the end of the technical lifetime of the building rounding area of the building. In this way the stance of the building.
or its components.
A crucial criterion in estimating the earnings is
predicting the long-term use of the building.
With residential buildings especially, the demo-
graphic changes in Germany will lead to notice-
able upheavals in the housing market. By the
year 2050 the population in Germany will have
shrunk by more than 5%. In the former East
Germany this population decline will be even
higher than 16% according to scientific calcu-
lations compared with about 3.4% in the former
West Germany. The proportion of people over
60, which in 2005 was about 25%, is expected
to rise to over 29% by 2020 [4]. This means
that various parameters must be considered in
order to make a qualitative prediction about the
use of buildings. For these reasons, with office
buildings in an outstanding location for instance,
we can assume a stable use structure and for
A 6.6

34
 Planning and building in life cycles

a b c A 6.7
As over the next few years, and not only in An example of reusing in tune with life cycles in
Germany, building activity will concentrate the sense of a metamorphosis is the conversion
more closely on repairs and the changing use of Bochum’s Centennial Hall into the so-called
of buildings, this development can and must Montage Hall for art (Figs. A 6.1 and 6.6). This
be used as a starting point for thinking about building was originally designed in the year
which soft skills buildings must show. Only a 1902 in Düsseldorf for a fair trade taking place
building with flexible characteristics can be there and then transferred to Bochum one year
adapted optimally to changed surroundings later, to be used as an industrial plant. In 1968
and to the consequent demands made con- this was closed down and until 2002 the build-
cerning structural conversions. ing was used as a storage depot, then it was
converted into a venue for plays and concerts
Metamorphosis and later usage with innovative building technology. This reusage
In nature adapted cyclical developments in the in accordance with life cycles could be carried
sense of a metamorphosis are quite common. out because during the planning stage the
Creatures that have to undergo a metamorpho- building was designed flexibly. In order to ensure
sis, for example, distinguish themselves at every thermal comfort sustainably and efficiently in
stage by adjusting optimally to their environ- this ensemble of halls, the building was fitted
ment. As the general conditions in our society, out with a new stratified ventilation system, tried
and consequently for our architectural surround- out there for the very first time ever, which
ings, are constantly changing, our buildings worked on the principle of inversion weather
must be convertible and adaptable to a certain conditions (Fig. A 6.7 a–c). So by using intelli-
extent. Only when this is the case does an archi- gent building services, it was possible to give
tectural statement contain potential in the sus- the building a new function and a third life cycle.
tainability sense, which makes it possible for the Considering soft skills in planning in tune with
building to progress into a new life cycle, after life cycles thus opens up a potential that makes it
finishing the intended life cycle, without the total possible in future not only to plan, build and
loss of the energy previously put into it. So long operate buildings more economically, but also
as a building has the right soft skills, such meta- in a more energy-efficient and sustainable way.
morphoses can be carried out easily without high As the French architect Philibert de L’Orme,
energy and resource consumption – because working in the 16th century, once said “The good
“Energy can be substituted by good architec- architect has three eyes, four ears and four hands
ture” Richard Buckminster Fuller once said [5]. at his disposal... What he has to say concerns
A striking advantage of such life cycles that the teachings of the past, observations of the
supersede each other is without doubt to be present [and] foresight for the future” [6].
found in the question of recycling. The stand-
ardised use of a building whose life cycle runs
out is ideally connected with recycling the
different raw materials, whereby, as a rule, to a References:
[1] Wübbenhorst, Klaus: Konzept der Lebenszyklus-
greater extent this means “downcycling”, i.e. a kosten. Darmstadt, 1984
large proportion of the material contained in the [2] Herzog, Kati: Lebenszykluskosten von Baukonstruk-
building cannot be used again in the same tionen. In: Darmstädter Nachhaltigkeitssymposium,
quality, so only parts of primary and secondary 2003
[3] Swiss Federal Office for Economic Policy.
building materials can be replaced. From the
Impulsprogramm IP Bau, Alterungsverhalten von
point of view of energy efficiency and sustain- Bauteilen. Bern, 1994
ability. maintaining and then reusing the build- [4] Roth, Karin: Wo stehen wir? In: Der Lebenszyklus
ing substance is certainly preferable to demolish- von Wohngebäuden. Ed.: German Federal Chamber
ing it and then erecting a new building. A con- of Engineers. Conference reports, Hamburg,
Sept. 2006
cept for using the building later in accordance [5] Tichelmann, Karsten; Pfau, Jochen: Entwicklungs-
with life cycles is in turn only feasible if build- wandel Wohnungsbau. Wiesbaden, 2000, p. 230
ings have the right soft skills. [6] ibid., p. 218

35
 Part B Planning

1 Fundamentals

Global boundary conditions

Energy
Climate and comfort

2 Urban space and infrastructure

Land use
Planning to suit the location
Infrastructure and technical services

3 Building envelope

Maintaining and gaining heat

Avoiding overheating
Decentralised ventilation
Using the daylight
Generating electricity

4 Building services

Sustainable building services

Heating
Cooling
Mechanical ventilation
Optimising the artificial lighting
Generating electricity

5 Materials

Heat flow
Embodied energy
Materials in the life cycle

6 Strategies

Energy concepts
Politics, legislation,
statutory instruments
Planning process
Sustainable architecture
Diagnosis system for sustainable
building quality (DSQ)

Fig. B Aerial view of Venice (I)

37
Fundamentals

B 1.1
A solution to the energy problem is vital if we advanced. A direct comparison reveals the
are to achieve a viable global development for technological deficits in the building industry.
our society. Safeguarding the standard of living The following aspects illustrate the need for
we have reached today plus ongoing economic, action in architecture and construction:
technical and social developments are to a
large extent dependent on improving the energy Climate protection
efficiency of all buildings and technical systems, • About 40% of the greenhouse gases result
also on sustainable energy supplies that do not from the construction and use of buildings
damage the climate. Nobody doubts the urgent and hence make a major contribution to
need for action. The exhaustion of the fossil global warming.
fuels oil and gas is on the horizon. The battle • In the industrialised nations, approx. 40% of
for the distribution of the dwindling energy the total energy consumed goes into the
resources is becoming ever tougher; as a result, operation of buildings. In addition to this,
the laws of the market are forcing energy prices some 10% of the energy consumption is for
upwards. The consequences for the environ- the production of materials, construction
ment resulting from the use of non-renewable processes and the transport of building
raw materials have been known for a long time. materials.
And the realisation that their unbridled use has
triggered a long-term climate change now calls Saving of resources
for swift action: the temperature at the Earth’s • The building sector consumes approx. 50%
surface is increasing everywhere, polar ice- of all the materials extracted from the Earth.
caps and glaciers are melting, the oceans are • About 60% of all the waste produced comes
warming up and becoming more acidic, sea from building and civil engineering work.
levels are rising, extreme weather conditions • The appetite for land for buildings and infra-
are returning at shorter and shorter intervals. structure has almost doubled in Germany
Global warming has in the meantime become a over the past 40 years. Despite constant
local threat and places mankind in an unprece- population figures, in Germany 129 ha of
dented situation. In order to avert the uncon- open land becomes part of the built environ-
trolled effects of temperature changes, our ment every day [1] – the equivalent of about
consumption and economic behaviour must 164 football pitches.
change drastically over the next 10 to 20 years. • The average living space requirement per
The “theory of grand supercycles” states that person rose in Germany from 19 m2 in 1960
social developments are always based on a to 42 m2 in 2005.
technological change in energy, materials and/
or information flows (see “Doing things right – Safeguarding of supplies
on efficiency and sustainability”, p. 24). • Our materials- and energy-intensive econo-
Accordingly, a paradigm change can be seen mies generate high dependencies – a multiple
in the construction industry – with far-reaching of that in countries with less stable govern-
B 1.1 Satellite picture of the Earth by night
effects for the design and building work of the ments, who in the future will be faced with the
B 1.2 Study by the Club of Rome into the future of the future. especially drastic effects of climate change.
world economy with a trend towards crisis-like Buildings and structures are usually built to last In the EU, at present 50% of the primary
states after the year 2020 and therefore individual decisions and meas- energy media required are imported; in
B 1.3 Development of the average annual temperature
ures have a long-lasting effect. In particular, Germany that figure is about 74%.
(with 1950 as the reference year) and CO2 con-
centration over the past 400 000 years the considerable mass flows plus the high con- • Owing to the economic progress in the devel-
B 1.4 Intensive use of the land for housing sumption of resources and energy involved in oping and newly industrialised countries, an
B 1.5 Demolition of an apartment block built in 1972 construction work call for the formation of a increase in the global energy consumption
after a service life of just 17 years; St. Louis new, viable concept for sustainable architec- amounting to about 60% is anticipated by
(USA), 1955, Minuro Yamasaki
B 1.6 Insufficient daylight, mechanical air-conditioning
ture. In other sectors of the economy, e.g. the 2030.
and polluted interior air are frequently the cause automotive industry or agriculture, the efficien-
of sick building syndrome. cy and sustainability offensive is already further

38
 Fundamentals

2006: 383 ppm

350

CO2-con. [ppm]
300
250

200
Prognosis Industrial
production 150

Raw materials 2
0

Temp. difference [K]

-2
Food- -4
Population stuffs -6
Environmental
pollution -8
-10
400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 0
1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 Backward extrapolation [a]
B 1.2 B 1.3
Reducing the operating costs Health and comfort theless illustrates the natural limits to our actions
• Over the past 10 years, the cost of heating in • Around 80% of the people in Europe live in (Fig. B 1.2).
Germany has increased by approx. 90%. towns and cities and spend most of their time
This reduces the available income in private indoors. Climate change
households and therefore has negative • “Sick building syndrome” (SBS) is a symptom The temperature of the Earth’s surface rose
effects on the economy. of about one-third of all new buildings. over the last 100 years by about 0.8°C, and 11
• For the rented housing market, increasing of the past 12 years (1995–2006) have been
revenue by raising rents is hardly possible Architects and engineers must face up to these among the hottest since records began. The
owing to rising operating costs. considerable challenges. The task is to achieve global climate change – for a long time disputed
the maximum overall economy, comfort and owing to the complex interactions of individual
Building stock and maintaining value architectural quality with the minimum use of factors – has in the meantime become
• In economic terms, buildings are the most energy and resources. acknowledged reality and endangers our very
valuable commodity of a society. About half existence. The changes were initially perceived
of all capital investment in Germany is tied rather subjectively, primarily through the in-
up in the housing market. Global boundary conditions creasing frequency of extreme climate phenom-
• Due to inadequate consideration of the pos- ena over recent years. But the documentary
sible energy efficiency, refurbishment meas- Our way of life has changed enormously since film “An Inconvenient Truth” (2006) by former
ures currently achieve only about one-third of the onset of the Industrial Revolution. Prosperity US Vice-President Al Gore rudely awakened
the economically profitable savings potential. in the industrialised countries of the world is the public by showing the signs of the climate
based largely on the consumption of finite fossil change already visible and the consequences
Incentives for the construction industry fuels, in addition to unceasing innovation and to be expected.
• Some three-quarters of the housing stock in new technologies. The satellite picture of the The publication of the IPCC Fourth Assessment
Germany is regarded as old and in need of Earth by night demonstrates unequivocally the Report by the UN World Climate Council [3] in
refurbishment. degree of resources consumption, plus the 2007 has intensified the public discussion.
• Nevertheless, the volume of orders in the very uneven distribution of energy consumption Since then, accelerated climate change has
housebuilding sector sank by 57% over the (Fig. B 1.1). At the very latest, the first oil crisis been generally acknowledged, even in politics.
past 10 years, although in 2005 the volume of of the 1970s showed just how dependent our The IPCC Report establishes the unequivocal
investment in existing buildings (69%) was economic growth is on fossil fuels. Even if the relationship between global climate change
already clearly in excess of that for new gloomy forecasts of the Club of Rome’s The and the increasing emission of greenhouse
building work (31%). Limits to Growth [2] have not yet been seen, gases by mankind. Since 1750 the carbon
their scenarios – the interaction of population dioxide (CO2) concentration in the atmosphere
explosion, industrial production, resources con- has increased by 36%, and is now 383 ppm
sumption and environmental pollution – never- (parts per million); this is probably the highest

B 1.4 B 1.5 B 1.6

39
Fundamentals

Primary energy consumption [EJ]

Declining yields in plant production in many regions, especially in Renewable
developing countries energy sources
Foodstuffs 400
Possibly rising yields in higher Declining yields in many Nuclear energy
latitudes developed regions
Natural gas
Disappearance of Significant decline in availability
Rising sea levels Crude oil
Water small glaciers, water of water in many regions, in- 300
threaten larger towns
supplies threatened in cluding the Mediterranean and
and cities Coal
several regions southern Africa

Extensive damage to 200

Ecosystems coral reefs A rise in the number of species threatened with extinction

Ever more intense storms, forest fires, droughts, flooding

Extreme weather events and heatwaves 100
Risk of abrupt,
irreversible changes Growing risk of threatening reactions and abrupt shifts in the
climate system on a large scale
Global temperature
rise [°C] 0 1 2 3 4 5 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990
B 1.7 B 1.8
level within the past 20 million years (Fig. B “point of no return”, the CO2 concentration in tainable economies, companies will in future be
1.3). Currently, the CO2 concentration is increas- the atmosphere by the end of the 21st century asked to include the external costs in their mar-
ing at a rate of 2.5 ppm every year. The climate should not exceed 450 ppm (Fig. B 1.10). Fur- ket and price mechanisms by employing the
debate has attained a new dimension. The thermore, there is great uncertainty as to how “polluter pays principle”.
question is no longer whether the higher CO2 especially sensitive regions and ecosystems
levels will have consequences for the global may react to different temperatures and precip- The Stern Report
climate, but rather how much more carbon itation quantities. Climate researchers desig- Shortly after its publication in 2006, the Stern
dioxide can the Earth’s atmosphere soak up nate the melting of the Greenland ice sheet or Report [5] was seen to mark a new time period
before risks appear for the survival of the the thawing of the Siberian permafrost as “tip- in the economic assessment of climate change.
human race? What measures are necessary? ping points”. Self-perpetuating effects might In the report, the former chief economist of the
How much time do we have left in order to possibly turn these into processes with an World Bank, Sir Nicholas Stern, puts figures to
reform our economic behaviour fundamentally? uncontrollable dynamic (Fig. B 1.9). the risks and costs of global climate change,
Owing to the complexity of the climate system, for the first time explicitly from the viewpoint of
the scientific predictions concerning the rise in Repercussions for national economies national economies. According to the report,
temperature expected in our latitudes by the In the past, economic assessments and analy- further unrestrained emissions of greenhouse
year 2100 (taking 1990 as our benchmark) ses of national economies pointed out the gases and the resulting climatic changes will in
range between 1.5 and 5.8°C. The Potsdam unbridgeable chasm between sustainable, the medium-term lead to a decline in the annual
Institute for Climate Research notes in this con- ecologically responsible actions and the need global gross domestic product (GDP) of 5 to
text: “The figure of 1.5°C is already certain. The for constant economic growth. However, it is 20%. The knock-on effects of rising sea levels,
system is therefore already charged. The increasingly becoming clear that the pricing of declining harvests and massive migration
effects will be massive even in this case. And if many products and services takes no account would be comparable to the effects of the
the 6°C forecast becomes reality, our world will of the negative ecological and social effects Great Depression of the 1930s (Fig. B 1.7).
be a different place.” [4] The World Climate (e.g. damage to the ecosystem) that result from Stern concludes that the advantages of deci-
Council is assuming a maximum tolerable tem- conventional production and consumption sive and early action will by far outweigh the
perature rise of a further 2.0°C before there is processes. These are the “external costs” costs of inactivity. The calculations show that
irreversible damage to the climate system (Fig. (externalities) that designate effects not borne just 1% of the annual global GDP will be
B 1.7). In order that we do not pass beyond this directly by their originators. As a basis for sus- enough to prevent the most severe effects of
CO2 emissions [billion t CO2 /a]

Melting of the 100 Prognosis

Greenland
Methane Scenario »A1FI«
ice sheet
emissions 80
Sealing of the deep Hole in the ozone
water formation layer induced by
climate change
Less sunlight 60
reflected from
the Himalayas
Growth of plants 40
in the Sahara Scenario »550«
again

Disruption of 20
Sealing of dust the Indian
Destruction of sources rich in Historical
monsoon Scenario »450«
the marine nutrients 0
carbon pump Abrupt change in Disruption of 1940 1980 2020 2060 2100
the vegetation of natural climate
the Amazon basin fluctuations Scenario Histor. »A1FI« »550« »450«
(El Niño)
CO2 concentration
Sealing of the deep water formation in 2100 [ppm] (360) 950 550 450
and associated food supplies
Melting of the West Average temperature
Antarctic ice sheet rise [°C] 0.4–0.8 4.5–5 2.5–3.0 1.5–2
Hole in the ozone layer over the Antarctic
B 1.9 B 1.10

40
 Fundamentals

World population [billion]

Worldwide oil production [million barrels/day]
Crude oil price [USD/barrel]

80 100
Prognosis
90 8
70
80
60
70
6
50 Developing countries
60

40 50
4
40
30 Campbell BGR Shell
30 2002 2005 1995
20 2
20 Industrialised countries
10
10
Prognosis 0
0 0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2010 1950 2000 2050 2100 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050
B 1.11 B 1.12 B 1.13
climate change. According to the Stern Report, reserves obtainable with conventional tech- B 1.7 The consequences of the global temperature rise
the decisions and investments over the next 10 niques will be exhausted (Fig. B 1.12). The according to the Stern Report
B 1.8 Development of the worldwide primary energy
to 20 years will have a crucial effect on the cli- exploitation of deposits is progressing in the consumption from 1870 to 2000 and its coverage
mate in the second half of this century. This form of a bell-shaped curve. Once the Peak Oil in terms of energy sources
report written for the British government but point is reached, production will decline, slowly B 1.9 The “tipping points” of the climate system
essentially with a global relevance does not at first, then faster, and finally slowly again. This B 1.10 Comparison of various subscenarios for the
restrict its analysis to describing imminent risks, turning point is expected somewhere between development of energy-related CO2 emissions
plus their effects on CO2 concentration and tem-
but also formulates recommendations for action 2008 and 2020. That will mark the end of the oil perature rise in the atmosphere
to reduce those risks. Through the increased age; there will be an ever-growing gap between B 1.11 Development of the nominal crude oil price in US
use of renewable energy sources, the deploy- energy demand and maximum production dollars per barrel (= approx. 159 l oil) from 1946
ment of low-carbon technologies and a marked capacity. to 2006
B 1.12 Development and prognosis of the worldwide
rise in energy efficiency, Stern says that the The mechanisms of the market economy stipu- maximum oil production (“peak oil”) according to
drastic consequences of climate change (“the late that a price for a commodity rises until studies by Shell (1995), Colin J. Campbell (2002)
biggest market failure the world has ever seen”) supply outstrips demand. The price levels of and the Federal Institute for Geosciences &
could be averted. According to the report, sus- feasible crude oil substitutes (e.g. renewable Natural Resources (BGR) (2005)
tainable, ecologically responsible activity is no energy sources, coal hydrogenation, etc.) plus B 1.13 Prognosis of population growth up to 2050
B 1.14 The top 10 countries with the greatest known
longer in conflict with economic growth, indeed a drop in demand through increased energy reserves of oil and gas (as of 2005)
forms the crucial basis for this in the long-term. efficiency thus constitute the future market
value for crude oil.
Fossil fuels economy Furthermore, the countries of the EU are de-
The industrialised world is to a large extent pendent on imports of oil and gas from regions
dependent on the availability of energy-giving that are often seen as politically unstable or are
Position Country Natural gas reserves
raw materials. Non-renewable energy media ruled by autocratic governments (Fig. B 1.14). in billion m3
currently account for 86% of the total primary Among those countries with the largest reserves
1. Russia 47 544
energy consumption worldwide. In fact, in Ger- of gas and oil are Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait
many this value is 95%! Mankind has consumed and the United Arab Emirates. From the point 2. Iran 27 484
more fossil-fuel raw materials in the relatively of view of availability, increasing the mining of 3. Qatar 25 768
short period of time since the end of World coal would seem to be sensible; but the very 4. Saudi Arabia 6830
War 2 than in its entire prior history (Fig. B 1.8)! high CO2 emissions associated with this would 5. United Arab Emirates 6068
The rapid rise in energy prices in recent years once again exacerbate the climate change 6. USA 5448
herald the end of fossil raw materials (Fig. B 1.11); considerably.
7. Nigeria 5226
the gap between supply and demand is begin-
8. Algeria 4542
ning to widen.
The Earth has in the meantime been explored 9. Venezuela 4284
so well that all the larger deposits of hitherto 10. Iraq 3168
untapped energy media have probably been
discovered. The statistical reaches of non-renew- Position Country Crude oil reserves
able energy reserves that can be tapped with in million t
conventional technology are as follows: 1. Saudi Arabia 36 037
2. Iran 18 022
• crude oil, 41 years
3. Iraq 15 646
• natural gas, 62 years
• coal, 200 years 4. Kuwait 13 845
• uranium, 40 years 5. United Arab Emirates 13 306
6. Venezuela 10 847
Within these statistical reaches, constant 7. Russia 10 148
extraction to exhaustion of all reserves cannot 8. Libya 5323
be maintained. The worldwide maximum oil
9. Nigeria 4881
production – the so-called Peak Oil – desig-
10. Kazakhstan 4100
nates the crest where half of all crude oil
B 1.14

41
Fundamentals

Social effects embarrassing questions with respect to our

USA 5778 (22%)
In the context of global warming, we must also own way of life: Will in future every person have
China 4497 (17%)
ask ourselves whether our consumption be- the same right to 1.3 t of CO2 emissions? Will
EU-25 4003 (15%) haviour is a viable proposition for the future. we have to distinguish between “survival emis-
Russia 1581 (6%) Climate change is also further aggravated by sions” and “luxury emissions”? Will we also
Japan 1258 (5%) demographic developments; the population of need to exercise restraint in some form? Will
India 1148 (4%) the world is expected to increase from 6.6 bil- emissions rights also be traded individually in
lion people today to 9 billion in 2050, and stabi- the future? In the end it seems that global warm-
Germany 865 (3%)
lise at a figure of about 10 billion around 2100 ing will force us into a far fairer distribution.
UK 553 (2%)
(Fig. B 1.13). In order to provide a reasonable
Canada 544 (2%) and sustainable basis for the lives of those Political goals
South Korea 489 (2%) additional 2.4 billion people, the resources The current measures in international climate
Italy 468 (2%) available and their natural limitations plus the protection policies are essentially based on the
emerging consequences of climate change results of the United Nations “Earth Summit”
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
must be examined. The rise in the world’s pop- held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, where more
CO2 emissions [million t ]
ulation is taking place primarily in the develop- than 150 countries discussed general global
B 1.15 ing and newly industrialised countries. Leaving environment themes for the first time without,
Qatar 45
aside all efficiency efforts, by 2050 it is expected however, stipulating any specific steps or tar-
Kuwait 26 that the energy demand in Asia will have gets. It was the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 that first
UAE 24 increased by about 40%, and that of Central specified binding targets for greenhouse gases
Luxembourg 23 and South America by 55%. Consequently, on an international level. In that document, the
Bahrain 23 enormous investments in energy systems will industrial nations of the world pledged to cut
20
be necessary in the newly industrialised coun- their CO2 emissions by a total of 5.2% (based
USA
tries in the coming years. These will define the on 1990 figures) by 2012. However, it took a
Trinidad&Tobago 20
energy infrastructure – and hence the levels of further eight years before at least 55 of the
Brunei 18 CO2 emissions – for decades to come. In the countries that in 1990 were responsible for
Australia 17 light of the demographic, economic and climate more than 55% of CO2 emissions ratified the
Finland 14 developments, the IPCC Report is of the opinion Protocol. So the Protocol first came into force in
Germany 11 that our window for action will only remain open early 2005. According to the agreement, the
Climate- 1.3 until 2020 if we want to limit the global warming amount of the reduction varies depending on
compatible to max. 2.0°C through a significant reduction in the economic development in the individual
0 10 20 30 40 greenhouse gases. As we have only 10 to 20 countries. The EU has pledged to reduce
CO2 emissions per head [t]
years left for serious changes, the majority of greenhouse gases by a total of 8%, although
B 1.16 innovations must make use of existing technol- once again the individual EU Member States
ogies. Simply waiting and hoping for new tech- must comply with different targets (Fig. B 1.17).
B 1.15 The countries with the highest CO2 emissions nical solutions – in order to carry on business Even if the Kyoto Protocol represents a mile-
(as of 2003) as before – will not be enough to deal with the stone in international climate protection poli-
B 1.16 CO2 emissions per head of population in
selected countries (as of 2003)
tasks ahead. cies, the efforts according to our current state
B 1.17 Target emissions changes and those achieved The global challenges call for direct social of knowledge are in no way sufficient to coun-
by 2002 within the scope of the Kyoto Protocol innovations in addition to the technical ones. In teract the effects of global warming. Looked at
B 1.18 Different forms of energy the majority of the industrialised nations, cur- globally, emissions of greenhouse gases are
B 1.19 The energy balance of the Earth
rent developments in social life can be charac- today some 25% higher than those of our 1990
terised by the attributes individuality, anonymity reference year. The target of reducing green-
and disunity. However, the historical experienc- house gases worldwide by 50% (compared to
-19 es from the beginnings of the green movement the 1990 level) by 2050 can be realised only
Germany -21 shown that an altruistic people-environment when the industrialised countries cut their emis-
-1
Denmark -21 relationship cannot be achieved through dog- sions by 60–80%!
-15 matic or deterministic decrees. It remains to be In order to take on a leading function and
UK -13
seen to what extent “qualitative” growth – as a model role on the international stage, the EU
9
Austria -13 maxim for standard of living – can replace the Commission recommends that the industrial-
9 doctrine of “quantitative” growth. The climate ised nations reduce their greenhouse gases by
Italy -7
-2 change therefore touches on ethical issues as 30% by 2020. Without anticipating the next pro-
France 0 well – both for political decision-makers and for tocol, the EU Member States already intend to
29
Ireland 13 every individual. cut their emissions by at least 20% by 2020
39 At the present time, every person, taken on a and to increase the share of renewable ener-
Spain 16
global average, produces 4.4 t of CO2 annually. gies in the energy supply chain to 20%.
-2
Switzerland -8 According to our current state of knowledge,
8 the emissions per member of the world’s popu-
Japan -6
20 lation must drop by more than two-thirds, to a
Canada -6 “climate-compatible” 1.3 t, by 2050. In the long-
6
Norway 1 term, the industrialised countries of the world
13 will not be able to claim more “pollution rights”
USA1 -7
than the developing and newly industrialised
22
Australia1 8 countries (Figs. B 1.15 and 1.16). Accordingly,
2008/2012 target [%] Achieved by 2007 [%]
in Germany the current per person emissions of
almost 11 t will have to be cut to one-eighth of
1
Original target, Kyoto Protocol not signed that figure! So the climate debate also results in
B 1.17

42
 Fundamentals

Energy beings cannot stop the increase in entropy than that. In the sense of a closed energy sys-
through efficient use of energy and resources; tem, we can assume that the Earth is in a state
Energy can be converted, stored or transport- they can at best only slow it down. Only the sun of energy equilibrium. This means that the
ed – and yet it is not a material. It evades our is able to lower entropy because it feeds energy amount of energy fed in is equal to the amount
sensory perception, merely revealing its pres- into the system “Planet Earth” from outside. taken out. Almost one-third of the solar radia-
ence to our senses through outward character- tion that reaches the planet, with a specific
istics (e.g. the heat of a fire) or its source (e.g. The energy balance of the Earth value of 1367 W/m2 (solar constant), is reflected
a log of wood). The origins of the word “energy” All of the energy flows available on the Earth by the Earth’s atmosphere. Owing to the inter-
stretch back to ancient times. The Greek philoso- are fed principally from three sources: actions with atmospheric constituents, only
pher Aristotle called energeia (= activity, effica- about half the radiation actually reaches the
cy) the power through which the possible is • Geothermal energy: the creation of the planet Earth’s surface with its land masses and oceans
transformed into the real. It was not until the released huge quantities of energy, which (Fig. B 1.19). This energy is then available for
19th century that the term “energy” attained its together with the natural decay of isotopes convection, evaporation and radiation, and
current natural science significance. Since make up the so-called geothermal energy. after conversion is radiated back into space as
then, the physical definition of the term has • Gravitation: planetary movements in conjunc- long-wave heat radiation. Only a relatively small
been: “the work stored in the system or the tion with the gravitational attraction between part remains on the Earth – converted via photo-
capacity of the system to do work”. Energy the Earth and the Moon cause the tides. synthesis into organic substances.
occurs in various forms and can be divided, for • Solar radiation: thermonuclear conversion in This storage in the form of biomass means that
example, into mechanical, thermal or chemical the sun causes solar radiation to reach the the energy input is marginally greater than that
energy in accordance with its physical proper- Earth’s atmosphere and also its surface. re-radiated back into space. If the organic sub-
ties (Fig. B 1.18). stances are not converted directly into energy,
It was in 1847 that Hermann Helmholtz formu- The quantities of energy from these three they are transformed into fossil biogenic energy
lated the decisive discovery for the under- sources vary considerably. By far the largest is media over extremely long periods of time.
standing of energy conversion: energy cannot solar radiation, which accounts for more than Together with the fossil mineral substances in
be created, merely converted from one form to 99.9% of the total quantity of energy available the form of bonded nuclear or radiation energy,
another. This law of energy conservation at the to us. The second-largest source is geothermal these form the energy reserves of the planet.
same time gave rise to the first law of thermo- energy, which accounts for about 0.02%. And However, the intensive use of fossil raw mate-
dynamics, according to which the quantity of the contribution of the tides due to planetary rials over the past 150 years has disrupted the
energy in a closed system is always constant. gravitation and movements is 10 times smaller energy equilibrium because it is now the case
In terms of physics, the designation “energy
consumption” therefore designates the trans-
formation from one form of energy into another
Form of energy Occurs as (example)... Technical
and can be described as follows: energy conversion
Mechanical energy/potential energy Reservoir Reservoir-fed hydroelectric power plant
energy = exergy + anergy = constant
Mechanical energy/kinetic energy Flowing water Run-of-river hydroelectric power plant

Exergy is the quantity of energy in a system Thermal energy Hot water District heating
that can do work for a necessary energy serv- Electrical energy Electricity Heat pump
ice, whereas anergy represents the portion of Radiation energy Sunlight Solar collector
energy not capable of doing work. For example, Chemical energy Natural gas Gas-fired condensing boiler
when heating buildings, the chemical energy of Nuclear energy Nuclear fission Nuclear power station
a fuel is converted into thermal energy through
B 1.18
combustion. The total energy here is made up
of the usable portion (exergy) plus the unusable
portion (anergy) due to waste heat and conver-
3 x1017 kWh/ a

3x1016 kWh/ a

Incoming radiation Outgoing radiation

Planetary gravitation
and movement 0.002%
Geothermal energy 0.02 %

sion losses. In contrast to energy, exergy is

therefore not conserved, but is instead devalued
through the transformation into anergy.
The physical laws with respect to possible 1.5x10 21 kWh/a
100%
energy conversions are described in physics
with the term “entropy” (= change, transforma-
tion). It was in 1865 that Rudolf Claudius defined Reflection 31 % Outer limit of
the second law of thermodynamics, according atmosphere
to which the entropy of a closed system always Absorption 17 %
remains constant or increases. In the case of Reflection 4%
Earth’s surface
irreversible processes, there is always an
increase in entropy like, for example, with the Evaporation 21 %
depletion of resources. If the known reserves of
copper are almost fully used up, then what this Radiation 18 %
really means is that the copper is more or less
Convection 9% Worldwide
evenly distributed over the entire earth and the Biomass primary energy
entropy has increased through this uniform dis- production consumption
tribution. Restoring the original situation (low 0.1% 0.0005 %
entropy) can only be achieved through the use 1.5x1018 kWh/a 7.5x1015 kWh/a
of energy. From this it follows that systems with-
Energy reserves
out energy input from outside always tend
Fossil biogenic approx. 9 x10 16 kWh Fossil mineral approx. 1x10 18 kWh
towards a state of greater disorder. Human
B 1.19

43
Fundamentals

24
Share of energy source used worldwide [%]

80 Renewable energy sources 5.3 %

CO2 emissions [billion t/ a]
Coal 22
70
20 Nuclear energy 12.6 %
60 18
16
50
14
40 12 Crude oil 35.7 %
Lignite
38 % Primary energy 10.9 %
10
[billion TCE/a]
30 Wood 26 % 8
Natural gas 23 %
20 6
4
Natural gas 22.8 %
10 Nuclear energy 7% Population
Crude oil 2 Coal
3.5 % [billion]
Water power 2.5 % 13.0 %
0 0
1850 1900 1950 2000 1870 1900 1930 1960 2000
B 1.20 B 1.21 B 1.22
that more energy is released than can be fed ocally assigned to a certain source. For exam- – with an increase in the amount extracted, or
into the Planet Earth system, or rather be used ple, wind power results from the interaction rather consumed – reach their peak and finally
to form new energy reserves. between atmospheric movements, solar radia- a phase of declining importance (Fig. B 1.20).
This is where the definition of renewable energy tion and the rotation of the Earth. We can there- Beginning with wood and coal as the dominant
begins – energy media that are continuously fore define the following forms: energy media of the 19th century, the structural
fed from the three aforementioned sources and composition in the 20th century is character-
hence on a human scale can be regarded as • Nuclear power, which can be used in the ised by a broad energy mix. Also interesting in
inexhaustible. The renewable primary energy form of nuclear fission or nuclear fusion this context is the fact that in the past there has
media are the aforementioned primary resources • Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) – the products of always been a direct relationship between pop-
but also energy forms derived from these, e.g. the solar radiation of the past ulation growth, energy consumption and CO2
wind or water power. The availability of second- • Geothermal energy – the heat of the Earth emissions (Fig. B 1.21). The largest proportion
ary or final energy, e.g. solar power from a photo- deep below the surface (in percentage) of the worldwide energy provi-
voltaic installation, depends entirely on the • Tidal energy caused by gravitational effects sion is currently still met by crude oil. The use
functional capabilities of the technical installa- of coal had already reached its peak by the
tion for conversion. However, the majority of forms result from the start of the 20th century, but even today still
current solar radiation, which is available in plays a key role in energy provision. The pro-
Forms of energy direct and diffuse form and heats up the ground portions of natural gas and nuclear energy are
As described above, the energy of the Earth near the surface, the atmosphere and open growing, whereas wood and water power, the
consists of three primary energy sources – water masses. As a result of this temperature traditional renewable energy sources, play only
solar radiation, geothermal energy, gravitation rise, modified energy forms such as wind, a subsidiary role.
– and makes itself felt in various ways and ocean currents, waves and rivers appear. And In contrast to the worldwide trend, primary
forms. These are supplemented by the non- solar radiation is, of course, the basis for bio- energy consumption in Germany over recent
renewable energies stored in atomic nuclei. mass production too. years is on the decline; the energy mix never-
Likewise, the fossil forms created over theless exhibits a similar structure (Fig. B 1.22),
immense periods of time by the solar radiation The development of energy consumption and even German energy provision is dominat-
of the past are on the human scale non-renew- A study of developments in the worldwide ener- ed by crude oil. The use of coal is declining
able. Fig. B 1.23 shows the energy sources gy provision up to the present day reveals that continuously, but still represents an important
and their various forms on the Earth. Only the the usage of the various energy sources and energy source for electricity generation. Natural
essential relationships are shown here because types takes place in certain cycles. Following gas, on the other hand, is showing signs of
the individual forms cannot always be unequiv- start and growth phases, all fossil raw materials growth. The proportion of renewable energy

Nuclear energy Solar radiation Geothermal energy Gravitation

B 1.20 Structural development of energy sources world-
wide from 1850 to 2000
B 1.21 Comparison between population growth, energy
Previous radiation Current radiation consumption and CO2 emissions from 1870 to
2000
Atomic power Coal Global radiation Deep geothermal Tides B 1.22 Share of energy sources in primary energy
Shallow energy consumption in Germany (as of 2006)
Crude oil
geothermal energy B 1.23 The energy sources of the Earth and their form
Natural gas
Atmospheric of occurrence
heat B 1.24 Current scenarios for the global primary energy
Wind consumption for 2050 assuming the world’s
population increases to 9–10 billion
Oceanic heat
WBGU: possible development path (2003)
Oceanic currents Shell SCA: Spirit of the Coming Age (2001)
Waves WEC A3: Growth (1999)
Rivers Shell DAS: Dynamic as Usual (2001)
Biomass WEC B: Business as Usual (1999)
production RIGES: Renewable intensive scenario (1993)
SEE: Solar Energy Economy (2003)
Non-renewable Renewable WEC C1: Ecological priority (1999)
Faktor 4: Efficiency revolution (1999)
B 1.23

44
 Fundamentals

Primary energy [EJ/a]

1169 1121
1200
1049
1000
854 825
800
636 635
597
600
431
423
400

200

0
2000 WBGU Shell SCA WEC A3 Shell DAS WEC B RIGES SEE WEC C1 Faktor 4
Renewable energy sources Nuclear energy Crude oil
Traditional biomass Natural gas Coal
B 1.24
sources has increased considerably since contaminate groundwater reservoirs. With larger
1995 through the increase in the number of leaks there would be the risk of large quantities
wind power installations. of emissions escaping into the already over-
The forecasts with respect to the future devel- loaded atmosphere. Furthermore, CO2 seques-
opment of global energy consumption are bur- tration is expected to result in a loss of efficiency
dened with uncertainties (Fig. B 1.24). All the of up to 20% at power stations, which in turn
scenarios assume, however, that an increasing would increase consumption of resources,
world population plus the rise in the gross dependence on imports and costs.
national products (GNP) of the developing and
newly industrialised countries will result in a Nuclear energy
considerable increase in energy consumption The use of nuclear energy is the subject of a
over the coming years. At present, more than heated debate among politicians and the pub-
20% of the world’s population does not have lic. Although nuclear power stations do not
access to electricity and 40% cover their energy generate any CO2 emissions while in operation,
needs in essentially traditional ways through considered over their entire life cycle, the con-
the use of biomass. Owing to this backlog in struction and demolition of reactors, the mining
development, most studies anticipate a three- of uranium, waste disposal and safety and
to four-fold growth in the worldwide GNP by 2050. security risks do result in considerable costs
and impacts. Nuclear energy currently accounts
Fossil energy for approx. 17% of global electricity generation,
Some 80% of the world’s energy supplies are but contributes less than 7% to the total energy
currently based on the fossil energy media provision. The risks and benefits of zero-carbon
coal, oil and gas, plus atomic energy. As the electricity generation from nuclear energy must
creation periods for fossil energy media by far be weighed up against this background. And
exceed the human scale, current consumption for the reactor technology in widespread use
clearly outstrips their re-creation. Fossil energy today, there is also a resources problem. Cheap
reserves were formed from organic material at uranium for light-water reactors (LWR) will only
various times in the Earth’s history through bio- be around for another 40 years or so. Breeder
chemical and chemical conversion processes. reactors, which in addition to generating elec-
The creation periods for such energy media are tricity also create further fissile material, are not
as follows: in permanent operation in any country. And the
plutonium created as a waste product increas-
• Crude oil and natural gas: 20–440 million years es the nuclear threat through its suitability for
• Coal: 10–370 million years use in weapons.
Intensive research into the realisation of nuclear
In order to moderate climate changes, the fusion reactors has been in progress since the
advocates of the fossil energy industry are 1960s. Theoretically, nuclear fusion could gen-
placing their hopes on storing future CO2 emis- erate large amounts of electricity with a com-
sions underground. Carbon dioxide sequestra- paratively low fuel consumption and little radio-
tion involves separating CO2 from the waste active waste. However, the development of
gases of power stations and industrial plants, nuclear fusion reactors requires huge invest-
compressing it and finally forcing it under high ments; the commercial use of this technology –
pressure into salt-water aquifers at a depth of if indeed it is feasible at all – is not expected for
about 1000 m. By the year 2015, a dozen pilot another 50 years.
plants in Europe should begin operations. How- The extraction, use and disposal of radioactive
ever, there are still considerable uncertainties substances results in extremely high health
regarding the safety and economy of this risks. As the half-life of uranium 235 exceeds
method. Forcing the carbon dioxide into the 700 million years, it takes an enormous techni-
rocks could cause water containing salt or cal and logistics setup to monitor such sub-
heavy metals to escape through cracks and stances and shield them from the environment.

45
Fundamentals

World energy consumption in 2005 Solar radiation on land masses Wind Biomass Geothermal Water Oceanic heat, waves

B 1.25
Renewable energy voltaic) and geothermal energy are currently 50). Whereas the theoretical potential has little
Apart from the centuries-old ways of using bio- only minor players. Together, all renewable practical relevance, the technical potential is
mass, wind and water power, as the prices for energy sources account for approx. 6% of the highly important.
fossil fuels began to rise in the mid-1970s, primary energy provision and about 12% of The economic potential is in turn that part of the
renewable energy sources started to be given electricity generation in Germany. technical potential that is economically advis-
more attention. And in the wake of the reactor able for the time under investigation. Here,
disaster at Chernobyl in 1986, the motivation Potential however, diverse boundary conditions, e.g. the
behind such efforts was multiplied. Measurable Detailed analyses of the potential in renewable costs of fossil fuels, interest rates, depreciation
effects have been noticeable since about 1990. energy sources have been carried out in recent periods and operational or national economy
As a result of favourable political framework years, but the results exhibit a relatively large considerations, influence the profitability con-
conditions, we have seen a small but continu- scatter. The theoretical potential contains the siderably. If in future we were to include the
ous growth in the use of renewable energy entire physical availability of a certain energy external costs of the fossil energy economy
media. Developments in Germany show that source over a defined area and within a defined (e.g. global warming, extreme weather events)
the increase is in the first place based on the time period, e.g. the solar radiation incident on in the overall economic calculation, the eco-
increased use of wind power plus gaseous and the area of Germany over a period of one year, nomic potential of renewable energy would
liquid biomass (Fig. B 1.26). Germany has in the annual kinetic energy of the wind in a cer- look much better.
the meantime become the world-leader in the tain region, or the entire energy content of the The achievable potential describes the contri-
generation of energy from wind power and biomass of a country which is replenished each bution to energy supplies that can actually be
solar thermal energy, and the amount of elec- year. The possible yields here are based solely expected under current boundary conditions.
tricity generated from solar power is higher only on the natural energy supply, which, however, Owing to production capacities, the existence
in the USA and Japan. is subject to fluctuations, e.g. the varying annual of competing systems, lack of information, legal
If we consider the structure of energy provision solar radiation. or administrative hurdles, etc., this currently lies
from renewable sources, the use of solid bio- The technical potential is part of the theoretical below the economic potential. Grants and sub-
mass in the form of the burning of wood is the potential, and involves considering the techni- sidies can, however, help the achievable
most significant factor, although it should be cal restrictions necessary for practical usage potential to exceed the economic potential.
mentioned that owing to decentralised struc- (Fig. B 1.25). It varies depending on the under-
tures, the statistics are mainly based on esti- lying technology and the degree of efficiency of Development scenario for Europe
mates. Solid biomass together with the use of that technology. Furthermore, we distinguish If we define governing variables for energy
wind and water power accounts for more than between technical generation potential at the demand, e.g. economic and demographic
75% of the contribution made by renewable start of a defined stage in the conversion chain developments, technical progress and antici-
sources. The other energy sources in the form and technical substitution potential with respect pated price rises for energy, we can derive
of solar thermal power, solar electricity (photo- to final, secondary or primary energy (see p. scenarios for future energy consumption and
Primary energy [PJ/ a]

700 16 000 100%

Primary energy [PJ/ a]

Biomass 665
Solar thermal and geothermal energy 14 000
600
Wind and photovoltaic 80%
Water 12 000
500
10 000
382 60%
400
8 000
284 Renewable energy sources
300
40% Natural gas
229 6 000
203 211
190 Mineral oil
200
4 000
Crude oil
20%
100 Nuclear energy
2 000
CO2 emissions [%]
0 0 0% (1990=100 %)
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2004 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
B 1.26 B 1.27

46
 Fundamentals

Electricity generation [billion kWh]

Photovoltaic < 0.01 %
60
Geothermal energy < 0.01 %
50 Ground
< 0.01%
coupling
B 1.25 Theoretical annual potential (large cube in back-
ground) and technical potential (small cube in 40 Solar therm. energy < 1%
foreground) in comparison with the world energy Biomass
consumption as of 2005 approx. 5 %
30 (gaseous)
B 1.26 Contribution of renewable energy sources to the Biomass
< 1%
primary energy supplies in Germany from 1975 (liquid)
to 2005 20
Wind approx. 25 %
B 1.27 Scenario for the development of the primary
energy consumption and CO2 emissions in 10 Water approx. 75%
Europe up to 2050
B 1.28 Contribution of renewable energy sources to Biomass (solid) approx. 7%
0
electricity generation in Germany from 1990 to 1990 1995 2000 2005 500 600
0 100 200 300 400
2005 [TWh]
Photovoltaic Biomass Usage as of 2005
B 1.29 Technical potential and use of renewable energy
sources in Germany as of 2005 Wind energy Water power Max. technical production potential
B 1.28 B 1.29
how we can cover those requirements. Most technical potential. The generation of low-tem- of collectors have been installed worldwide.
forecasts – in contrast to developments hitherto perature heat can be achieved with solar Such collectors can be separate additions to
– expect a continuous decline in primary energy power, but also by exploiting the heat near the buildings or may be integrated into the building
consumption in Europe up until 2050, in partic- surface (ground coupling and external air) or envelope (see p. 93). Despite the different radi-
ular due to efficient thermal insulation for build- the heat at greater depths (geothermal energy). ation levels at different locations, solar thermal
ings plus a constant increase in the proportion These sources exhibit very high efficiencies power is today worthwhile virtually everywhere
of renewable sources in the provision of energy which up to now have remained virtually un- in Germany.
(Fig. B 1.27). The intention is that by the middle tapped. When it comes to electricity genera- With some reservations, this also applies to
of the 21st century, renewable energy sources tion, besides water and wind, it is primarily the photovoltaic systems for generating electricity.
will cover half the energy requirements owing photovoltaic conversion of solar radiation that Their modular design permits a very wide
to the much reduced total demand. Further represents an important alternative to conven- range of installed capacity, and they can also
assumptions are a drop in the proportion of tional forms of generation. At the same time, be installed directly in the building envelope
coal in the equation and a probable significant photovoltaics combines the greatest reservoir (see p. 106). The system technology is based
reduction in electricity generation by nuclear of energy with the lowest rate of use to date. In on developments that have taken place since
energy [6]. contrast to this, the use of hydroelectric power the middle of the 20th century, and are of a
The forecasts for electricity supplies assume has already reached its limits. Bringing wind high technical standard. More than 300 MW of
that water and wind will continue to make sub- turbines on line has experienced enormous installed capacity has already been realised in
stantial contributions in the coming years, and growth rates in recent years, and the upward Germany, corresponding to an area of some
that these will be joined by biomass conversion trend continues (Fig. B 1.28). 3 million m2.
after 2010 plus significant contributions by geo- On the whole, Germany has considerable Solar chimney power stations represent another
thermal and photovoltaic installations after 2020. options for using renewable energy sources. In option for the large-scale exploitation of global
In addition, large quantities of electricity gener- total, the achievable potential for renewable radiation. The engineering consultants Schlaich,
ated from renewable energy sources could be energy media has already reached the order of Bergmann & Partner set up the first trial instal-
imported, e.g. from solar thermal power sta- magnitude of the current final energy require- lation in Manzanares, Spain, in 1989 in order to
tions near the equator. With the exception of ment when considered in terms of today’s gather experience for practical operations. The
water power, all energy sources exhibit consid- boundary conditions (Fig. B 1.29). This also principle behind the operation of this type of
erable potential for expansion. applies to the other European countries, albeit power station is very simple (Fig. B 1.35): air
In electricity generation above all, the use of with a different mix. heated below a transparent collector roof rises
renewable energy sources instead of conven- Using the chances offered by renewable energies up a central chimney as a result of the thermal
tional energy media exhibits one important depends mainly on the system technologies currents. At the base of a chimney, one or more
characteristic: by far the largest part of the available. The technologies for energy provi- turbines convert the airflow into electricity. The
potential for generating activity is based on sion in buildings are discussed in detail in the first 200 MW power station, near Mildura, Aus-
solar radiation and wind, both highly fluctuating chapter entitled “Building services” (pp. 110– tralia, is due to go on line in 2010.
resources. If these are in future expected to 145). The next section explains the fundamen-
replace real power station output to a large tal global perspectives for a sustainable energy Biomass
extent, a considerable redesign of the current economy. Although the options for exploiting the energy
supply structures with respect to load manage- in biomass are extremely diverse, the burning
ment, storage of reserves and power station Global radiation of wood currently represents the commonest
control will be required. In order to be able to use the global radiation use of renewable energy worldwide. In princi-
The generation of heat is will initially continue to actively, we have generally two alternatives at ple, solid, liquid and gaseous biomasses can
be based on individual installations for inciner- our disposal: the conversion into heat or elec- be incinerated for producing heat or used for
ating biomass. Significant changes are expected tricity. Solar thermal installations have been the co-generation of heat and electricity via
here via concepts for group heating systems around since the 19th century, and the systems motorised CHP (combined heat and power)
through central biomass heaters, geothermal common today have proved themselves over plants (see pp. 115 and 143). The well-devel-
power stations and, in particular, large solar decades. Besides solar thermal power stations oped system technology achieves high degrees
collector installations. for generating electricity in countries with par- of efficiency with low emissions. The output
ticularly high levels of sunshine, there are small- ranges from a few kilowatts to several mega-
Technical systems for viable future energy supplies format solar thermal installations in use for the watts.
Studies carried out for Germany reveal that the provision of hot water and as a backup for
use of biomass has on the whole the greatest space heating. To date, more than 30 million m2

47
Fundamentals

B 1.30 External costs for various electricity generation

Costs [ct / kWh]

options Global warming effect
8
B 1.31 Computer image of “Seaflow Park”, an ocean Atmospheric pollutants
currents power station with 10 turbines and a 7
planned output of 10 MW PV: Photovoltaic
B 1.32 Prognosis of the difference in costs between 6
renewable energy sources compared to conven- SPS: Steam power station
tional energy sources assuming energy prices 5
G&S: Gas and steam power station
continue to rise 4
B 1.33 Correlation between gross domestic product
(GDP) and primary energy demand of selected 3
countries as of 1970
B 1.34 “ZED” research project with two vertical wind 2
turbines, photo of model; London (GB), 1995, 1
Future Systems
B 1.35 Computer image of a planned solar chimney 0
power station in Mildura (AUS), due for comple-
tion in 2010; Schlaich Bergermann & Partner Natural Hydro-
Lignite Lignite Coal Coal gas PV PV electric Wind Wind
SPS 40% G&S 48 % SPS 43% GG&S 46% G&S 57% (today) (2030) power onshore offshore
B 1.30
Ground coupling ground level for producing electricity via steam Ocean currents
Solar radiation stored in the topmost strata of processes, or is fed into group or district heat- The balancing currents of the world’s oceans,
the Earth’s crust and in groundwater can be uti- ing networks. The technology required for geo- caused by different temperatures, different salt
lised through a ground coupling (underground thermal energy has been available in Europe concentrations or the changing tides, can be
heat exchanger) and systems of drilled wells, for a number of decades. used to drive underwater rotors and thus gen-
together with heat pumps, for space heating erate electricity. To do this, however, specific
and hot-water provision (see p. 121). The tech- Atmosphere current dynamics are essential, which in
nology for this was developed back in the 19th Heat pumps also allow the thermal energy con- Europe are found, in particular, off the coasts of
century and ground couplings can be used tained in the external air to be used for space the British Isles. According to estimates of the
anywhere in Europe. More than 300 000 heat heating and hot-water provision. This is, in prin- technical potential, the United Kingdom could
pump systems are now installed in Europe ciple, the same system technology as for a generate 10–20% of the electricity it needs with
every year. ground coupling, but in this case it is the ther- power stations driven by the currents (Fig.
mal energy in the air that is extracted via a air- B 1.31).
Geothermal energy to-air heat exchanger. For heating, however, In principle, the breaking of waves on the shore
As we go further into the solid crust of the there is an unfavourable correlation between could also be used in combination with suitable
Earth, so the temperature rises markedly. The the temperature level of the external air (e.g. power stations for generating electricity. One of
high temperatures in the deeper strata can be -10°C) and the heating requirement (e.g. +20°C). the simpler systems, for example, converts the
utilised by geothermal power stations. This is The efficiency of heat pumps diminishes as the kinetic energy of the breaking waves into poten-
achieved by using deep heat sondes or the hot temperature difference increases. tial energy by way of a appropriately designed
dry rock (HDR) method, which draws thermal collector. The actual electricity generation then
energy from depths approaching 7000 m. The Wind functions in the same way as a reservoir-fed
water extracted from the ground, or rather heat- Using the wind as a source of energy is a power station.
ed by the ground, with temperatures between method with a long tradition. For example, in
100 and 300°C, is used in a power station at the 17th and 18th centuries, there were about Tides
9000 windmills in the Netherlands. At the The tides, primarily caused by gravitational
moment, wind energy in Germany is primarily effects and comparable with the energy of
used for generating electricity, and currently breaking waves, could be converted into ener-
accounts for more than 5%. In regions with par- gy. However, this requires an average tidal
ticularly high yields, with average wind speeds range of at least 3 m, a value that is not
exceeding approx. 3 m/s, wind turbines with reached on the German coast. A number of
capacities of up to 5 MW are possible. The first such power stations have already been built
concepts for integrating wind power systems elsewhere in the world, but the total potential is
into buildings are at the planning stage (Fig. B probably quite low.
1.34).
Waves
Hydroelectric power Wave energy is in the first place induced by
Water power is another method that has been wind energy. In contrast to a tidal power sta-
used throughout history. We distinguish tion, the electricity generation in a waves-driven
between low-pressure installations (run-of-river power station results not from the tides, but
hydroelectric power stations) and medium- or rather from the continuous movement of the
high-pressure installations (reservoir-fed hydro- waves. According to calculations by the World
electric power stations). Nearly 6000 hydro- Energy Council (WEC), there is considerable
electric power stations are in operation in Ger- potential for such power station technology.
many, which supply more than 4% of the net
electricity requirements. By far the greatest
number of these are small hydroelectric power
plants with an output of less than 1 MW, and
many of these are privately owned.

B 1.31

48
 Fundamentals

GDP per head [USD/a]

4

Difference in costs [billion EUR/a]

Oceanic thermal energy Prognosis
Sweden
Like groundwater, the seas and oceans can Electricity 104 Switzerland
Germany
also store energy, which with a suitable tem- France USA
perature difference exceeding about 20 K New Zealand Australia
between the water near the surface and the Fuels Japan
2 Italy
Greece
water in the depths can be used for generating Ireland
Portugal Spain
electricity in a suitable power station. However, Cyprus
besides problems with storing and transporting Brazil South Africa
Heating 103 Mexico
Algeria Iraq
the energy, there are still many technical ques- Tunisia Peru
tions to be answered and therefore a commer- 0
Morocco Columbia
cial use of this technology is not expected in Sri Liberia
Lanka Egypt
the near future.
India
The economics of renewable energy Sudan
-2 102
The overall cost to society of providing fossil 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 1 10 100
and nuclear energy supply systems lies con- Primary energy demand per head [1000 kWh/a]
siderably higher than calculations have revealed B 1.32 B 1.33
up to now. 20% for a number of years. Hardly any other maintain the same standard of living as in 1970
In order to obtain an all-embracing economic branch of industry has created a similar with just two-thirds of the PED of that time. The
evaluation, in future the considerable environ- number of new jobs. inverse of the aforementioned GDP/PED ratio,
mental damage caused by fossil energy con- i.e. the PED/GDP ratio, therefore expresses
version – the “external costs” – must be includ- Efficient use of energy how efficiently a nation uses energy. The higher
ed in the economic calculations. A study car- The energy policies of the past always consid- the GDP in comparison to the energy con-
ried out by the Federal Ministry for the Environ- ered sustainable energy supplies to be in con- sumption, the better is the value creation with
ment, Nature Conservation & Nuclear Safety flict with economic growth. There was seen to the energy consumed.
(BMU) shows that CO2 emissions play a key be a causal relationship between gross domes-
role here [7]. The BMU study estimates the cost tic product (GDP) and primary energy demand Energy provision chain
of the damage to be € 70 per tonne of CO2. (PED). According to that, every economic Huge losses ensue in the processes for con-
Accordingly, these external costs amounting to, upturn requires a rise in energy consumption. verting, in particular, primary energy media
for example, 6–8 ct/kWh in the case of electric- In 1970 countries with a low GDP also had a (e.g. coal) into the actual energy service, e.g.
ity generated using coal and lignite, should be low PED. By contrast, the industrialised coun- light (Fig. B 1.39). The energy provision chain
added to the current electricity production tries exhibited a high GDP and a high PED. The can be defined as follows (Fig. B 1.38):
costs of 3–4 ct/kWh for fossil fuel-fired power GDP/PED ratio was therefore considered to be • Primary energy is the theoretically usable
stations. On the other hand, the consequences an indicator of the respective standard of living energy content of fossil, nuclear and renew-
of obtaining electricity from renewable energy (Fig. B 1.33). able energy media that occur in nature and
sources – including the construction and Triggered by the oil crisis at the start of the have not yet been converted or prepared.
deconstruction of the plants required – are 1970s, the development of national economies • Secondary energy is obtained – with corre-
much lower (Fig. B 1.30). was uncoupled from the energy consumption. sponding energy losses – from primary energy
The true external costs of the fossil energy sec- In Germany, the PED has changed very little as the result of conversion processes; sec-
tor, e.g. damage to ecosystems, impairment of since 1980, whereas the GDP has continued to ondary energy media include, for example,
biodiversity, uncertainty of supplies plus geo- rise (Fig. B 1.36). In 2000 the Germans could petrol, coal briquettes and heating oil.
political risks, are currently not (yet) taken into
account because of the uncertainties in the
financial evaluation of the damage.
Whereas the market prices for fossil and nuclear
energy will continue to rise because of their lim-
ited availability, proposed CO2 surcharges,
uncertainty of supplies and “risk factors”, the
production costs for renewable energy are fall-
ing steadily owing to the decline in the techni-
cal and commercial costs (economies of
scale). It should therefore be only a matter of
time before renewable energy sources cause
lower operating costs than energy from finite
sources.
The BMU study (2007) comes to the conclusion
that if the price of conventional energy supplies
continues to rise substantially, renewable ener-
gy will probably reach the price level of the
finite energy sources in 2025 (Fig. B 1.32).
From that point on, they will help to stabilise
energy costs, which without renewable energy
sources would continue to rise unstoppably [6].
The expansion of energy supplies with future
viability is becoming an ever more important
economic factor. Domestic sales in Germany
have been exhibiting growth rates of approx.
B 1.34 B 1.35

49
Fundamentals
Change [%]

200

Primary energy demand [EJ / a]

700 Consumption according to country groupings
Developing countries
175 Gross domestic product (GDP) 600
CIS, Eastern Europe, Middle East
OECD countries
500
150 * per head consumption

400 65* average per head consumptionworld=70 GJ /a

125 Primary energy demand (PED) 32*
300
122*
100 Coverage of demand according to energy sources
PED/GDP ratio 200
Renewable energy sources, excl. traditional biomass
92*
75 196* Traditional biomass
100
92* Nuclear energy
50 0 Fossil energy sources
1970 1980 1990 2000 2050
B 1.36 B 1.37
• Final energy is equal to the proportion of sec- • Efficiency: The “ideal scenario” of achieving a sustainable
ondary energy after subtracting the transport, The rational conversion and use of energy global energy supply by 2050 is founded on
line and/or transformation losses of users. enables the desired energy services, e.g. a these strategies and includes the following key
• Net energy is the quantity of energy actually pleasant interior or transportation from A to B, data (Fig. B 1.37): The current average per
used for the energy service, e.g. space heat- to be provided much more efficiently for the head energy consumption of 70 GJ/a, with its
ing. same effect. very irregular geographical distribution, will be
• Consistency: evened out by the middle of the century. To do
In total, about two-thirds of the primary energy Owing to the consumption of finite energy this, the industrialised countries must more or
obtained from nature is currently lost through resources and the accumulation of hazard- less halve their current energy consumption of
conversion and/or transmission; accordingly, ous emissions in the atmosphere, the current 196 GJ/a, whereas the developing countries
the current energy utilisation systems provide energy system is “open”. The creation of a will be able to double theirs. In addition, there
the user with only about one-third of the energy “closed” energy system, which provides will have to be a 50% reduction in the use of
available in the natural raw materials. Amory energy virtually without consumption of raw fossil fuels, the abandonment of nuclear energy
Lovins, head of the Rocky Mountain Institute, materials, can only be achieved by using and a 24-fold increase in the use of renewable
has coined the term “negawatt” for this situa- renewable energy sources. energy sources.The technical potential is readi-
tion, the hypothetical unit of saved energy. • Sufficiency: ly and widely available, but considerable efforts
According to Lovins, preventing losses will The energy consumption is mainly determined are still required. In order to achieve this “ideal
represent the most important energy source in by ways of life and consumer behaviour. A scenario”, the market share of renewable energy
the future. sustainable use of resources presumes that must increase over the next 50 years by 6–7%
consumers, through responsible actions, annually.
Strategies for a sustainable energy industry refrain from using energy-intensive products
Conservation of energy and resources, environ- and services.
mental protection and safety and security poli-
cies are increasingly perceived as a single ele- A viable energy industry can only be achieved
ment. Today’s energy industry sees itself by pursuing these strategies with their comple-
essentially having to face four problems: risks mentary interactions. A clear reduction in energy
for the climate, rising prices for fossil raw mate- consumption as a result of efficiency and suffi-
rials, uncertain supply situations and more and ciency measures forms the prerequisite for
more geopolitical distribution conflicts involving covering the remaining demand through the
energy. Several parallel strategies are neces- use of renewable energy.
sary for reconfiguring the energy industry [8]:

Primary energy 100%

23% conversion
Secondary energy 77% losses (power station,
refinery, coking plant)
5% consumption by the
energy industry itself,
line losses
Final energy 66% 6% non-energy consumption
(e.g. pure petrol in the
chemicals industry)
Net
energy 36% losses at
the consumer
30%
Power, heating, lighting
B 1.38 B 1.39

50
 Fundamentals

B 1.36 Development of gross domestic product (GDP)

Polar zone
and primary energy demand in Germany
B 1.37 Ideal scenario for sustainable global energy
supplies for 2050
B 1.38 Losses in the energy supply chain in Germany Temperate
B 1.39 Night-time view of Los Angeles (USA) zone
B 1.40 The Earth’s climate zones
Sub-
B 1.41 Annual distribution of precipitation
tropical Tropic of
B 1.42 Annual distribution of global radiation
zone Cancer

Tropical zone
Equator

Tropic of
Capricorn
Moist, warm
Dry, hot
Climate and comfort Temperate
Cold
Human beings first started to spread across B 1.40
our planet some 200 000 years ago, in the Afri-
can savannah. At a rate of, on average, some
400 m/a, Homo sapiens finally reached the
Atlantic coast on the Iberian peninsula about
40 000 years ago. However, the human organ- Polar zone
ism is, even today, designed for a life under the
original, ideal climatic conditions of Africa. As a
Temperate
result of the population explosion and hence zone
the settlement of almost all the land masses on
the planet, human beings have developed Sub-
strategies for living in, for example, polar regions tropical Tropic of
zone Cancer
with average temperatures as low as -25°C, or
tropical regions with average temperatures that
reach +26°C. Clothing as a second skin and Tropical zone
the building envelope as a third take over the Equator
task of compensating for fluctuations in the
climate and thus ensuring comfort.
Prior to industrialisation, when the level of com-
> 2000 mm
fort was much lower than that which we expect > 1500 mm Tropic of
and enjoy today and there were only a few > 1000 mm Capricorn
technical options for creating an interior climate > 500 mm
not dependent on the ambient conditions, it > 250 mm
< 250 mm
was primarily the components of the building
envelope that were directly influenced by local B 1.41
conditions. The realisation of the prevailing cli-
matic factors and elements forms the prerequi-
site for being able to develop energy-efficiency
design concepts and, at the same time, optimum
comfort conditions. Polar zone

Climate
Temperate
The term “climate” designates the local state of zone
the atmosphere that can be described by
means of meteorological variables. We employ Sub-
time dimensions in order to distinguish between tropical Tropic of
zone Cancer
the weather and the meteorological conditions:

• Weather: momentary state of the atmosphere; Tropical zone

one hour to a few days. Equator
• Meteorological conditions: character of the
weather over a few days to one week, in the
extreme a whole season.
> 2200 kWh/m2a
• Climate: average state of the Earth’s atmos- > 1950 kWh/m2a Tropic of
phere over 30 to 40 years. > 1700 kWh/m2a Capricorn
> 1400 kWh/m2a
> 1100 kWh/m2a
< 1100 kWh/m2a
B 1.42

51
Fundamentals

Climate zone Climate elements Fundamental building requirements

Polar zone • Low solar radiation, very low seasonal annual average temperatures (0–6°C) • Protection against cold for most of the year
(cold) • Low daily temperature differences (summer: many hours of daylight; winter: many hours of darkness) • Protection against strong winds and storms, mainly in
• High annual temperature differences for continental locations (e.g. Siberia 45–60 K) the cold months
• Moderate/low annual temperature differences for coastal locations (e.g. Iceland, Norway 11–15 K) • Best-possible use of the sun’s warmth during the short
• Low relative humidity, especially in winter summer
• Long periods of frost (5–9 months), partly permafrost deeper in the ground
• Low precipitation (e.g. approx. 250 mm/a in the Arctic borders)
Temperate • Very diverse solar radiation intensities (e.g. in central Europe a high proportion of diffuse radiation • Protection against overcooling in winter
zone and frequent cloud cover, in the transition zones to the tropics sometimes more direct radiation) • Protection against overheating in summer
(temperate) • High annual temperature differences (e.g. central Europe approx. 18–20 K on average) • Protection against occasional, in some regions frequent,
• Moderate to low daily temperature differences (e.g. central Europe approx. 6–8 K on average) precipitation
• Moderate to high relative humidity (e.g. central Europe approx. 80%)
• Moderate precipitation (e.g. in central Europe approx. 800–1000 mm/a, in the transition zones to the
tropics approx. 300–400 mm/a)

Subtropical • Intensive direct solar radiation • Protection against the loads of high heat absorption due
zone (dry, hot) • Low relative humidity (approx. 10–50%) to direct solar radiation and high temperatures
• Very low average precipitation (approx. 0–250 mm/a), but occurs as sporadic short periods of heavy • Protecting building components and building materials
rainfall against direct solar radiation, plus their selection and
• High daytime temperatures (max. temperature approx. 35–38°C as annual average, individual use taking into account the high, short-term temperature
temperatures in continental desert regions > 50°C) differences
• Moderate, sometimes low night-time temperatures (min. temperature approx. 16–20°C as annual
average, individual temperatures as low as 0°C possible)
• High daily temperature fluctuations (20 K on average)
• Diverse, sometimes severe winds, in the form of sandstorms/dust-storms in desert regions
• Low cloud coverage, usually clear skies, sometimes a high dust content in the atmosphere
Tropical zone • High direct solar radiation with a cloudless sky, otherwise mostly tempered by cloud cover • Relief from the unfavourable influence of heat and
(moist, warm) • High relative humidity (60–100%) moisture (humid conditions) by using air circulation to
• High precipitation (1200–2000 mm/a, in extreme cases up to 5000 mm/a) promote heat dissipation via transpiration
• Low daily and annual temperature differences (daily average: approx. 7 K; annual average: approx. 5 K) • Protecting buildings and building components against
• Max. daytime temperatures approx. 30°C as an annual average direct solar radiation and undesirable heat storage-
• Min. night-time temperatures approx. 25°C as an annual average through shading and the right choice of building form
• High frequency of cloud cover, i.e. high proportion of diffuse radiation and orientation
• Low air pressure • Protecting building components against permanent
• Often only light winds, but sometimes stormy gusts during rainfall saturation through well-controlled rainwater drainage
• Tropical storms (cyclones, typhoons, hurricanes) in certain regions and good ventilation
B 1.43
The term climate is often substituted by “global Climate factors, climate elements Climate zones
climate”. As, however, global climate trends The processes and conditions that determine The (approximately) spherical shape of the
and average values for localities can be con- the climate of a place are known as the climate Earth, resulting in different angles of incidence
siderably different, we divide the spatial dimen- factors. These include the geographical latitude for solar radiation, plus the tilt of the Earth’s
sion into three scales: (e.g. incident solar radiation), the position with axis are responsible for the wide range of tem-
respect to the sea (e.g. precipitation, lower peratures on the planet. In addition, the Earth’s
• The microclimate describes the meteorologi- temperature fluctuations at sea level), the alti- rotation is a central factor determining both the
cal conditions of layers of air about 2 m tude or position with respect to mountains (e.g. weather dynamic in the atmosphere and also
above the surface for specific locations and drop in temperature with increasing height, the climate zones.
their direct surroundings. Various influencing precipitation depending on position with Many existing climate classification systems
factors such as the characteristics of the respect to prevailing winds) and ground cover- are based either on the global wind circulation
ground or terrain, the position on a slope, age (e.g. low temperatures in forests, higher systems or are derived from the effects on the
valley or plain, vegetation, shading and the temperatures in built-up areas). Earth’s surface. The most widely used is the
neighbouring buildings must be taken into Climate elements, on the other hand, represent “eco-climatic classification” dating from 1923
account. The microclimate is influenced by meteorological variables that identify the meas- [9]. It divides the Earth into four different climate
landscaping and/or building measures; its urable properties of the climate system. The fol- zones by means of certain meteorological vari-
effects on the climate inside a building and lowing elements are crucial to the conceptual ables (e.g. temperature, precipitation):
human well-being are crucial. design of buildings:
• The mesoclimate, also called the local climate, • polar zone (cold)
refers to the conditions over a few hundred • solar radiation (direct and diffuse) • temperate zone (temperate)
metres to a few hundred kilometres. The dif- • air temperature and its daily/seasonal • subtropical zone (dry, hot)
ferent microclimates of a certain place (e.g. fluctuation • tropical zone (moist, hot)
valley, settlement, island) are grouped together • air pressure
for this. • air humidity These zones are further subdivided into climate
• The macroclimate can extend for more than • wind (strength and direction) types (e.g. elevated or frost-free tropics) or
500 km and is made up of oceanic and/or • precipitation (quantity and annual distribution) vegetation zones (e.g. tundra, steppe or tropi-
continental effects. According to the macro- • evaporation cal rainforest). The four climate zones listed
climate, the Earth is divided into four climate The climate factors therefore influence the daily above stretch from north to south in approxi-
zones, whose special features form the over- weather, whose characteristics can be deter- mately parallel belts around the planet (Figs.
riding framework for energy-efficient design mined by measurable climate elements. Con- B 1.40 and 1.41). As the distance from the
and construction. sidered over a period of 30 to 40 years, the equator or from the nearest ocean increases,
average values of these variables determine so the seasonal temperature fluctuations of the
the climate as a whole. respective zone increase as well. Their charac-

52
 Fundamentals

B 1.43 Correlation between climate zones, climate ele- < 1200 kWh / m2a
ments and fundamental building requirements
B 1.44 Average annual global radiation in Europe > 1200 kWh / m2a
B 1.45 Average annual global radiation in Germany > 1400 kWh / m2a
> 1600 kWh / m2a
> 1800 kWh / m2a
> 2000 kWh / m2a
> 2200 kWh / m2a

teristic climate elements plus the resulting

requirements for building work are given in
Fig. B 1.43 [10].

Solar radiation
Solar radiation is a critical factor for the passive
and active use of solar energy in buildings. The
sun emits radiation as it converts hydrogen into
helium. This radiation has an intensity of approx.
63 000 kW/m2 at the surface of the sun, where
the temperature is about 6000°C. The intensity
of this radiation output is 1367 W/m2 on the
edge of the Earth’s atmosphere (solar constant).
The radiation components that reach the Earth’s
surface after penetrating the atmosphere are
broken down as follows:
B 1.44
• Direct radiation, reaching the surface directly
and unobstructed.
• Diffuse radiation, reaching the surface after
being scattered in the atmosphere (e.g. by Kiel
clouds, or water and dust particles).
Rostock

Together, these two radiation components are Hamburg

known as global radiation. Owing to the varying
angle of incidence, there is a variation in the Bremen
intensity and the seasonal fluctuation of the
available solar radiation as we move further Berlin
Hannover
away from the equator. Whereas the global
radiation at the equator is about 2200 kWh/m2a, Münster
solar gains in Central Europe are on average
Essen
only 1100 kWh/m2a (Fig. B 1.42). If we compare
Kassel Leipzig
the radiation profile of northern or southern
Europe with that of the Sahara Desert, besides Dresden
Cologne
the increasing seasonal differences as we go
further north, we also see a difference in the
diffuse and direct radiation components (Fig.
B 1.48). In principle, both types of radiation can
be exploited for energy purposes, but solar Frankfurt
energy yields are mainly based on the direct Trier
Nuremberg
radiation component.
Furthermore, the length of a sunlit day and the
hours of sunshine have a considerable influence
on the solar gains (Fig. B 1.44). In Europe the < 950 kWh/m2a Stuttgart Passau
number of hours of sunshine annually is 1400– > 950 kWh/m2a
2500 on average. The differences between Freiburg Ulm Munich
> 1000 kWh/m2a
Mediterranean regions, countries with a continen- 2
> 1050 kWh/m a
tal climate or tall mountains therefore amounts
to approx. 40%. In Germany the annual number > 1100 kWh/m2a
of hours of sunshine fluctuates between 1400 > 1150 kWh/m2a
B 1.45

53
Fundamentals

21 June
summer solstice
N
21 March/21 September
day and night equal
NW NE Meridian
June 21 December
July/May winter solstice
West
August/April
18.00 6.00
B 1.46 Solar altitude angle diagram for latitude 51° north North
(in each case on the 21st of the month) September /
W E
15.00 9.00
B 1.47 Annual trajectory of the sun over the northern March
12.00
hemisphere
October/February
B 1.48 Comparison of mean values for diffuse and direct
radiation in different regions November/January South Sun’s trajectory
December
a Northern Europe: London (GB), latitude 51° north
SW SE Azimuth
b Southern Europe: Almeria (E), latitude 36° north
c Africa: Sahara, latitude 20° north
B 1.49 Systematic representation of comfort factors S
B 1.50 Selected climate data for Berlin (D) East
B 1.46 B 1.47
and 1800, with approximately equal amounts of extreme temperatures must be considered in high pressure conditions flow into regions with
direct and diffuse radiation. The global radiation conjunction with the efficiency and design of low pressure conditions until the pressure
lies between about 900 and 1150 kWh/m2a, passive measures plus the sizing of HVAC sys- differences are evened out. Besides the wind
with about three-quarters of this incident radia- tems. If, for example, night-time cooling is to be loads relevant for the structural design of build-
tion arriving in the six hottest months (Fig. B 1.45). used to the full, the external air temperatures at ings, the development of natural ventilation
The exploitation of solar energy through passive night must generally remain on the low side. In concepts need information on the prevailing
measures or active systems calls for details Germany the average annual temperature is wind direction plus the pressure and suction
regarding the intensity and number of hours of about 8.4°C (16.5°C in summer, 0.9°C in win- conditions. With a skilful arrangement of venti-
sunshine plus the angle of incidence and the ter). The fluctuations between day and night lation inlets and outlets, the wind can be used
trajectory of the sun (Fig. B 1.47). The natural are around 5–10 K. to ventilate a building, although this does depend
lighting conditions, the duration of sunlight and on the depth and height of the building as well.
shading, can be determined for a certain geo- Humidity In Germany the average wind speed in the
graphical location with the help of a solar alti- The humidity of the air is a measure the quantity north with a prevailing wind direction of west to
tude diagram (Fig. B 1.46). of water vapour in the atmosphere. It affects south-west is approx. 5 m/s, and about 2 m/s in
the health and well-being of human beings just the south.
Climate data as it much as it does statements as to whether
Optimum use of the local natural energy re- regions tend to be foggy or rainy. The maximum
serves requires specific climate data corre- quantity of water vapour that the air can accom-
sponding to the geographical location (Fig. B modate is influenced by the temperature. The
1.50, for further data see p. 260). In addition to unit of measurement “absolute humidity” reflects
the global radiation, the temperature, humidity the quantity of water vapour actually present in
and wind are the most important factors. the air in g/m3. This is important for the escape
of moisture from rooms through diffusion. The
Temperature “relative humidity” is specified as a percentage
The temperature of the external air is depend- and indicates the ratio of the current water
ent on the available solar radiation and the alti- vapour content in the atmosphere to the maxi-
tude of the place above sea level. The temper- mum possible water vapour content.
ature drops by approx. 1°C for every 200 m
rise in altitude. The average air temperature Wind
has a distinct effect on the transmission or ven- Directional air movements in the atmosphere
tilation heat losses in winter and the possible ensue as a result of the different air pressures
overheating in summer. The frequency of of masses of air. Air particles from regions with
Mean value of hor. incident radiation [kWh/ m2d]
Mean value of hor. incident radiation [kWh/ m2d]

Mean value of hor. incident radiation [kWh/ m2d]

10 Northern Europe (London) 10 Southern Europe (Almeria) 10 Africa (Sahara)

direct direct direct
diffuse diffuse diffuse
8 8 8

6 6 6

4 4 4

2 2 2

0 0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
a b c B 1.48

54
 Fundamentals

Comfort

Physical conditions Intermediary conditions Physiological conditions

thermal acoustic visual olfactory other

Psycho-social factors
view of outside world
Mean enclosing sur-

Reverberation times

Carbon dioxide and

Interior air humidity

Unpleasant smells
faces temperature

Lighting, contrast,

Room occupancy
Colours, scheme,

Reference to and
Glare, luminance

Ethnic influences
Daily and annual
colour rendering

Static charge of

Adaptation and

Physical fitness
air temperature

Air movements

State of health,
acclimatisation
angle of light
Frequencies

Air pressure
other gases

Food intake
constitution
distribution
Noise level

interior air

Clothing

rhythms

Gender
Activity
Interior

Dust

Age
B 1.49
Comfort cold are important functions for perceiving The human heat balance
The well-being of a person is based on his or architecture and act as a means for concretis- A heat balance with a basic body temperature
her subjective perception of a number of exter- ing the things we have perceived primarily vis- around 37°C over the whole body is a funda-
nal influences. Besides standardised, physically ually. Concordance, harmony and superimposi- mental prerequisite for well-being and efficiency.
measurable ambient conditions (e.g. tempera- tion between the visual impression and other If the ambient temperature drops, the body first
ture of interior air, intensity of lighting, level of levels of perception therefore condense to form allows the extremities to cool in order to protect
noise), certain individual, physiological criteria an overall picture. the functions of the brain, heart and other vital
(e.g. age, gender, constitution) and intermedi- Human beings store the information they have organs (Fig. B 1.51). The human organism gen-
ary conditions (e.g. clothing, activity) affect our received by linking the perception with the erates heat to maintain its bodily and metabolic
well-being (Fig. B 1.49). Comfort is therefore respective experience. Each additional sensory functions, which it obtains by converting the
not a factor that can be quantified exactly, but link increases the chance of “recalling” a mem- chemical energy contained in nutrients. To
instead represents individual empirical values ory. The linking strategies can be demonstrated guarantee a constant temperature, it is neces-
at which a human being experiences his or her by way of a simple example, e.g. a Finnish sary to transfer the internal heat generated to
surroundings as agreeable. sauna. If we initially think of a simple timber the environment. Our bodies use the following
construction (visual), the feeling of moisture mechanisms for this (Fig. B 1.52):
Levels of perception plus the warmth of the benches or the smell of
The primary sense for human beings is the the resinous wood are then recalled as well. • evaporation of water via breathing and the
sense of vision. Some 80–90% of our data input The stimulation of many senses creates a higher skin (transpiration)
is based on what we can see. However, the chance of lasting memories of specific places • convection of heat from the surface of the
human brain cannot fully process all the infor- or buildings. body to the ambient air
mation that arrives via our sense of vision. The • conduction of heat from the body to imme-
quantity of data is therefore reduced, supple- Interior climate diate objects (floor, chair, etc.)
mented with our own experiences and assem- The factors crucial for the interior climate are • radiation of heat to the surfaces enclosing the
bled to form a complete picture. Every person derived from a person’s prevailing levels of room and to nearby objects
generates his or her image, i.e. perception, of perception. In order to arrange pleasant living
the world in this way. Users develop an under- and working conditions, an interior climate that At low temperatures, the heat loss takes place
standing for their spatial environment, insert is agreeable in terms of thermal, acoustic, visual mainly via convection, conduction and radia-
this into their wealth of experience and at the and olfactory aspects must be guaranteed. tion. In an excessively cold environment, the
same time transfer the specific context of each And thermal comfort is the most important factor blood circulation in the skin is initially restricted
a situation to their current perception. here. It influences the human heat balance and and heat is generated by movement (starting
Besides the sense of vision, our sense of touch, also has a direct effect on the energy consump- with shivering). As the temperature rises, the
hearing and smell, plus the feeling of hot or tion of a building. evaporation component in the heat loss starts
Temperature [°C]

Precipitation [mm]

30 125 Berlin Min. Month Max. Month Annual mean

Air temperature [C°] - 0.6 Jan 18.5 Jul 8.9
Mean daily max. temperature [C°] 1.7 Jan 23.8 Aug 13.1
20 100 Mean daily min. temperature [C°] - 3.5 Jan 13.3 Jul 4.7
Absolute max. temperature [C°] 13.0 Jan 37.8 Jul 37.8
Absolute min. temperature [C°] -26.0 Feb 5.7 Jul - 26.0
10 75 Mean relative air humidity [%] 66.0 May 88.0 Dec 78.0
Mean precipitation [mm] 31.0 Mar 70.0 Jul 581.0
Max. precipitation [mm] 85.0 Feb 230.0 Jul 803.0
0 50 Min. precipitation [mm] 1.0 Apr, Sept – Nov 16.0 Jan 381.0
Max. daily precipitation [mm] 20.0 Dec 125.0 Aug 125.0
No. of precipitation days [d] 12.0 Mar, Sept 17.0 Jan 166.0
Evaporation [mm] 0 Jan – Feb 125.0 Jul 615.0
-10 25
Mean No. of sunshine hours [h] 36.0 Dec 244.0 Jul 1818.0
Radiation [Wh/ m2d] 607.0 Jan 5436.0 Jun 2805.0
Mean wind speed [m / s] 2.8 Aug – Sept 3.8 Mar 3.2
-20 0
1
J F M A M J J A S O N D Annual total of incoming radiation (horizontal) = 1010 kWh/m2a
B 1.50

55
Fundamentals

Heat loss per person [W]

Temperature of surroundings 180 Perceived
+17 °C +20 °C
temperature
0 °C 20 °C 35 °C 160

140

120

100
Convection Evaporation tW =+14 °C tW = +19 °C
80 Enclosing
Conduction surfaces
60 temperature

40

20
Radiation
0
Temperature of
28 °C 31 °C 32 °C 34 °C 36 °C 37 °C 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
body Temperature of interior air tL =21 °C
Temperature of interior air [°C]
B 1.51 B 1.52 B 1.53
to increase markedly. Once the ambient tem- on the degree of activity, the limit for the per- Thermal comfort
perature is perceived as too hot, the blood cir- ception of cool conditions between 14.5 and Assuming optimum physiological boundary
culation is initially increased in order to cool the 18°C, and the range of thermal comfort extends conditions and other physical factors (e.g. velo-
surface of the skin through increased evapora- from 17 to 24°C. In recent years it has become city and humidity of the interior air, average
tion (transpiration). This thermal regulation of accepted for the design of production and external temperature) and a person with a nor-
the human body has such fine mechanisms office premises in particular that optimum interi- mal physical constitution, investigations into the
that the metabolic rate can change by approx. or climate conditions improve the efficiency frequency of accidents and the efficiency of
20% for every 1.5 K increase or decrease in and satisfaction of employees – and that leads sedentary workers have shown that the range
temperature. to economic benefits. of thermal comfort is not very wide (Fig. B 1.55).
There is also a close relationship between the If the temperature of the interior air is too high
heat production of the human body and the or too low, the risk of accidents increases and
type of activity (Fig. B 1.54). The quantity of manual dexterity, productivity and mental abili-
heat generated increases with physical activity. ties decrease rapidly. DIN 1946-2 defines the
When performing uncomplicated office work in thermal comfort for humans as being when the
an interior air temperature of 20°C, a person of temperature, moisture and movement of the
average constitution and size generates a heat surrounding air are agreeable and neither hot-
output of 125–170 W. But strenuous physical ter nor colder, drier nor moister interior air is
work can increase this heat output to 360–490 W. desired. A thermally comfortable environment
Hence, the limit of the perception of humid con- is therefore primarily due to physical influenc-
ditions lies between 19.5 and 28°C, depending ing factors such as the temperature of the inte-

Type of activity
Complete rest Minimal activity Light work Light physical work Strenuous physical
Lying down Sitting work
Basic metabolic state
Values for one person Child Adult Child Adult Child Adult Child Adult Child Adult
Energy consumption [kJ / d] 5900 7500 8000 9700 8800 10 500 10 100 12 600 11 300 14 700
required per day [kcal / d] 1410 1790 1910 2320 2100 2510 2410 3010 2700 3510
[kWh / d] 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.7 2.4 2.9 2.8 3.5 3.1 4.1
Total heat loss [W] 50 – 65 65 – 85 60 – 80 75 – 100 100 – 130 125 – 170 170 – 225 215 – 295 280 – 380 360 – 490
(inc. evaporation)
thereof dry heat loss [W] 35 – 45 50 – 65 45 – 60 60 – 75 70 – 95 95 – 130 120 – 160 165 – 220 200 – 275 280 – 370
(convection, conduction,
radiation)
Water vapour production [g / h] 21 – 28 23 – 32 25 – 34 27 – 38 41 – 57 46 – 62 70 – 95 78 – 108 117 – 160 130 – 180
per hour
Oxygen requirement per hour [l / h] 9 – 12 12 – 16 10 – 14 14 – 19 17 – 24 24 – 32 30 – 41 40 – 51 50 – 68 65 – 90
Exhaled CO2 per hour [l / h] 7 – 10 10 – 13 9 – 12 12 – 16 15 – 20 19 – 26 25 – 34 32 – 43 46 – 56 55 – 75
(concentration in the air
0.03–0.05% by vol.)
Fresh-air rate required when [m3 / h] 12 – 17 17 – 21 15 – 20 20 – 26 25 – 33 32 – 42 42 – 57 55 – 72 70 – 93 90 – 130
CO2 is max. 0.10% by vol.
Boundary of humid conditions [°C] 28 28 26 26 24 24 21.5 21.5 19.5 19.5
with respect to interior air
temperature
Equilibrium = comfort [°C] 24 24 22 22 20.5 20.5 19 19 17 17
Boundary of feeling
of coolness [°C] 18 18 17 17 16 16 15.5 15.5 14.5 14.5
B 1.54

56
 Fundamentals

Deviation [%]
140
rior air and the average temperature of the Interior air temperature and average enclosing

Men
Me
external air (not too cold, not too hot), the surfaces temperature

n, w
humidity of the interior air (not too dry, not too The level of comfort in a building is essentially

om
humid) and the movement of the air (no draughts). determined by the interior air temperature and 120

en
Even though these parameters have a mutual the average enclosing surfaces temperature. en
Wom
influence on each other and a person’s well- On average, these values correspond roughly
being is always founded on subjective percep- to the perceived temperature, which should lie 100
Accident frequency Accident
frequency
tions, it is nevertheless possible to specify a between 19 and 20°C. Within certain limits, the
few guiding values for an agreeable environ- surface and air temperatures can compensate

M
en
ills
ment: interior air temperature 20–22°C (in sum- for each other. The smaller the difference al sk

ta
u
Man

l s Pro
kil
mer up to 26°C), interior air humidity 35–60%, between these temperatures (in the ideal case 80

ls uc
and interior air movements up to 0.15 m/s. no more than 3 K), the more comfortable people

d
tiv
y
But even with optimum conditions, 100% satis- will feel in their surroundings. An excessively rit

ity
xte
faction among users or occupants can never asymmetrical thermal profile, which can occur, De
60
be achieved owing to the diverse parameters for example, in rooms with large windows and 10 15 20 25 30
and individual factors (e.g. type of clothing, poor thermal insulation, leads to discomfort. As Temperature [°C]
physical activity, age, gender, etc.). can be seen in Fig. B 1.59, good thermal insu- B 1.55

Predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) [%]

In order to take account of these individual, lation to the building envelope therefore forms 80
subjective, varying human factors, the thermal the foundation for creating comfortable condi-
60
perception is specified in terms of the PMV tions through high surface temperatures, and
(Predicted Mean Vote) value (Fig. B 1.57). at the same time reduces the energy consump- 40
From this value it is then possible to determine tion. When planning coil heating in particular, it
30
the PPD (Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied) is important that with room temperatures of
value – the number of people who can be around 20°C, the temperature of the floor 20
expected to be unhappy with the prevailing should not exceed 27°C and that of the ceiling
15
interior climate. Due to the individual evaluation 34°C (Figs. B 1.60 and 1.61).
of the interior climate conditions, even with a 10
PMV value of 0 (comfortable), the number of Interior air humidity 8
dissatisfied persons will still be 5% (Fig. B 1.56). With ambient temperatures of 20–22°C, the rel-
6
ative humidity of the interior air may fluctuate 5
European standards between 35 and 70% and still be perceived as 4
The methods contained in DIN 1946-2, CEN agreeable (Fig. B 1.62). In this comfort range, -2.0 -1.0 0 1.0 2.0
report CR 1752 and DIN EN ISO 7730 are cur- the perceived room temperature of a human Predicted mean vote (PMV) [-]
rently the most popular methods for evaluating being rises by 0.3 K for every 10% increase in B 1.56
the thermal interior climate. These assessment the humidity. Above 70% r.h., there is a risk of Perception Predicted mean vote (PMV)
methods, however, are primarily intended as an condensation and mould growth on cold exter- Cold -3
aid for designing HVAC installations; there is no nal components without good thermal insula-
Cool -2
separate directive or standard for assessing tion (Fig. B 1.64). A relative humidity below
Acceptably cool -1
the climatic comfort with natural ventilation. 35%, on the other hand, promotes dust accu-
In DIN 1946-2 [11] the guide values for the mulation and electrostatic charges in compo- Neutral (comfortable) 0
“operative” temperature – also called the per- nents, which can be very unpleasant in the Acceptably warm 1
ceived temperature – are always related to the case of floor finishes and metal items with Warm 2
concurrent external air temperature (Fig. B which people come into contact. As a result, Hot 3
1.65). A rapid rise or fall in the external air tem- the recommended value for the interior air B 1.57
perature must therefore be compensated for by humidity is 40–60%. In order to rule out a “bar-
Summer Winter
the HVAC installation. The new edition of DIN racks climate” – ambient conditions regarded
(cooling period) (heating period)
EN 13779 [12] refers to the recommendations as disagreeable due to high temperature and
of DIN EN ISO 7730 for non-residential build- moisture fluctuations – right from the planning CEN CR 1752
ings with HVAC installations. DIN EN ISO 7730 phase, adequate thermal masses are required Category A 24.5 °C ±1.0 22.0 °C ±1.0
[13] can be used to create new and assess for interiors (see p. 158). Category B 24.5 °C ±1.5 22.0 °C ±2.0
existing ambient climates. It is based on the Category C 24.5 °C ±2.5 22.0 °C ±3.0
PMV model and recommends maintaining a Air movements
DIN EN ISO 7730 24.5 °C ±1.5 22.0 °C ±2.0
comfort range between -0.5 < PMV < +0.5 (Fig. The movement of the air in a room also exerts a
B 1.56), which corresponds to a PPD of 10%. noticeable influence on a person’s heat balance B 1.58
As these ambient conditions can only be and hence his or her well-being. DIN EN ISO
B 1.51 Temperature distribution in the body for different
achieved through the use of HVAC installations, 7730 includes recommended values for air ambient temperatures
the planned new edition of the standard will velocities in conjunction with the degree of tur- B 1.52 Heat losses from the body for different interior air
permit higher temperatures – similar to Fig. B bulence of the airflow because airflows with temperatures (office work)
1.58, category C – in the case of natural venti- changing directions and velocities reinforce the B 1.53 Perceived temperature for different enclosing
surfaces temperatures
lation. CEN report CR 1752 [14] defines interior feeling of draughts. At an interior air tempera-
B 1.54 Recommended values for the human air, heat
quality categories (A–C). Whereas there are ture of 20°C, air velocities as low as 0.15 m/s and moisture balance
very tight limits for rooms with demanding may be regarded as unpleasant (Fig. B 1.63). B 1.55 Accident frequency and productivity in relation
specifications (category A, PPD < 6%), greater If, however, the interior air temperature is above to the interior temperature for sedentary activities
temperature fluctuations are permitted in rooms 23°C, a higher air velocity can help to generate B 1.56 PPD value in relation to PMV value
B 1.57 Assessment scale for the predicted mean vote
with less demanding specifications (category a pleasant environment by dissipating body (PMV)
C, PPD < 15%). heat. Draughts in the finished building can be B 1.58 Requirements regarding the operative interior
avoided by ensuring – during the planning temperature for sedentary activities

57
Fundamentals
Wall temperature tw [°C]

Ceiling temperature tD [°C]

Floor temperaturetFB [°C]
30 30 40
Uncomfortably hot Uncomfortably hot
28 28 38
Comfort zone
26 26 36 Acceptable
23
°C
24 24 34
te =21°C Comfortable
22 22 32

20 20 30
19 Com-
18 °C 18 28
2 K Acceptable fortable
16 /m 16 26
W ta =-10 °C
.2
14 =0
U 0. 5 14 24
Uncomfortably cold
12 1.0 12 22 Uncom-
1.5
10 10 20 fortably cold
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Interior air temperature tL [°C] Interior air temperature tL [°C] Interior air temperature tL [°C]
B 1.59 B 1.60 B 1.61
phase and particularly during construction – the feeling of safety and security all improve. affect our spatial perception depending on the
that all details are airtight. But the physical boundary conditions of our angle of incidence or reflection of the light. Light
power of sight also contribute substantially to striking bright materials at a shallow angle can
All the factors that influence the thermal com- our well-being. The human eye perceives the cause them to take on a sculpted look, whereas
fort also have a direct effect on the energy con- electromagnetic radiation of sunlight over a dark surfaces tend to appear two-dimensional
sumption of buildings. Low flow velocities in range of wavelengths from approx. 380 nm owing to the minimal contrast. Due to their better
ventilation systems save energy and improve (violet light) to approx. 780 nm (red light). Above reflection properties, bright surfaces improve the
the well-being of occupants. Higher internal all, the visual cortex in the brain processes the lighting efficiency and optimise the effects of
surface temperatures brought about by good excitation patterns coming from the eye as a both daylight and artificial lighting.
thermal insulation measures improve the well- result of its reaction to light and colour. Optimum
being of people and prevent transmission heat visual comfort for working areas is guaranteed Colours
losses (Fig. B 1.53). External components with when the luminance at the place of work (ambi- The colours of surfaces in a room promote
low U-values allow the interior air temperature ent luminance) is geared to the respective visu- associative references. Warm colours are stim-
to be lowered without compromising comfort; al task (direct luminance). This can be accom- ulating and allow a facade, a room or an object
the heating requirement decreases by approx. plished, in principle, with daylight, artificial light to appear smaller. In contrast to this, cold colours
6% for every 1 K reduction in temperature. or a combination of both. However, natural day- create distance and enlarge the impression of
Current studies show that the type of ventilation light creates more comfortable conditions space. We perceive colours not only visually,
has a critical influence on the well-being of because it includes all the colours of the spec- but also subjectively – our perception of hot
occupants [15]. In buildings with natural venti- trum. Visual comfort is influenced by a number and cold can be influenced noticeably by the
lation, an average of 20% of users experience of factors with relevance for energy consumption. colours of our surroundings. For example, tests
the interior climate as unpleasant; this figure have established that rooms painted in a cold
rises to 34% in buildings with partial condition- Illuminance colour, e.g. blue-green, reduced the tempera-
ing of the interior air, and 54% in fully air-condi- The luminous flux is measured in lumens [lm]. ture perception of test persons by approx. 3°C.
tioned buildings. Furthermore, persons who It describes the entire light output emitted by a A room painted orange, on the other hand,
regard the interior climate as unhealthy are 2.6 light source. On the other hand, the illuminance, raised the subjective temperature perception.
times more likely to suffer from sick building measured with the unit lux [lx], describes the This can be explained by the physiological
syndrome. luminous flux incident on a certain surface. The effects of the colour on the human organism,
The possibility of influencing the interior climate, directives specifying recommended illuminance leading to a marginal increase in pulse rate
to adapting it to individual needs, represents levels are in each case derived from the most and blood pressure. A uniform, monotonous
another important factor that influences the satis- difficult visual task is to be expected. colour scheme based on a simple, physiologi-
faction of users. These possibilities include: cal colour effect should, however, be avoided.
• opening windows Glare Only a composition made up of harmonising
• individually controlled sunshades and glare Besides a reasonable illuminance, appropriate colours leads to an overall impression that will
protection contrast is also necessary for agreeable condi- be regarded as pleasant.
• fans (used locally in summer) tions. The luminance [cd/m2] defines the lumi-
• thermostat valves nous flux emitted from an illuminated surface. Colour rendering
• regulation of the interior air Absolute glare in humans is the result of exces- The visual perception of the human being is
sive luminance (> 104 cd/m2), whereas relative calibrated to natural sunlight. The changing
In a comparison of mechanically and naturally glare is caused by excessive contrast. Ideally, spectrum of the light over the course of a day
ventilated rooms, the aforementioned studies the luminance conditions for a specific visual controls, for example, the daily rhythm and the
reveal that people in a naturally ventilated envi- task, the immediate surroundings and the wider functions of the organs. Distorting the spectrum
ronment accept a wider range of temperatures; environment should not exceed a ratio of 10:3:1. can have detrimental effects on our perception
the statutory comfort limits can therefore be Bright wall and ceiling surfaces increase the and well-being. The prevailing colour of the
expanded. reflections from the surroundings and reduce light for normal activities should therefore be
the risk of relative glare by creating a more con- natural or nearly natural. The glazing should not
Visual comfort sistent distribution of the luminance (Fig. B 1.67). alter the frequency pattern of the light any more
Visible perception generates the formation of an than is unavoidable (see p. 155, and Fig. B 5.25).
identity via the unmistakability of the design. If Angle of light and contrast
the information users require is easily available, The colour of the light, the colour rendering, the
well-being, orientation abilities, productivity and direction of the light and the colour of surfaces

58
 Fundamentals

50

Air velocity at head height v [cm/s]

Relative humidity ϕ [%]

Relative humidity ϕ [%]

100 100
90
Uncomfortably moist Growth conditions
80 40 90

70
Uncomfortable
60 30 80
Comfortable
50

40 20 70
Germination
30
Acceptable Comfortable
Uncomfortably
20 10 60
dry
10 Uncomfortable

0 0 50
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 10 20 30 40 50
Interior air temperature tL [°C] Interior air temperature tL [°C] Interior air temperature tL [°C]
B 1.62 B 1.63 B 1.64
Acoustic comfort type of use, e.g. 25 dB(A) for recording studios B 1.59 Comfort in relation to interior air temperature,
Our auditory perception is based on the trans- or opera houses, 35 dB(A) for offices. average enclosing surfaces temperature and
U-value of building envelope
mission of vibrations of the ambient air (airborne B 1.60 Comfort in relation to interior air and floor tempe-
sound) or solid bodies (structure-born sound). Reverberation times ratures
Noise pollution can even occur at low sound The reverberation time describes the acoustic B 1.61 Comfort in relation to interior air and ceiling tem-
pressure levels, disturbing sleep and relaxa- properties of a room. A minimal reverbertion peratures
B 1.62 Comfort in relation to interior air temperature and
tion, and impairing productivity. The acoustic time (up to 50 ms) helps ensure legibility of
relative humidity
comfort of a room depends on a number of speech. In the case of music, a medium rever- B 1.63 Comfort in relation to interior air temperature and
parameters, e.g. the sound level of external beration time (approx. 80 ms) improves clarity, air velocity near the body
noise, the sound reduction index of the building whereas long reverberation times favour a volu- B 1.64 Conditions for mould growth
envelope, noises from the building services, minous sound (Fig. B 1.66). B 1.65 Permissible temperature ranges to DIN 1946-2
for the design of HVAC installations
the shape and/or size of a room, and the sur- B 1.66 Recommended reverberation times according to
face characteristics of the enclosing surfaces Olfactory comfort room function
and the furniture. The human sense of smell, besides allowing us B 1.67 Recommended degrees of reflection for surfaces
to recognise food that is no longer edible, pri- to EN 12464-1
Sound marily serves us in our social communications,
Sound is propagated as a result of the smallest for controlling our vegetative or hormonal pro-
pressure and density fluctuations in an elastic cesses. The mucous membrane responsible for
medium (e.g. air, solid body). We distinguish smell in the upper nasal cavity has more than
between infrasound (< 20 Hz), audible sound 350 different types of receptor at its disposal,
(20 – 20 000 Hz), ultrasound (20 Hz – 1 GHz) which can separate out the odour molecules
Operative interior temp. [°C]

28
and hypersound (> 1 GHz), with the human from the air and register them chemically. As
being best being able to perceive the sounds our sense of smell can differentiate between 26
briefly
in the range from 1000 to 5000 Hz. Like light, several thousand odours (but cannot name them
recommended
sound is transmitted in the form of absorption, all completely), we distinguish between seven 24
reflection and dissipation (conversion into main odour categories: flowery, ethereal, musk-
heat). In addition, we distinguish between noise like, camphor-like, putrid, sweaty and pungent. 22
and sounds, the former being regarded as dis- Besides the three main constituents of the air, for displacement
ventilation
turbing acoustic events (e.g. traffic noise) and nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and argon (0.9%),
20
the latter being able to awaken associations there are many other trace elements (e.g. car- 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
and hence have a positive influence on our bon dioxide, hydrogen and other noble gases) External air temperature [°C]
acoustic well-being. plus foreign substances. The quality of the inte-
B 1.65
rior air is influenced by various factors, e.g. the
Acoustic power, weighted sound pressure level composition of the external air, furnishings, fit-
The sound pressure level [Lp] represents a log- tings and building materials plus the usage- Room function Reverberation time
arithmic scale for describing sound events and related contamination by people. Guaranteeing [ms]
is specified in decibels [dB]. The measurable pleasant and healthy interior air calls for an
Office 35
range of sound pressure levels stretches adequate supply of fresh air plus the extraction
roughly from 0 to 160 dB. A sound pressure of CO2, moisture, pollutants and odours. Owing Classroom 40 – 60
level difference of 3 dB can be readily per- to the high importance of the air quality for Opera house 130 – 160
ceived at moderate to high volumes and fre- health and productivity, the maximum work- Organ music 250 – 300
quencies. Differences of 10 dB are perceived place concentration values stipulate appropri-
B 1.66
as being roughly “twice as loud”. In order to ate recommended values for the maximum per-
emulate the human perception of loudness as missible quantities of hazardous substances.
Building component Degree of reflection
closely as possible, the sensory impression of Since 2005 further statutory values have also
the frequency response is taken into account been valid in Germany: the workplace limit Ceiling 60 – 90 %
by using the weighted sound pressure level value and the biological limit value. Wall 30 – 80 %
[dB(A)] instead of the straightforward sound When assessing the interior air, both the CO2 Work surface 20 – 60 %
level [dB]. Specific maximum dB(A) values are concentration and the indicators olf and
Floor 10 – 50 %
specified for disturbing noise depending on the decipol [dp] are relevant. The CO2 production
B 1.67

59
Fundamentals

Requirement Boundary condition Service Energy themes

Creation of comfortable temperature External temperature (-20 to +40°C) Heating and cooling
Heating
Creation of comfortable brightness Brightness (0–10 000 lx) Lighting

Safeguarding good air quality Air consumption (15–130 m3/h p.p.) Ventilation (inlets/outlets) Cooling

Creating comfortable humidity Humidity (0–100%) Humidification/dehumidification

Ventilation
Provision of hot water Drinking water provision (approx. 10°C) Heating of drinking water

Operation of electrical equipment Efficiency of equipment Provision of electricity Lighting

Provision of process heat Efficiency of process Production of process heat

Electricity
Provision of process cooling Efficiency of process Production of process cooling
B 1.68
of a person fluctuates, depending on activity, ever, to maintain a certain temperature range, hence is retained for as long as possible. As –
between 7 and 75 l per hour and is a major fac- which results in the corresponding services despite all efforts – the provision of heat is nec-
tor in the deterioration of the interior air quality. “heating” and, possibly, “cooling” too. Likewise, essary in many instances, the efficient produc-
It was back in the 19th century that the hygiene the brightness varies from virtually 0 lx in the tion, storage, distribution and transfer of heat
expert Max Josef von Pettenkofer defined the night to about 100 000 lx on a sunny day, must be guaranteed. In all these areas, but
recommended value of 0.1% by vol. for the which results in the need for the service “light- especially in the production, there is the poten-
CO2 content, a value that is still valid today as a ing”. The use of enclosed interiors by human tial to realise a low-CO2 or even a neutral-CO2
measure of agreeable interior air conditions. beings results in a certain “air consumption” overall concept by using renewable energy
Legislation covering CO2 concentrations plus because of corresponding emissions. The aim sources. Numerous technologies are available
details of the air change rates required can be is, however, to maintain a constant, high air for using biomass, solar thermal systems and
found in the chapter entitled “Building services” quality in the ideal case. This calls for a specific heat pumps in a variety of ways.
(see p. 133). The indicators olf and decipol can exchange of air by way of the service “ventila- When it comes to cooling, the initial aim should
also be used to assess the quality of the air. tion” (inward and outward airflows). If the be to plan building and construction measures
Whereas the olf identifies the strength of odour humidity of the air is to remain between certain such that overheating of habitable rooms is
sources (e.g. people, animals, plants, emissions limit values, the service “humidification and avoided. If cooling is nevertheless necessary,
from materials, etc.), the decipol – a measure dehumidification” is necessary. requirements and options here are similar to
of the perceived odour emissions – also includes Normally, the temperature of fresh-water sup- the provision of heat. It is primarily the systems
the airflow. The quality of the air in a room lies plies to buildings is about 10°C. In order to cre- that use the cooling potential of the ground and
between 0.7 and 2.5 dp depending on the ate agreeable usage conditions, especially for groundwater, also solar-powered cooling sys-
usage requirements. Besides the quality of the personal hygiene purposes, this drinking water tems, that offer the most favourable perspec-
air in interiors, emissions of pollutants from has to be heated accordingly. And there is also tives for the cooling of buildings.
building materials can have a considerable the need to operate electrical equipment, e.g. In order to guarantee an appropriate air quality,
effect on the health and well-being of users or escalators and lifts, tools and machines, tele- an easily regulated natural exchange of air
occupants. Further information can be found in communications, household appliances, etc. should be the first priority. Usage-related situa-
the chapter entitled “Materials” (see p. 171). For industrial users, these requirements are tions and measures for reducing the heating
supplemented by process-related heating and and cooling energy requirements can, however,
Energy services cooling requirements. render it necessary to provide a mechanical
The creation of comfortable living or working Whereas the climatic boundary conditions spe- backup for ensuring a supply of fresh air. Early
conditions and satisfying the aforementioned cific to the location can hardly be influenced, coordination between ventilation requirements
comfort conditions calls for intelligent planning there is considerable leeway in the user-related and building measures (e.g. exhaust air chan-
of buildings with a much higher energy efficiency. requirements. For example, the maximum per- nelled through an atrium or double-leaf facade)
Nevertheless, an energy input will remain nec- missible air temperature in summer has a deci- for the fresh-air supply will result in synergy
essary in most climate zones. The magnitude of sive influence on the extent of the energy service effects. In many cases technical components
the energy consumption during the period of “cooling”. Likewise, the behaviour of users with for heat recovery contain considerable poten-
use must be considered in addition to the design respect to heating, ventilation, lighting or the tial for savings.
of the building and building envelope, the cli- use of hot water has a decisive influence on the The primary challenge for the lighting theme is
matic boundary conditions, the technology use of energy-relevant services. In this respect, to improve the use of daylight. The technical
employed and, of course, the comfort demands a fundamental questioning of needs is indis- optimisation of artificial lighting is another worth-
plus the behaviour of occupants and users. pensable – in cooperation with the users. Devi- while factor, e.g. through differentiation in the
ations from the technically feasible optimum illuminance levels, the installation of low-energy
Demands and needs are sensible; users should, however, explicitly lighting and good controls.
The energy requirement in a building is princi- agree to restrictions based on economic and/or Electrical power requirements in addition to
pally due to boundary conditions and user-re- ecological reasoning (e.g. natural ventilation). those required for operating artificial lighting
lated requirements, which trigger, directly or In order to create comfortable conditions and and HVAC systems are essentially determined
indirectly, energy-relevant services that are in be able to handle the needs of users and utili- by the needs of users and the amount of elec-
the first place independent of architectural sation properly, we must distinguish between trical equipment installed in the building. How-
parameters (Fig. B 1.68). five different energy themes: heating, cooling, ever, a considerable influence can be exerted
In Central Europe, the temperature of the exter- lighting, ventilation and electricity (Fig. B 1.69). on the energy-efficiency targets during the
nal air varies between -20 and +40°C. The In terms of the thermal balance, the provision of planning process. Furthermore, there is great
user-related comfort requirements strive, how- heating must ensure that heat is not lost and potential embodied in decentralised electricity

60
 Fundamentals

Energy themes Minimising energy requirement Optimising energy supply

Heating Maintaining heat Efficient heat gains

Cooling Avoiding overheating Efficient heat dissipation

Ventilation Natural ventilation Efficient mechanical ventilation

Lighting Use of daylight Optimising artificial lighting

Electricity Efficient use of electricity Decentralised electricity generation

B 1.69
generation through co-generation plants and References:
building envelopes with active solar energy [1] Status as of 2000
[2] Meadows, Donella; Meadows, Dennis; Zahn, Erich;
systems. Milling, Peter: The Limits to Growth. A Report for the
Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Man-
Level of technology kind. New York, 1972
The question regarding the extent to which [3] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC):
Fourth Assessment Report. Summary for Policy-
energy services need to be provided by way of
makers (AR4). 2007
technical systems depends on the type of utili- [4] Schellnhuber, Joachim, cited in Lebert, Stephan:
sation and the level of requirements, and, criti- Ein Mann läuft Sturm. In: Die Zeit, 37/2005
cally, on the building form, the building enve- [5] Stern, Nicolas: The Economics of Climate Change.
lope and the choice of materials as well. Two A report prepared on behalf of the UK Treasury. 2006
[6] Nitsch, Joachim: Leitstudie 2007. Aktualisierung und
different strategies can be pursued here: Neubewertung der Ausbaustrategie Erneuerbare
One is centred around the respective techno- Energien bis zu den Jahren 2020 und 2030 mit Aus-
logical means to guarantee optimum function- blick bis 2050. Study carried out on behalf of the
ing, although numerous energy installations, Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conser-
vation & Nuclear Safety (BMU). 2007
flaps, valves, sensors, etc. enable an adaptive
[7] Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conser-
behaviour. These are controlled by a complex vation & Nuclear Safety (BMU): Renewable energy
computer program which guarantees the opti- sources in figures – national and international develop-
mum regulation strategy depending on the cli- ment. 2007
matic boundary conditions and the behaviour [8] Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conser-
vation & Nuclear Safety (BMU): Renewable Energies
of users. Comfortable interior conditions can be – Innovation for the Future. 2004, p. 15
achieved through optimised technical building [9] Lauer, Wilhelm: Klimatologie. Braunschweig, 1995
services in nearly every building and at any [10] Schütze, Thorsten; Willkomm, Wolfgang: Klima-
location. gerechtes Bauen in Europa. Planungsinstrumente für
klimagerechte, energiesparende Gebäudekonzepte
The other strategy aims to design the building
in verschiedenen europäischen Klimazonen. Ham-
in such a way that through urban planning stip- burg Polytechnic research project, with a focus on
ulations, a building form and envelope opti- interdisciplinary research into “Planungsinstrumente
mised for the energy needs, the layout and für das umweltverträgliche Bauen”, Department of
choice of materials, the desired conditions – if Architecture & Civil Engineering, final report, 2000
[11] DIN 1946-2: Ventilation and air conditioning; techni-
necessary with minor compromises with respect cal health requirements (VDI ventilation rules). 1994
to the optimum – can be achieved with a mini- [12] DIN EN 13779: Ventilation for non-residential build-
mum of technology. ings – Performance requirements for ventilation and
The expressions “high-tech” and “low-tech” room-conditioning systems. 2005
respectively have been become established for [13] DIN EN ISO 7730: Ergonomics of the thermal environ-
ment – Analytical determination and interpretation of
these two strategies. As neither of these theo- thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and
ries can be implemented alone, as with most PPD indices and local thermal comfort criteria. 1995
things in life, a coordinated interaction of both [14] CEN report CR 1752: Ventilation for buildings –
strategies, which gives priority to the so-called Design criteria for the indoor environment. 1998
[15] Hellwig, Runa Tabea: Thermische Behaglichkeit.
passive or cybernetic (self-regulating) systems, Unterschiede zwischen frei und mechanisch
usually produces the best result. belüfteten Bürogebäuden aus Nutzersicht. Disser-
tation, Munich Technical University, 2005

B 1.68 Boundary conditions, requirements, services and

energy themes
B 1.69 The 10 components of energy-optimised build-
ing according to energy themes

61
Urban space
and infrastructure

B 2.1
Buildings must always be considered in conjunc- households call for other models of urban life
tion with their surroundings. Numerous factors and generate a changing structure with respect
such as climate, landscape, topography, neigh- to demands.
bouring buildings, traffic and infrastructure
have an effect on every building or structure The history of land use
and determine the urban context plus the energy In the towns of the Middle Ages, work was car-
available. In addition, architecture is usually ried out on the ground floor of the house and
incorporated into a complex network of supply the upper floors were used as living accommo-
and disposal systems. And this networking dation. Farmers working in the surrounding
covers not just the technical infrastructure, but region were often integrated into the urban
also social and cultural amenities that guaran- structure. The town grew by transferring opera-
tee mobility, communication and other servic- tions requiring considerable space, e.g. farm-
es. This is consistent with the technical and yards, beyond the town’s borders.
economical rationale plus the nature of human Industrialisation and the associated growth in
beings as social creatures who rely on neigh- the populations of the towns resulted in a rapid
bourhoods, on social and cultural services. increase in demand for space, which led to
Finally, the high division of labour in our employ- dense grid layouts that still dominate whole
ment structures render necessary the need for urban districts even today. In doing so, open
access to workplaces, trade and industry. and public spaces were reduced to a mini-
Dense urban structures are generally best suited mum. Such small-format space efficiency gave
to the energy-efficient, economic provision of rise to, typical in Berlin for example, the large
services and operation of buildings. Besides rooms in the corners of these perimeter hous-
planning to suit the location and the provision ing block + inner courtyard layouts which, how-
of the technical infrastructure, the efficient use ever, suffered from a lack of daylight. Although
of land is critical for the energy-related optimi- this very high-density development covered
sation of buildings and urban spaces. housing needs, hygiene requirements were vir-
tually ignored.
The value of open spaces and recreational
Land use functions became obvious. The ideal image of
living in the countryside initially gave rise to
The use of the land, as a finite resource, has new “garden cities”, which were situated out-
always been characterised by various interests side the towns themselves and created the first
and the demand for efficient utilisation. In terms neighbourhood centres in the urban spaces.
of land use, buildings and infrastructure have As an answer to overpopulated structures, poor
to compete with the production of foodstuffs health conditions and the lack of open spaces,
and energy, the supply of raw materials, the the slogan “air, light and sun” became the
conservation of nature, the landscape and proclamation of the urban planners and archi-
diversity of species, plus many other functions. tects of the 1920s. For example, clearances
Within built-up areas, further uses and issues between buildings were defined so that all hab-
B 2.1 Reflection creates the illusion of a larger space, compete for space. These are driven by social itable rooms had access to sunlight, and the
residential development as infill development and notions of value and technical requirements, by first courtyard clearances of perimeter blocks
to close off a perimeter block, Paris (F), 2000, public or individual economic interests. Always took place (Fig. B 2.29).
Herzog & de Meuron
playing a central role in this with regard to effi- The CIAM “Athens Charter” dating from 1933
B 2.2 Development of the heating energy requirement of
buildings according to year of construction and ciency is the pattern of development with was an attempt to solve the problem through a
their proportion in the German building stock respect to the land use. The prototypical mod- comprehensive restructuring of towns and cit-
B 2.3 Energy consumption in Germany according to els of urban spaces organised along monocen- ies. In particular, the demands for generous
sector (2005) tric, polycentric and sectoral lines, or the so- open areas for citizens, a strengthening of the
B 2.4 Pictorial representation of the demands of the
CIAM “Athens Charter”, 1933
called Zwischenstädte (“neither city nor land- individual functions and an increase in the
B 2.5 Relationship between density of building and scape” – Thomas Sieverts) provide only initial order in the system formed the basis for urban-
energy consumption for selected cities reference points. Falling populations and smaller planning objectives (Fig. B 2.4). The neigh-

62
 Urban space and infrastructure
Heating energy requirement [kWh / m2 a]

300 until 1918 1919−48 1949−57 1958−68 1969−77 a b c d e a 1st Thermal Insulation
Act, 1977
250 b 2nd Thermal Insulation
Act, 1984 15.7 %
26.8 %
c 3rd Thermal Insulation

State of the art

200 Act, 1995
d Energy Conservation
150 Act (EnEV), 2002,
revised 2007 28.8 %
e Passive-energy house
100 standard 28.7 %
Industry
Traffic
50 Households
Commercial,
0 trade,
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 services
Housing stock [%]
B 2.2 B 2.3
bourhood centres themselves became towns, identity at IBA Emscher Park or the new lakes
which were given functional designations, e.g. landscape near Cottbus (D) at IBA Fürst-Pückler-
residential estates. Land on the one hand pursue the use of energy
However, the clear demarcation of uses contra- normal up to now, but on the other create images
dicts the structural concept of the urban system of a new future (see “Materials”, p. 167). They
as such. Synergies between the individual uses are the symbols of energy-efficient and sustain-
can no longer form, structures have to be able development in which the negative conse-
doubled, needs met in duplicate. Traffic is the quences of earlier activities are processed and
result, which wastes space, time and energy transformed into a new added-value.
(Fig. B 2.5). Secondary effects are the increas-
ing environmental impacts in urban develop- Density and energy
ments and the lower quality of life for inhabitants. A comparison of the per head energy consump-
The decrease in the consumption of land creates tion of various cities reveals a clear relationship
density, enables a compact town, where every- between density and energy efficiency. Dense-
thing is within reach, and an efficient use of ly populated cities exhibit an energy consump-
energy. Sensibly sized small centres cover tion reduced by a factor of eight. But with more
daily needs, special constructional require- than 75 persons per hectare, the effect of den-
ments such as museums can also serve exotic sity on energy consumption begins to weaken,
requests. With such an image of its ideal, the and when the population density exceeds 150
town is clearly demarcated from the surround- persons per hectare, only a small saving is still
ing open spaces, which are responsible for possible (Fig. B 2.5).
foodstuffs, nature and energy supplies. These
open-space qualities at the same time repre- New building work and energy
sent high usage qualities. Land use optimised In principle, a high-density form of construction
for energy and space requirements also ensures should therefore be encouraged for new build-
a sustainable development of the space through ing work. The energy requirements of a build- B 2.4
Annual oil consumption per inhabitant [l]

80000
diverse qualities. ing increase, however, with its height. Increased
structural requirements reduce the internal Houston
Energy and space space available and increase the amount of Phoenix
Biogenic energy sources enable the re-establish- energy tied up in the building materials. Energy- Detroit
ment of local jobs in rural areas, the diversifica- consuming means of access (e.g. lifts) and the
tion and stabilisation those areas, the creation need for mechanical ventilation consume addi- 60000
Los Angeles
of additional sources of income and the closure tional space and energy. San Francisco
of the life cycles of diverse materials. The pro- Washington DC
duction of energy is no longer reduced to a Building stock and energy Chicago
centrally controlled coverage of needs, but Existing buildings represent a long-term resource New York
instead allows specific solutions based on local in urban areas which attracts about 80% of 40000
Melbourne
circumstances. building investments at present. It would seem Adelaide
This represents a breakthrough in the way of obvious to reduce their energy consumption in Sydney
looking at rural and urban areas common hith- the course of such measures in the building Toronto

erto – frequently reduced to agglomerations. stock. The savings potential can be increased
These areas, very different in terms of their by a factor of 10 for residential buildings (Fig.
20000
structures and layouts, achieve equivalence B 2.2), even more for special uses such as Paris
Zurich
Frankfurt
through this approach, without losing their own swimming pools. London
identity. Every space occupies a certain central Refurbishment (adapting to the current techni- Amsterdam
Vienna
Singapore
function in the supply chain. cal standards) and modernisation (increasing
This does not imply a romanticised “back to the market value) have a mutual influence on Hong Kong
Moscow
nature” attitude. Even contaminated sites and each other. Energy-efficiency upgrades result 0
wasteland can achieve new qualities. For in a simultaneous increase in the standard of 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
example, the “landmarks” for reinforcing local comfort, which without the simultaneous improve- Density of building [persons/ha]
B 2.5

63
Urban space and infrastructure

Historical form Typical roof form B 2.6 Traditional building typologies according to
climate zones:
a Cold
b Temperate
a 96 % 100 % c Dry, hot
d Moist, warm
B 2.7 Transmission heat losses of various three-
dimensional shapes with the same volume
B 2.8 Schematic drawings of infill development
b 98 % 133 % arrangements for housing
B 2.9 Orientation of the building for passive use of
solar energy, apartment block, Berlin (D), 1997,
Assmann Salomon & Scheidt
B 2.10 Orientation of the building for active use of solar
c 100 % 142 % energy, apartment block, Dornbirn (A), 1999,
Roland Gnaiger, Udo Mössler
B 2.11 Dense housing development, Hamburg (D),
1998, Atelier 5
B 2.12 Schematic presentation of the uses and propor-
d 112 % 200 % tions of a building according to climate zones
B 2.6 B 2.7
ment to the energy standard, cannot be fully structures for energy supplies must be exam- Social integration
effective. The following approaches are possible: ined to establish the options for converting In order to preserve and improve the attractive-
them to renewable energy media. Although the ness of the urban space, certain reactions are
• Modernisation: coordination of decentralised and centralised necessary with respect to demographic develop-
Modernisation enables an existing building energy production does bring with it an increased ments and changing social requirements.
with an old-fashioned interior layout to be need for technical controls, it does lead to These result in new objectives for building work:
adapted to existing standards of comfort. In greater reliability of supplies thanks to the vari-
energy terms, modernisation is based on ety of the products and services on offer. • Accessibility:
optimising the building envelope (see p. 82) Added to this is the merger of the consumption Barrier-free buildings enable all people to
and the building services (see p. 110). development and energy production which use them without any help from others.
• Conversion: today are still essentially separate. Within the • Identity:
Reusing buildings preserves the established building, the passive and active use of energy Urban spaces and buildings with an individual
picture of the town and at the same time the sources must in future be coordinated (Figs. character promote identity. They preserve
energy tied up in the building materials. If 2.9 and 2.10). However, energy flows and and strengthen local characteristics and con-
related to usage, conversion results in a bet- needs cannot remain restricted to just single tribute to spatial diversity. Private, semi-public
ter coverage of needs in urban areas and buildings. In the medium-term, the boundaries and public spaces enable the formation of
can contribute to increasing the utilisation of the audits must be expanded to groups of identities on different levels (Fig. B 2.11).
density. buildings, even whole city districts. • Integration:
• Infill development: The ever-greater segregation within social
Infill development satisfies the same require- Usage integration structures can, for example, be counteracted
ments as conversion and also creates addi- The provision of services is crucial for the sus- by diverse, mixed, adaptable housing styles
tional living and working spaces (Fig. B 2.1). tainable development of urban structures. linked via neighbourly help. Places for meet-
It can close up the boundaries of plots, Mixed usage always has a positive effect on ing and communication indoors and outdoors
exploit the depth of plots better, or raise the energy consumption because traffic can be encourage the social exchange.
height of existing structures and contribute to avoided. If a demand cannot be met locally • Co-determination:
preserving the density of population with a (local traffic), people travel to another urban Attractiveness, diversity of spaces and,
higher standard of living and falling house- space in order to meet that demand (regional above all, identification are founded on the
hold sizes (Fig. B 2.8). traffic). Large supermarkets, for example, have chances for those involved to exert their influ-
catchment areas that can extend up to 200 km. ence. Planning processes must therefore be
Sustainable space development Regional traffic in excess of 20% leads to ener- designed with the necessary openness (see
The urban space can only function due to the gy, resources or economic strength being lost “Strategies”, p. 188).
interaction of building functions, open spaces from a region [1]. The attractiveness of an area,
and the networking with neighbouring spaces. in the end decided by the people themselves,
Urban spaces are these days very heterogene- is therefore necessary for its economic survival.
ous – in terms of both their use of the land and “Business Improvement Districts” (BID), which
their supply structures. Strengthening the hetero- since 2007 have also been anchored in Ger-
geneity and individuality increases the appeal many’s Federal Building Code, try, for example,
of the space on energy, usage and social levels. to strengthen inner-city zones through a strong-
A sustainable development is based on bring- er coupling between needs and users. On the Extra storey Expansion Extension
ing together different requirements and inter- other hand, the aim is to preserve ecological
ests in order to cover overriding needs in an qualities like, for example, biodiversity. Open
integrative way and to preserve local qualities. spaces linked to each other and helping to
define the urban area merge habitats for flora
Energy integration and fauna and at the same time improve the
The “big shot” in efficiency desired most of all recreation and leisure opportunities for inhabit-
by large-scale industry – with respect to a energy ants.
supplies solution reduced to technology (e.g. in
power station technology the concept of CO2
sequestration) – is not possible owing to the Perimeter Inner
diversified nature of the problems. All existing block infill courtyard infill
B 2.8

64
 Urban space and infrastructure

B 2.9 B 2.10 B 2.11

From the definition of sustainability according Macroclimate • Subtropical zone (dry, hot):
to Gro Halem Brundtland it becomes clear that Depending on the climate zone, the macro- The high day-night temperature fluctuations
property means not only wealth for the coming climate creates different conditions for human are compensated for by heavyweight build-
generations, but also problems [2]. Buildings well-being. The prevailing climate factors have ings with high thermal masses, e.g. made
are objects that outlive generations and should led to typical forms of construction in the indi- from stone or loam. The dense form of con-
therefore offer long-term useful value. The abil- vidual climate regions over the history of build- struction typical in towns enables buildings to
ity to adapt to changing needs and the planned ing (Fig. B 2.6): shade each other and cuts overheating due
changeability of buildings must be taken into to solar gains. The roof surfaces collect the
account accordingly and be seen as potential • Polar zone (cold): low rainfall; excess water contributes to cool-
added-value. And that applies not only to func- Traditional building forms in the cold climate ing via evaporation. Small windows allow only
tion and usage, but, in particular, to building zones frequently use the insulating effect of minimal solar radiation into the interior. The
services and energy supplies as well. wood. Roofs generally have a shallow pitch, principal rooms are usually located on the
which offers protection against cold winds ground floor, on the cool ground slab.
and in winter allows the snow to be retained • Tropical zone (moist, warm):
Planning to suit the location as an additional layer of insulation. Compact The permanently moist climate with its low
forms of construction are generally preferred temperature fluctuations over the course of
The prevailing climate at the site determines in the cold and temperate zones so that the the day renders integral thermal masses virtu-
the energy available and hence also the design ratio of the external surface area to the inter- ally ineffective. The conventional forms of
options (see “Fundamentals”, Fig. B 1.43). nal volume is as small as possible (A/V ratio, construction in the tropics are therefore usu-
Energy can be provided for buildings in various Fig. B 2.7). ally elevated, lightweight, timber structures.
ways. The building envelope serves to protect • Temperate zone: On the one hand, they protect against the
against the negative effects of the climate and, In temperate climates, transmission heat infiltration of moisture, on the other, they
if necessary, to obtain energy for the building losses and draughts require special attention. enable a cooling effect by way of the high air
from the environment (see “Building envelope”, Undesirable thermal effects are reduced by change rate. Roofs are steep and have gen-
p. 85). building dense, well-insulated walls, backed erous eaves to protect against rain and also
up by thermal masses. Roofs have a medium to provide shade. Solid walls would hinder the
pitch, which allows precipitation to drain circulation of cooling air and therefore they
away but at the same time offers little resist- are replaced by airy openings or lattice forms
ance to the wind. The higher the energy losses of construction.
through the thermal envelope, the greater is
the relevance of the compactness of the
building.

Positioning of Positioning of areas Optimum Positioning of Use of atria Energy-related

ancillary spaces with solar gains aspect ratio heavyweight parts a as solar trap market value
length:width of the building b for ventilation and cooling for atria

Cold 1: 1 a a

Temperate 1: 1.6 a

Dry 1: 2 b b

Tropical 1: 3 b
B 2.12

65
Urban space and infrastructure

Day Countercurrent

Sunrise (mountain breeze Sunset (valley breeze and

Warmer air and upslope current) downslope current)
Sea breeze over the land
Cooler air over
body of water Front of sea breeze

Night
Countercurrent
Midday (upslope current Middle of the night (downslope
and valley breeze) current and mountain breeze)

Cooler air
over the land
Warmer air over
body of water Land breeze
Late afternoon (valley breeze) Early morning, before sunrise
(valley breeze)
B 2.13 B 2.14 B 2.15
Even if traditional building typologies are often pressure; the cool air over the water then flows fact, towns and cities exhibit measurably higher
no longer in the position to satisfy today’s towards the land. At night, the temperature on temperatures than those of their environs.
needs, they still supply valuable design inspira- the land drops markedly, but not over the water These are caused by the – compared to the
tion and potential solutions. For example, the – the process reverses (Fig. B 2.14). surrounding countryside – higher degree of
typical positions for access, active solar sur- Similar effects, albeit much less significant, can absorption of urban surfaces and also by the
faces, orientation, thermal masses or atria can be experienced in the case of land masses fact that precipitation is drained away (in pipes)
still be derived for contemporary buildings with different surface features. A rougher ter- from urban spaces before it can evaporate
(Fig. B 2.12). rain results in lower wind speeds and more locally. This means that the groundwater is not
wind turbulence at ground level (Fig. B 2.19). replenished and so urban areas usually exhibit
Mesoclimate The particular topography can give rise to a lower water table. For urban areas, an unhin-
Different intensities of solar radiation cause increased exposure to or shading from the sun dered supply of fresh air especially and the
local temperature differences at the Earth’s sur- on certain surfaces, e.g. valley and mountain retention of precipitation are therefore impor-
face and in the layers of air near the ground. breezes (Fig. B 2.15). Together, these factors tant for the urban system.
Pressure differences ensuing as a result of form the central components of a local wind
those temperature differences generate areas system. Supply of fresh air
of high and low pressure, whereupon air starts The cooler air flowing from the surrounding
to flow from a high-pressure area to a low-pres- Urban climate countryside into the town near ground level
sure one in order to balance this difference. The urban climate is relevant for the majority of requires defined “flow channels” with less
Sea breezes, airflows due to the topography or construction projects (Fig. B 2.17). The high rough surfaces. Such flow channels can be
local thermal currents are the outcome. roughness of the built environment results in provided by, for example, river or stream
The governing factors are the solar absorption lower wind speeds in the atmosphere over courses, low or flat ground, traffic routes or
and thermal capacities of the Earth’s surface, towns and cities; the various types of usage open spaces. Buildings and structures and the
which become apparent in the extensive “mari- and the different surfaces increase the quantity intervening open spaces therefore define the
time climate” conditions on the coast or around of dust, which bonds more and more water system of urban ventilation. A green belt
large lakes. Water exhibits a very low albedo vapour. This is why more rain falls on urban around the city centre (e.g. London) or open
(global radiation reflection component) of areas than on rural districts, especially on the spaces radiating out from the city centre (e.g.
approx. 5%, i.e. it absorbs virtually all the inci- leeward side of the town. The increase in pre- Hamburg) have proved particularly useful (Fig.
dent energy (Fig. B 2.18). Owing to its high cipitation for Central European towns and cities B 2.16). The increasing density of development
thermal mass and the ensuing evaporative is approx. 10%. In addition, the risk of summer towards the city centre promotes the local wind
cooling effect, water heats up only very little thunderstorms is higher. system through the increased buoyancy. Some
during the day. Land masses heat up very Owing to the increased adiabatic cooling effect towns and cities are experiencing more and
much more rapidly and therefore the rising air available, urban areas should, theoretically, be more inversion weather conditions, i.e. a colder
(thermal currents) over the land leads to a low cooler than the surrounding countryside. But in layer of air gathers on top of the heated urban
City centre
Suburbs Taunus

B 2.13 Central Park, New York (USA) Forest

B 2.14 Sea breeze over the course of the day
B 2.15 Local winds over the course of the day
B 2.16 Schematic presentation of urban systems for
introducing fresh air using the example of Radial natural open Wiesbaden
Wiesbaden (D) spaces, e.g. Hamburg
B 2.17 Structure of the urban atmosphere plus principal
dependencies within the system
B 2.18 Albedo values of various surfaces
B 2.19 Wind speeds in relation to roughness α of terrain
and height above ground level
B 2.20 Schematic drawing of precipitation drainage in
the Kronsberg district of Hannover (D)
B 2.21 Body of water for part of the water supply and
adiabatic cooling of the outside air, motorway Concentric natural open
service station near Abbeville (F), 1998, spaces (green belt),
Bruno Mader e.g. London
B 2.16

66
 Urban space and infrastructure

Albedo [%]
Rural climate Urban climate Rural climate 100
90

Prevailing wind direction

80
Fresh White
Dust Increased snow paint
70
precipitation
Heating up
60
Old
snow
Evaporation 50
Fresh air Fresh air
Dry
40
sand Walls
Ice Red, brown,
30 green paint
Desert
Roofs
20
Mea- City,
Groundwater Roads dow town Forest
10
Water
0
B 2.17 B 2.18
atmosphere and virtually halts the exchange of water, retain water as a local potential and should be allowed to seep away. The type of
air with the surrounding countryside. To counter- have a positive effect on the town’s microcli- seepage surface depends on the type of soil.
act this, surfaces with different degrees of mate by way of increased evaporation (Fig. Infiltration ponds can be provided for seep-
absorption, which deliberately create thermal B 2.17): age, the size of which should be roughly
air movements, are necessary. 10–20% of the area to be drained. Gravel- or
Large parks and gardens within the urban area • Water retention: ballast-filled trenches with large void ratios
have a positive ventilating effect (e.g. Central Water can be retained centrally in basins or are frequently used as well. Such arrange-
Park in New York, Fig. B 2.13), which can be decentrally in cisterns, using man-made ments reduce the area required, increase the
further assisted by a network of interlinked structures or natural features. Decentralised short-term storage volume and enable a con-
natural open spaces. The incoming fresh air retention at the same time helps to reduce stant seepage capacity (Figs. B 2.24 and
from the surrounding countryside or parks con- the consumption of drinking water by using 2.25).
tains a higher proportion of biogenic suspended rainwater. Buffering quantities of water on • Evaporation:
matter such as pollen. But linking traffic routes green roofs or in shallow bodies of water In urban areas, shallow bodies of water and
and fresh-air channels results in a problem with improves the microclimate, prevents temper- vegetation, through their evaporation capaci-
ultrafine particles emitted from vehicle exhausts ature peaks and cuts the amount of dust in ty, help to reduce the quantities of waste
(e.g. oxides of nitrogen or sulphur), with the the atmosphere. Along rivers, generously water and also lower the temperature. At the
exhaust particles becoming attached to the sized flood relief channels provide the oppor- same time, they can be used for landscaping
pollen and converting these into allergens. tunity of increasing the storage capacity of purposes and therefore improve the general
shallow bodies of water, alleviating high- quality of life locally.
The hydrological cycle water peaks and improving the soil.
In the case of heavy rainfall, surface waters Microclimate
and drainage systems cannot cope with the • Restoration of unsealed ground: As part of a local, microclimatic appraisal, pro-
quantities of water involved, especially where Wherever possible, surfaces within urban tecting buildings against undesirable climate
ground sealing is widespread. In such situa- areas should be permeable to water. How- effects specific to the locality is an important
tions, larger pipe cross-sections and the con- ever, any possible contamination of the aspect. But the options for tapping environ-
struction of expensive rainwater retention basins groundwater through pollutants (oils etc.) mental energy are also important.
are often believed to be indispensable. How- carried into the ground with the water must
ever, altering the layout of open areas and be taken into account. The degree of perme- Solar exposure
buildings can render such highly expensive ability is defined by means of so-called run- High global radiation and long hours of sun-
technical systems more or less unnecessary off coefficients (Fig. B 2.22). shine indicate a very good potential for exploit-
(Figs. B 2.20 and 21). This approach includes • Seepage surfaces: ing energy gains, but also the possibility of
all measures that interrupt the hydrological Precipitation that is not fed back directly via overheating in buildings. In Germany the global
cycle only marginally, delay the draining of the surfaces into the hydrological cycle radiation incident on horizontal surfaces amounts
Height above ground level [m]

100 % 100 % 4 4 4 5
93% 93%
500

100% 90% 80% 1 1 1

400

300 2
Access road

Access road

3b
100 % 93% 82% 72%
200 3a

92 % 85% 72% 59%

100 3a 3a 3a 3a
86 % 76% 62% 49%
82 % 58% 40% 23%
0
Open Open Forests, City 1 Drainage and retention in the avenues on the slope
water ground suburbs centre 2 Storage
α= 0.1 α=0.16 α =0.22 α =0.35 3a Seepage 3b Retention areas at bottom of slope
4 Regulated system of drains
B 2.19 B 2.20 B 2.21

67
Urban space and infrastructure

Surface Run-off co-

efficient [-]
Roofs with pitch ≥ 15° 1.0 1
Concrete and asphalt surfaces 0.9
Paved surfaces 0.75
Gravel roofs, courtyards, promenades 0.5
Concrete paving, joints allowing seepage 0.40 2 Gravel Water take-off
(filter)
Granite paving, joints allowing seepage 0.33 2 Drainage
Rooftop gardens 0.3 pipe
Sand Back-
Play areas and sports grounds 0.25 substrate filling
(filter) Rainwater
Grass paving, chippings in joints 0.22 2 Geotextile tank (non-
Private gardens 0.15 if necessary
drinking
Non-cohesive water)
Allotments 0.05 backfilling
Parks/amenities adjacent to bodies of water 0
1
Corresponds to 100% water run-off
2
According to research findings
B 2.22 B 2.23 B 2.24
to approx. 1000 W/m2. The particularly benefi- reflection from which depends on the angle of be used to operate heat pumps all year round
cial direct radiation component accounts for incidence. The shallower the angle of the with a good degree of efficiency, provided
about 50% of this total incident radiation in incoming radiation, the higher is the reflection unshaded surfaces are available.
Central European latitudes, but only approx. component.
20% in Scandinavia. These values can vary Wind exposure
considerably depending on the climate zone Water as a microclimate regulator Buildings particularly exposed to the wind suf-
(see “Fundamentals”, p. 54). Water stores the component of the solar radia- fer from higher energy losses via their external
The microclimate conditions for construction tion that is not reflected. A pond next to the walls and roofs. Typical wind directions and
change depending on the location of the build- building, for instance, can help to regulate the speeds can be determined in a wind analysis.
ing within its topographical surroundings, the inflow of fresh air, reducing temperature peaks The wind effects that occur can also be estab-
vegetation and the neighbouring structures and ultimately leading to a reduced energy lished through flow simulations or wind tunnel
(Fig. B 2.27). Shading caused by other parts of requirement in the building (Fig. B 2.23). Gen- tests. Trees, hedges or walls, positioned at a
the same building or by neighbouring buildings erally, water retention and seepage, through certain distance ahead of the building in the
can be appraised by way of solar altitude angle enhanced adiabatic cooling capacity and stor- prevailing wind direction, can help to reduce
models. Such a model enables the efficiency of age capacity, has a positive effect on the the wind speeds acting on the building itself
both active and passive solar energy applica- microclimate. For example, the temperature (Fig. B 2.28). Direct planting on the facade has
tions to be determined, the exposure to sun- over green roofs in summer is approx. 35°C, only a low savings effect, amounting to approx.
light of rooms and open areas to be checked, over gravel roofs up to 70°C. 0.5% of the heating energy requirement. How-
and the necessary shading measures to be ever, such planting does reduce the ambient
designed. Soil temperature around the building owing to the
The design of external surfaces in the immedi- The soil near the surface absorbs the incident enhanced adiabatic cooling capacity, lowering
ate vicinity of the building can help to reinforce solar radiation. Its mass and water content the risk of overheating in summer and thus
the radiation on the building because reflective make it an efficient storage medium. As we go improving the interior comfort.
surfaces help to direct radiation and daylight deeper into the ground, so the temperature The pressure differences on different elevations
into the building. Suitable solutions here are remains more and more constant over the year, mean that the wind can contribute to the natu-
light-coloured pavings or bodies of water, the and so the soil, just like the groundwater, can ral ventilation of a building. In addition, various
constructional and technical options are avail-
able for using the wind, e.g. night purging (see
Seepage through the surface Infiltration pond
“Building envelope”, p. 101).

Building design
Energy losses can be minimised and energy
gains maximised through the design of the
building itself. The type and degree of use
define the corresponding requirements. For
Open gravel-filled trenches Infiltration pond plus gravel-filled trenches example, in housing, rooms and uses can be
arranged according to compass orientation
(Fig. B 2.29) and with sensible window areas
(see “Building envelope”, p. 90) in order to
achieve the desired solar gains and lighting
requirements. Microclimate factors in conjunc-
tion with usage requirements can help to struc-
ture the building in diverse ways.
Buried gravel-filled trenches with discrete inlets Infiltration pond plus gravel-filled trenches

B 2.25

68
 Urban space and infrastructure

B 2.22 Run-off coefficients to DIN 1986 South North South/West North/East

B 2.23 Water as a reflective surface, office and work-
shop building, Weidling (A), 2002, Reinberg
architectural practice
B 2.24 Typical rainwater tank with downstream seepage
for a private house
B 2.25 Schematic drawings of various types of seepage
B 2.26 The principles of thermal zoning in buildings
a Concentric arrangement
b Linear arrangement
c Storey arrangement
B 2.27 The effects of different topographical situations
on possible solar energy gains and losses due a b c
to the wind
B 2.28 Elements affecting the microclimate and their B 2.26
effects on the building
B 2.29 Preferred usage orientation in housing
Wind direction
N

Zoning in buildings
Usage zones can be arranged according to,
for example, temperature or daylight require-
ments, or even the preferences of users or
occupants. Thermal zoning is the most effec- Open location Protected Depression, South-facing Hilltop
(reference) location cold-air pool slope location
tive from the energy point of view: primary uses
are thermally insulated by adjacent buffer Difference in ± 0°C no data -3 °C + 2 °C -1 °C
ambient temperature
spaces or ancillary floor spaces (Fig. B 2.12). ±0%
Heat losses no data +25 % - 17 % +10 %
There are three principal zoning options for
Heat losses ±0% -50% no data +100 % + 100 %
buildings with a high heating requirement (e.g.
due to wind
residential buildings) (Fig. B 2.26):
B 2.27
• Concentric zoning: Solar radiation Minimal rise in temperature
Concentric zoning enables generous building
depths. Uses that need to be protected from
the climate, that require stable thermal condi- Wind speed
tions, are placed in the centre of the building. reduction
• Linear zoning: Evaporation Evaporation
Linear zoning is based on the orientation with
Evaporation
respect to the sun. The rooms with the great-
est lighting and heating requirements are Reflexion Planting on
positioned to face south, east or west, those facade
with lower or only sporadic heating require-
ments should face north.
• Storey zoning:
In a storey zoning approach, the rooms with
Water table Water seepage
high thermal requirements are normally
placed in the middle of a stack of storeys. B 2.28

Positioning thermal masses Utility rooms

Larder, pantry
The advantages of climatic zoning can be fur- Entrance, staircase
ther improved by paying special attention to Storage rooms
the positioning of the thermal masses (Fig. Cloakroom Utility room (washing)
B 2.36). If a building is at risk of overheating North Bathroom and WC
due to changing external loads, the positioning
Bedrooms
and activation of thermal masses (e.g. floors
exposed to sunlight) can be used to buffer tem-
perature peaks effectively. If a building suffers
from internal loads particularly (e.g. offices), Patio
thermal masses can also be activated indirectly
Study
via convection.
An exact appraisal of external influences and Spare bedroom
Children’s bedrooms
internal requirements can help to check known Living room
Summer Balcony
building typologies critically and to develop
new ones. In doing so, the fundamental energy- Winter
Garden
and usage-related considerations can be Dining room
brought together (Fig. B 2.33).
Sunshading
Utility room (drying)
B 2.29

69
Urban space and infrastructure

Share [%]
100 300

[m/s] Degr.
Peak load
260
Wind direction
16
80
15
Average load
Pumped storage 12
Coal 10 Wind speed
60

[kW]
Natural gas 500
450 Total output of 16 turbines
Gas
40 40
Electricity 35
Lignite
30
Water Basic load 25
20 20
Waste water
Nuclear 15
Roads Hydroelectric 10
0 Individual outputs of 16 turbines
5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 6 12 18 24 10 20 30 40 50 60
Investment costs in 2004 [billion EUR] Time Time [s]
B 2.30 B 2.31 B 2.32
Infrastructure and technical services for Sustainable Development (RNE) therefore As decentralisation increases, so the infrastruc-
comes to the following conclusion: ture can no longer be regarded as a one-way,
Buildings are not isolated objects; during their “In the future we will require an integrated tree-like, branching distribution structure (Fig.
operation, they are integrated into networks of management of the technical infrastructure, B 2.40). Only with the interaction between sup-
overriding technical infrastructures. They con- including the preservation of the building stock, ply and demand – a two- or even multi-way flow
sume drinking water as well as energy, create investment and deconstruction plus the social – can the technical infrastructure really take on
waste water as well as waste, and require infrastructure from public transport to ... funda- the qualities of a network. Energies and
transport connections. mental provisions and the cultivation and pre- resources flow from a high to a low.
In Germany the technical infrastructure accounts servation of natural resources.” [3]
for between 40 and 45% of the total area of The relationship between urban and rural areas Reliability of supplies
land covered by the built environment, with most is particularly evident here. On the one hand, The magnitudes of renewable energy sources
of this being used for transport purposes. Every infrastructure for integrating rural areas is an such as the wind and the sun are not wholly
year, 10–15% of the gross domestic product is expensive undertaking. But on the other, with predictable. They reduce the demand for fossil
used for its maintenance and upgrading (Fig. the increasing use of renewable energy sources fuels in electricity generation without them-
2.30). they could regain some of their supply functions. selves being able to guarantee total reliability
Striving to achieve more efficient supplies of of supplies. For this reason, further electricity
energy and resources also changes the bound- Networks generation providers must contribute to ensure
ary conditions for the infrastructure – on both Even if buildings should be designed to use far reliability of supplies, and the energy supplies
the user and the supplier side. And this applies fewer resources in the future, they will generally or the consumption figures must be calculable.
not only to increasing requirements, but to continue to remain dependent on the inflow of In the case of wind power, prognosis models
decreasing requirements, too, because partial external energies and resources. To date, the for supplies have been developed whose fore-
utilisation of the infrastructure can lead to a technical networks necessary for this have casts 24 hours in advance deviate by only
lower efficiency in the system and result in been set up mainly as one-way, purely supply 8–10% from the reality. This enables a better
“stretched infrastructures”. The German Council structures (Fig. B 2.31). estimate of the energy yield and a reduction in

Typological comparison Detached house Terrace house Apartment block High-rise building Stepped arrangement
Orientation: north-south
Building volume: 4320 m3
Proportion of windows:
north 20%
east 30%
west 30%
south 50%

A/V ratio [1/ m] 0.78 0.65 0.43 0.49 0.78

Total area of outer surface [m2] 3384 2808 1848 2104 3384
Area in contact with external air [m2] 2664 2088 1608 2024 2124
Area in contact with soil [m2] 720 720 240 80 1260
Net roof area for solar energy [m2] 720 720 240 80 720
Ratio of external air to soil [-] 3.7 : 1 2.9 : 1 6.7 : 1 26.3 : 1 1.7 : 1
Proportion of windows [%] 23 21 27 30 20
Thermal losses through outer surface [H t '] 0.49 0.46 0.56 0.63 0.45
Specific heating energy rqmt. qh [kWh / m2 a] 72 (100 %) 60 (83 %) 48 (66 %) 56 (77 %) 66 (9 %)
Total primary energy rqmt. QP [kWh / a] 168 000 (100 %) 136 000 (81 %) 113 000 (67 %) 126 000 (75 %) 146 000 (87 %)
Lighting + o o + –
Open areas available for thermal uses + o o o o
Specific energy-related aspects High A/V ratio, Low A/V ratio for Lowest A/V ratio High space requirements Large area in contact
high space requirements same solar energy for building services, with soil, water drainage
area increased air velocity requirements
on facade
B 2.33

70
 Urban space and infrastructure

Transport losses 10 km 100 km 1000 km

Energy form
B 2.30 Typical load distribution in the German electricity
Electricity Wind
grid over the course of the day
380 KV 0.15 % 1.5 % 15 % Water
B 2.31 Typical load distribution in the German electricity
800 KV 0.05 % 0.5 % 1.5 % Biomass
grid over the course of the day
B 2.32 Individual outputs of wind turbines plus their total Heat 1 Geothermal
output as a pseudo power station 130 °C ~3 % ~13 % – Solar
B 2.33 A comparison of building typologies and their 70 °C ~1.5 % ~6.5 % –
energy-related characteristics
B 2.34 Transport losses within various energy networks Energy medium
B 2.35 Possible interconnections between renewable
Wood, oil 2 0.08 % 0.8 % 8%
energy sources in a future electricity grid
Gas no data no data no data
B 2.36 Position and effect of thermal masses in the
interior 1
a External loads Heat transport is heavily dependent on the flow velocity;
b Internal loads district heating networks exhibit losses of up to 40%.
2
B 2.37 “Energy silo”, Creuzburg (D), 2004, Based on transport in road tankers
Planfabrik SPS, Hartmut Sommer
B 2.34 B 2.35
the additional technical controls required (Fig. amount to about 20% owing to the many treat-
2.32). ment processes required because wood has to
Non-controllable supplies can be compensated be, for example, processed to form chippings
for by storable energy media (e.g. biogas, bio- or pellets, dried and then transported to the
genic fuels or energy storage media) (Fig. B consumer. Solar
2.37). The possibility of being able to switch radiation
energy on or off to suit our requirements, to Gas networks
compensate for surplus and shortfall capaci- The sole energy medium network covering vir-
ties, can be achieved by increasing storage tually the whole of Central Europe is the gas
capacities and is one of the key tasks for reli- network. In 2004 some 47.2% of all German
able supplies of energy in the future. households were using gas for heating. A total
a
Many applications in buildings, especially heat- of 42 underground gas storage installations,
ing requirements (e.g. for hot-water provision) using either subterranean caverns or porous
and large electrical consumers (e.g. freezers), rock strata with a gastight enclosure, result in a
could themselves act as a kind of storage storage capacity of max. 75 days for the total
because the periods of their power consump- system.
tion can be shifted considerably. They could be Up until now, the EU has supplied approx. 60%
switched off at peak times and switched on of its natural gas requirements from its own
again during periods of surplus capacity. But sources; 40% is imported. However, it is esti-
to do this we need a controllable link between mated that supplies from EU sources will fall to
consumption and energy provision. 25% by 2020. Major investment in the overrid-
ing gas infrastructure is therefore planned.
Energy infrastructure The gas network can contribute to renewable
On both a regional and international level there energy supplies in the medium-term. As the b
are different availabilities of energy media and principal chemical component of natural gas, B 2.36
energy forms. The resulting differentiated energy mine gas, wood gas and biogas is methane
supplies will in future enable a greater network- (CH4), like with the electricity grid, a pool of
ing of the individual energy subsystems (Fig. different suppliers could be set up. The other
B 2.35). constituents of the gas – especially with respect
Energy relocation and distribution result in losses to the moisture saturation and the hydrogen
which can be quantified by way of the primary sulphide (H2S) content – differ depending on
energy factor (see “Building services”, p. 114). the source. As both these factors cause corro-
This describes, as a cumulative value, that part sion of the pipes, the “raw gas” must be con-
of the energy losses that occurs outside the verted into “product gas” before being fed into
building, in the entire “external chain” (Fig. B the pipes. The first pilot plants for supplying
2.34). Networks with high losses are therefore biogas and wood gas are already in operation.
only suitable for solutions with a local coverage In Germany today, biogas plants that benefit
(e.g. heating networks), whereas networks with from the remuneration payable under the
low losses enable a wide coverage (e.g. elec- Renewable Energy Sources Act are already
tricity grids). In principle, we distinguish profitable when operated as a combined heat
between networks for energy media (e.g. gas) and power (CHP) plant (Fig. B 2.38).
and networks for energy forms (e.g. electricity,
heat). Networks for energy forms
After production, energy forms, in contrast to
Networks for energy media energy media, can only be stored at great cost.
Networks for energy media exhibit low energy Networks for energy forms are therefore more
losses. The provision of the medium itself, e.g. heavily dependent on the need for the produc-
crude oil, consumes about 10% of its calorific tion of energy in line with demand than is the
value, but the main losses occur during trans- case for energy media. In addition, CHP tech-
port. In the case of solid biomass, these losses nology forces us to look at electricity and heat-
B 2.37

71
Urban space and infrastructure
Production costs [ct /kWh]

16

12 100%

26% 49%
8 27% Electricity
75 %
4

0 a 55% District heating

-4

-8
100% 34 % 53%
Biogas Biogas Biogas Biogas Biogas Biogas
Liquid manure Liquid manure Liquid manure Renewables Renewables Renewables 87%
3
50 m /h 3
250 m /h 3
500 m /h 3
50 m / h 3
250 m / h 500 m3 / h 35% Electricity
Biogas (substrate) Treatment costs, water scrubbing Feeding and relaying
Biogas (conversion) Cost of using fuel in a co-generation plant, including subvention in Germany b 55% Group heating
B 2.38 B 2.39
ing requirements in combination (Fig. B 2.39). applies in Germany. The optimised value of ever, the growing number of customers feeding
Owing to its relatively low losses over longer 2.5 kV/m recommended by building biologists electricity into the network will render more
distances, electricity is suitable for the distribu- would mean a minimum distance of 30–60 m technical controls necessary. In the medium-
tion of energy over wide areas. Heat, on the between a 380 kV overhead power cable and a term, the electricity grid will require an addition-
other hand, suffers from high line losses, but building. Mass reduces the effects of electro- al information channel, the use of which will be
can be used to cover the heating requirements magnetic fields. In the meantime, approx. 71% expressed in the “grid codes”, the rules for a
of buildings with low-cost technology. of all power lines in Germany are routed under- network. Once this channel is installed, the
ground – and the trend is growing. controls can develop over the medium-term to
Electricity network The electricity grid possesses only minimal such an extent that even individual consumers
More usually called the electricity grid, this net- storage capacity. Additional power stations are (e.g. washing machines) will be able to indicate
work consists of a hierarchy of distribution lev- kept on standby to cope with peak loads and their requirements via a “peer-to-peer network”,
els that branch cascade-like down to the con- are switched on line as required. In the case of which will then regulate their operation.
sumer (Fig. B 2.40). The length of all public short-term voltage fluctuations or in order to
electricity lines in Germany adds up to about maintain the voltage in the grid locally (< 1 min), District and group heating networks
1.6 million km. flywheels, e.g. the rotors of wind turbines, are In 2005 the proportion of residential buildings
Losses ensue as a result of the resistance (R) suitable. Longer storage is usually provided by in Germany heated by such networks was 14%,
of the electrical conductors, which is depend- pumped storage power stations (see “Building and the total length of the lines was approx.
ent on the current (I) and the voltage (U): services”, p. 145). 50 000 km (Fig. B 2.41). Heating networks are
R = I/U. If we increase the voltage and decrease The 380 kV grid has been expanded to provide only local, do not cover wide areas and are not
the current, it is possible to transmit the same wide coverage on a European scale. About interconnected. Some 84% of the energy from
power (P = I•U) with a reduced resistance. 1.5% of the transported energy is lost over a heating networks is generated in combined
High voltages are therefore used for energy line length of 100 km. High-voltage direct-cur- heat and power (CHP) plants. Various studies
transmission, low voltages for the safe use of rent (HVDC) transmission networks employing of future energy supplies assume an increase
that energy. Transformer substations are nec- a voltage of 800 kV enable lower induced cur- in more efficient, decentralised electricity gene-
essary at the transitions between the distribu- rents and smaller losses (0.5% line losses over ration on the basis of CHP (Fig. B 2.43). The
tion levels, which take up considerable 100 km) plus a reduced materials requirement. constant generation of electricity results in the
amounts of land (Fig. B 2.40). The conversion Such lines form part of the planned electricity constant production of heat as a “waste prod-
of the alternating current results in high electro- supply network extending beyond the borders uct” (Fig. B 2.39).
magnetic loads in the local environment. And of Europe (Fig. B 2.35). The energy losses of a heating network depend
line losses, too, cause the emission of electro- According to a study by the German Energy on the length of the pipes and their operating
magnetic waves. The maximum value of 5 kV/m Agency (dena), the trend towards decentral- temperature. The lower the temperature of the
recommended by the World Health Organisa- ised electricity generation will not require many heat transfer medium, the lower are the thermal
tion (WHO), and also included in DIN VDE 0848, new transmission lines in Germany [4]. How- losses from such a system. At the same time,

Maximum voltage level Households

Power station Non-residential 6%
220 / 380 kV Industry
approx. 36 000 km
High-voltage level
110 kV
approx. 75 000 km Industry Railways Regions Conurbations 50 % 44 %

Medium-voltage level
10 / 20 kV
approx. 490 000 km Industry Commerce Towns Settlements

Connected heat output

Low-voltage level
Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
230 / 400 V
[kWh] 53 606 51 649 52 162 52 112 52 264 52 729
> 1 000 000 km
Apartment Admini-
Transformer substation Households Commerce Industry
blocks stration
B 2.40 B 2.41

72
 Urban space and infrastructure

B 2.38 Production costs for biogas using different District heating network, Basel
technologies (2006)
Length: 198.2 km
B 2.39 Comparison of decentralised and central energy
Heat production: 100340 Mio. kWh / a
supplies via combined heat and power (CHP)
Network losses: 10%
a Central CHP
Flow temperature: 170°C
b Decentralised CHP
Peak output: 309 MW •
B 2.40 Cascade-type model of the electricity grid with
Customers: Hospitals, •
line lengths for Germany
public buildings,
B 2.41 Output and utilisation of district heating supplies
industry and commerce,
in Germany
approx. 40 000 housing units
B 2.42 Schematic drawing of the district heating net-
work in Basel (CH) in 2004
B 2.43 Utilisation potential for group and district heating
networks up to 2020
B 2.44 Schematic drawing of the group heating network
served by the Salach (D) paper plant in 2004
•
• Heating plant 0 1 km
B 2.42
however, the maximum quantity of energy that can make use of options such as the integra- Cooling networks
can be transmitted, or rather the pumping tion of industrial users who require process In comparison to heating networks, cooling net-
capacity in the system, must be increased. heating and an increased cooling requirement works exhibit low losses because their operat-
Many heating networks are therefore operated via sorption chillers, e.g. by means of cheaper ing temperature is usually only slightly different
at a high temperature (> 100°C), mostly using tariffs for the purchase of heat in summer (see to that of the ambient temperature. On average,
water or steam as the heat transfer medium. “Building services”, p. 130). the cooling requirements of most buildings are
The maximum transport distance from the plant lower than their heating requirements. Certain
to the most distant consumer is seldom more Solar-powered group heating networks production plants, laboratories or shopping
than 20 km. Nevertheless, district heating net- Apart from producing heat for group heating centres represent some of the exceptions. Up
works can exhibit system-related losses of up networks through the incineration of fuels, it is until now, only a few public cooling networks
to 40%. There is no clear dividing line between also possible to generate the heat by means of have been built, e.g. in Chemnitz (Fig. B 2.45).
a group and a district heating network (Figs. B solar energy installations with short- or long- The current length of lines in Germany is just 43
2.42 and 2.44). The terms relate to both the term heat storage. If there is a high, constant km [5]. Cooling networks function either as a
size of the network and the type of energy pro- hot-water requirement, like in apartment blocks, closed system or as a secondary part of a
duction, i.e. centralised or decentralised. The hotels, homes, hospitals or residential estates heating network. Sorption chillers link the pro-
decentralised production of biogas clearly with more than 30 housing units, systems with duction of heating and cooling energy. In the
shows where the sensible boundaries between short-term heat storage are suitable. Like with medium-term, such chillers achieve not only a
gas and heating networks lie (Fig. B 2.50). traditional drinking water provision, the heat is high efficiency on the cooling side, but on the
Heating networks are therefore particularly retained in hot-water tanks. These days, such heating side as well.
interesting for high energy consumers in the systems are optimised mainly for a coverage of High thermal loads can occur briefly within the
area to be served. Heat as an energy form can- approx. 50%. In terms of the German Energy networks, e.g. in the case of large events, and
not be universally employed and that reduces Conservation Act (EnEV), approx. 20% of the that means the installations must be sized
its sales potential, being used mainly for space primary energy requirement for residential accordingly right from the start. The integration
heating, in individual cases also for space cool- buildings can be covered in this way (Fig. B 2.48). of storage media into the system reduces these
ing (Fig. B 2.41). Falling energy demands In solar-assisted systems with long-term heat requirements markedly and can contribute to
thanks to buildings with better thermal insula- storage, water or the ground is employed (Fig. better utilisation of the chillers.
tion reduce the sales potential still further. At B 2.47). Such systems have a coverage poten-
the same time, there is often an insufficient tial of 40–60% of the primary energy require-
demand for the heat supply during the sum- ment and owing to the considerable technical
mer. Many networks therefore require densifi- input are only economical for upwards of 100–
cation of the supply structure and connections 250 housing units (Fig. B 2.46; see also “Build-
to new energy consumers. Regulation of the ing services”, p. 124).
heating requirement over the course of the year
Salach paper plant
Net energy rqmt. (group/district heat.) [PJ / a]

450
400 Length: 1.35 km (incl. house connection lines)
Heat production: no data
350 Network losses: no data
Flow temperature: 70 –90°C •
300
251.1 245.0 Peak output: approx. 1 MW, 610 kW for paper plant
Customers: approx. 150 housing units
250 168.2
(planned for final phase in 2010)
200
27.2
150 41.9 41.3 40.9 39.6

100

50
134.8 127.7 124.8 122.7 118.9 •
0
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Current Further connections Network expansion • Heat source 0 50 m
B 2.43 B 2.44

73
Urban space and infrastructure

Water Low
temperature
Thermal energy
Electricity, Cooling tower heat
Absorption-type storage
auxiliary power
refrigeration unit
Waste heat Cold water tank

Heat District heating District cooling

network Waste heat network
Cooling energy

Electricity, Compression-type
Lignite aux. power refrigeration unit
Heating plant

Combined heat and power Central cooling energy production District cooling

B 2.45
Sizing of long-term storage
Water Untreated water can be obtained from ground-
Hot-water thermal storage Although roughly two-thirds of the Earth’s sur- water, springs and surface waters, by collect-
• 1.5–2.25 m3 per m2 collector area face is covered by water, this life-giving liquid ing precipitation (e.g. cisterns) or by means of
Gravel/water thermal storage in its form as drinking water is a resource that sea-water desalination in dry coastal regions.
• 2.5–4.0 m3 per m2 collector area threatens to become scarce. At the same time, To maintain quality, certain regions are desig-
Borehole thermal storage water is a critical energy medium in the climate nated as groundwater protection areas. In Ger-
system. many it is groundwater that supplies most of
• 8.0–10.0 m3 per m2 collector area
• borehole spacing: 1.5–2.5 m, max. 3.0 m in rock The humid climate of Central European latitudes the drinking water (65%), followed by bank fil-
• borehole depth: 20–80 m offers the chance of enhancing surface water trate, which consists of groundwater plus sur-
Aquifer thermal storage or groundwater reservoirs and producing drink- face water; sandy banks promote the mechani-
ing water – but the necessary boundary condi- cal pretreatment of the water.
4.0–6.0 m3 per m2 collector area
B 2.46 tions are not available everywhere. Drawing off In order to produce drinking water from untreated
excessive amounts of water leads to a drop in water, it is cleaned and sterilised in a central
Sizing of group heating network with long-term storage
the water table, which can have a considerable plant according to DIN 2000 and, if necessary,
detrimental effect on local ecosystems. The dissolved ions (e.g. iron or salts) are removed
Min. number of housing units
consumption of drinking water and the quanti- or added. The adjustment of pH value and con-
• approx. 200–500 housing units each with 70 m2 floor ties of waste water that occur should therefore ductivity plus the addition of chlorine are nec-
space, or 100–120 detached houses
be limited through suitable constructional and essary not only to achieve the desired water
Collector area technical measures (e.g. water-saving taps). In quality but also because of the quality of the
• 0.14–0.20 m2 collector area per m2 floor space addition, in many instances it is preferable to existing network of pipes.
• 1.25–2.5 m2 collector area per MWh of annual total he-
use rainwater or “grey water” (water already High-level tanks, pumping and boosting sta-
ating requirement (lower values apply to locations with
high levels of sunshine and highly efficient collectors) used once but not seriously contaminated). tions are used to maintain the pressure in the
• annual solar energy yield: 300–450 kWh/m2a network of pipes, which in turn results in high
Storage volume (water-equivalent) Water treatment costs and considerable technology for con-
The consumption of drinking water per head struction and maintenance. Operators must
• 1.5–2.25 m3 per m2 collector area (lower values apply
to a larger ratio between available solar energy and- has dropped steadily in Germany over recent guarantee a constant flow of water in the net-
heating energy requirement) years thanks to water-saving technologies and work. Every water supply network has leaks;
• The type of storage depends, in the first place, on the a change in the behaviour of users, although across the EU, the losses in the water supply
local circumstances, especially the geological and local, marked differences are evident. Even on range between 8% in Germany and 27% in
hydrological conditions.
the international scale, there are major differ- Italy [6].
Solar energy contribution ences (Fig. B 2.51). Whereas the daily per
• approx. 40–50% of annual heating requirement head consumption in Germany in 1990 was
• up to approx. 60% for low-energy houses 147 l, it had dropped to 128 l by 2005.
B 2.47
Grey water
Toilet
Sizing of group heating network with short-term storage (e.g. washing, shower,
flushing
and bath water)
Collector area
• 0.7 –1.0 m2 collector area per person (approx. 0.02–
0.03 m2 collector area per m2 floor space)
• 0.4–0.5 m2 collector area per person for solar preheating Dimensions hxwxd
systems (solar energy contribution 25–40%) [m] 1.5x1.1x0.6 UV light
• annual solar energy yield: 300–450 kWh/m2a Weight approx. 130 kg
Storage volume Capacity 500 l in total Overflow
• 0.05–0.06 m3 per m2 collector area (flat-plate collectors) Top-up from
Pressure [bar] max. 4.7
• 0.06–0.08 m3 per m2 collector area (vacuum-tube drinking
min. 1.7
collectors) water supply
Power supply 230 V, 50 Hz
Solar energy contribution
max. output 1 kW
• approx. 50–60% of energy requirement for hot-water
provision Power 0.6 kWh / d
Compressed air
• approx. 10–15% of annual heating requirement, up to consumption
Sewer
approx. 20% for low-energy houses
B 2.48 B 2.49

74
 Urban space and infrastructure

B 2.45 Schematic diagram of the cooling network in Distance Most efficient form of Country Drinking water
Chemnitz (D) transport for biogas energy consumption per head
B 2.46 Rough sizing of various long-term heat storage and day [ l ]
schemes
< 1.5 km Group heating network Basic requirement (WHO) 50
B 2.47 Rough design of solar-powered group heating
networks with long-term storage > 1.5 km Own gas network Europe
B 2.48 Rough design of solar-powered group heating > 5 km Gas treatment and feeding Belgium 122
networks with short-term storage into the gas network Germany 128
B 2.49 Schematic drawing of an installation for using
grey water Austria 145
B 2.50 Alternative solutions for transporting energy France 151
obtained from biogas, according to distance Sweden 188
B 2.51 Drinking water consumption per head and day Italy 213
(2005)
Switzerland 237
B 2.52 Usage options for various water flows in
buildings India 25
Japan 278
USA 295

B 2.50 B 2.51
Waste-water usage separated into brown and yellow water, and • Biological treatment (second treatment stage):
In order to be able to use our water resources store it in tanks, where it is then available for Micro-organisms are introduced into the
efficiently, water can be used more than once other uses (Fig. B 2.52). Upcycling thus becomes waste water to eliminate nitrogen; the high
for certain applications (Fig. B 2.52). Rainwater, possible as well. Such systems can reduce a level of nutrients helps the micro-organisms
for example, can first be used as “grey water” building’s waste water to zero or near-zero. to grow and they themselves become sus-
and later as “black water” (containing faecal pended matter. The activated sludge method
material), which corresponds to a slowed down- Waste-water drainage requires considerable oxygen. The ensuing
cycling process. If the waste-water is drained away via a com- sewage sludge is afterwards removed
Rainwater can be used, for example, for flush- bined system, all waste-water flows are collect- mechanically.
ing toilets and watering gardens, but also as a ed in one system of pipes and fed to waste- Mechanical and biological treatment remove
transfer medium for cooling purposes. The filter- water treatment plant. During heavy rainfall, the about 90% of the biologically degradable
ing required before use can be assisted by flow rate can reach 100 times the quantity of contamination in the waste water (Fig. B 2.53).
planting in the rainwater collecting areas. waste water during dry periods. Only rarely can • Chemical treatment (third treatment stage):
Grey water is especially useful for flushing toi- sewage systems and sewage plants cope with A third treatment stage – used only rarely –
lets. As the daily water consumption for baths such large amounts of water, which can mean employs various elaborate methods, which
and showers is roughly equivalent to the water that waste water is not properly treated. This is require considerable energy and resource
needed for flushing toilets, water consumption why separate systems are generally used, with inputs, to remove virtually any chemical from
can be cut by approx. 30%. Grey-water instal- waste water and rainwater being drained away the waste water as required.
lations filter and clean the water, and the addi- in two separate systems (Fig. B 2.72). Pipes
tion of UV-light treatment sterilises it. Such sys- can therefore be made smaller and the opera- Waste-water treatment plants require an area of
tems require separate grey-water pipework tion of waste-water plants optimised. 0.5–2 m2 per inhabitant (Fig. B 2.57). A drop in
within the building and a grey-water tank (Fig. water consumption in conjunction with the
B 2.49). Waste-water treatment smaller household sizes these days plus the
New on the market are technical solutions that We distinguish between three treatment stages increase in the living space requirements per
isolate usable partial flows from the water by for processing the waste water: person have resulted in reduced waste-water
means of a materials-flow analysis. It is possi- flows.
ble, for example, to use rainwater in the build- • Mechanical treatment (first treatment stage): The ensuing residues lead to flow problems
ing services, e.g. for cooling, with both low- Large foreign matter is removed by screens; and an increase in maintenance and treatment
tech solutions for open bodies of water and heavy, later also light, suspended matter is costs for centralised waste-water treatment
even high-tech solutions for air-conditioning deposited in the grit chamber and primary plants. In Germany the cost of waste-water
systems already available. Vacuum toilets are settlement tank due to the reduction in the treatment in large-scale plants is much greater
also based on a materials-flow analysis; they flow velocity. than the cost of treating drinking water. And
collect concentrated black water, possibly with a consumption of 4400 GWh/a, waste-
Flow Treatment Usage options Further uses

Rainwater Simple filtration (gravel) Irrigation Groundwater supplement

Filtration Cooling (technical refrigerant) –
Shower, washing machine Grey water
Toilet flushing Yellow and black water
Biological treatment Water supply
Grey water Sterilisation Washing machine Grey water
Toilet flushing Yellow and black water
Filtration, biological treatment Irrigation Groundwater supplement
Biological treatment Water supply
Yellow water Sterilisation through storage and drying Manure production
Storage Raw material for chemicals industry
Black water Anaerobic fermentation Biogas production Humus and manure production
Kitchen and organic waste Composting Humus and manure production
B 2.52

75
Urban space and infrastructure

Mechanical treatment Biological treatment

water plants consume more energy than all
Screens Grit Primary settle- Aeration tank Secondary settle- Septic tank
German schools put together [7]! The energy
chamber ment tank ment tank requirement is mainly due to the aeration, cir-
Biogas culation and transportation of the waste water
to be treated. The biological treatment stage
Drying accounts for two-thirds of the area required for
Intake the whole waste-water treatment plant.
Owing to the high cost of such centralised
plants, decentralised waste-water treatment
Discharge
Seeding sludge offers an alternative. Besides the large-scale
Septic tank activated sludge method, the following meth-
ods are also available for the biological treat-
Input Micro-organisms, ment (Fig. B 2.54):
oxygen
Output Sand Sewage sludge Sewage sludge Biogas Biomass • In the percolating filter method, the waste
water trickles through support media made
B 2.53 from synthetic or mineral materials. The
cleaning micro-organisms are located on the
enlarged surface area of the support media,
which at the same time ensures good aera-
tion.
• In the biological contactors method, the bio-
logical film of a fixed film reactor is partially
Intake immersed in the flow of waste water to be
Intake
treated; the supply of oxygen to the micro-
organisms is achieved by continuous rotation.
• In contrast to other methods, the small-scale
variation of the activated sludge method, the
membrane filter method, does not require a
secondary settlement tank. The membrane is
Intake
cleaned by rotation, rinsing and the rising air
bubbles.
Discharge Discharge O2 Discharge
The biological treatment methods often pre-
ferred these days are those in which the waste
water is treated virtually naturally in waste-
Percolating filter method Biological contactors method Membrane filter method
water lagoons or constructed wetlands to DIN
B 2.54 4261. The majority of smaller plants are particu-
larly suitable for domestic or similar waste water
and a typical catchment area of up to approx.
200 inhabitants. Treatment can be carried out
horizontally or vertically.
Pretreatment Treatment by way of root-bed medium
A horizontal constructed wetland with beds
60–80 cm deep requires a treatment area of
Suitable plants:
various reed, bulrush, and grass varieties 3–10 m2 per person, depending on whether
only grey water or the entire waste water is to
be treated (Fig. B 2.55).
A vertical constructed wetland achieves a more
Multi-compartment Pumping Weir and
digestion chamber chamber inspection
effective depth of 80–120 cm with a more con-
chamber sistent utilisation of the volume and thereby
reduces the area of land required. Between 1.5
and 5 m2 is required per person (Fig. B 2.56).
Sand and gravel
Intake Coarse gravel or cohesive soil Synthetic liner 2% fall Discharge

B 2.55

Multi-compartment Pumping Weir and

digestion chamber chamber inspection
chamber

Intake Coarse gravel Synthetic liner 2% fall Discharge

B 2.56

76
 Urban space and infrastructure

B 2.53 Schematic diagram of a traditional waste-water

treatment plant with mechanical and biological
treatment stages
B 2.54 Schematic diagram of alternative aeration tech-
niques for the biological treatment stage
B 2.55 Schematic diagram of a horizontal constructed
wetland
B 2.56 Schematic diagram of a vertical constructed
wetland
B 2.57 Aerial view of a waste-water treatment plant in
Germany’s Ruhr region
B 2.58 Functional design for an entrance area, with
waste collection station, Ochsenanger Estate,
Bamberg (D), 2000, Melchior Eckey Rommel
B 2.59 Landfill quotas for various types of waste in
Germany
B 2.60 Ecological evaluation and prognosis of develop-
ments for waste management in Germany
B 2.61 Materials flows and their further use within the
waste sector
B 2.57 B 2.58
Waste from operations and usage influence on the function of the system and pulsory in Germany since 2005: biological-
Waste is regarded as a raw material. A maximum users’ behaviour. mechanical pre-treatment treats the waste ini-
recycling quota is therefore desirable. Accord- Waste collection in the public sector is suitable tially mechanically – separating out reusable
ing to German legislation, waste should be for high-quality, mass-produced or hazardous raw materials (Fig. B. 2.61). The mechanisms of
reused whenever possible and disposal should waste streams. Separate collection systems the sorting plants are based on, for example,
only be considered when this is unavoidable. have been put in place for paper, glass, bio- the size, colour, magnetism or weight of the
A large portion of waste in Germany is already mass, plastics, textiles, metals, electrical appli- waste to be processed (Fig. B. 2.62). The bio-
recycled; the landfill quotas, apart from build- ances and used oil, for instance. Such collec- logical residues can be composted or, like
ing debris, have declined enormously (Fig. tion depots can be at or below ground level. sewage sludge, anaerobically fermented, which
B 2.59). In energy terms, the recovery of mate- Although the underground variety is more cleans up the residue and also produces usable
rials – reuse, recycling, further use – offers the expensive, they are easier to integrate and use biogas.
greatest savings potential (see “Materials”, less land. On the other hand, there is a higher Thermal treatment involves all types of incinera-
p. 174). risk of misuse and vandalism. Positioning these tion. The ensuing heat is converted into elec-
on well-used pathways helps the collection of tricity via generators but can also be used for
Waste collection private waste. The local significance of the group and district heating networks. Pyrolysis
Domestic waste is the most heterogeneous “waste” theme is evident in the valuation of involves changing the chemical composition of
type of waste. Special collection depots for properties: in the assessment of the quality of the waste through high temperatures and
hazardous waste (e.g. batteries containing the location, the siting and layout of waste simultaneous exclusion of oxygen. This method
heavy metals, paints, varnishes, etc.) enable depots are seen as important criteria (Fig. B. can be used to produce a gas that can be fed
such waste to be removed from general waste 2.58). Certain types of usage (e.g. gastronomy) into the gas network, but a slag residue is also
streams. may generate special waste streams that produced.
Separate collection enables waste streams to require specific measures. The targets of the Federal Ministry for the Envi-
be segregated right at the point where the ronment, Nature Conservation & Nuclear Safety
waste is created. Individual waste streams are, Waste treatment (BMU) for 2020 require 1% of energy needs in
however, vulnerable to contamination, which has One major load on the climate is due to the Germany to be met by thermal waste treatment
to be dealt with in subsequent sorting stages, anaerobic decomposition of biological compo- (Fig. B 2.60).
which results in an additional energy require- nents in landfilled waste, which produces the
ment for transportation. Whether centralised so-called landfill gas (methane) so damaging Traffic
mechanical sorting or local pre-sorting repre- to the climate. However, the methane can be In a society with a division of labour, traffic rep-
sents the more advantageous solution in terms collected and used for energy purposes in co- resents a necessary prerequisite for the econo-
of energy, depends on the particular situation. generation plants. my and for individuals. As mobility between
Well-planned waste collection depots readily In order to reduce methane emissions from buildings is the norm, the structure of that traffic
accessible to the public can have a crucial landfill sites, treatment of waste has been com- and its energy consumption are closely linked
Landfill quota [%]

Global warming potential [million t CO2-eq]

60 30 Paper Sorting Various types of

25
plant paper
50 20
15
40 Aluminium
10
Tin
5
30 Composites
0
Lightweight Sorting
-5 packaging plant Foils
20
-10 Plastics
10 -15 Plastic bottles
-20
XPS
0 -25
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1990 2004 2020 Plastic composites

Manufacturing operations Total balance Energy gains Residual waste

Landfill through incineration
Special waste
Incineration Energy gains Glass Glass Various glass
Domestic waste Recovery of materials through recovery
Building debris Collection of materials
treatment fragments
B 2.59 B 2.60 B 2.61

77
Urban space and infrastructure

Means of Work W/km Typical Typical catch- Typical Means of transport utilisation [%]
transport utilisation ment radii journey distances
[%] [%] [km] [km] [min] [km/h] Total Rural Urban
areas areas

Walking 100 100 – 1.4 21.1 4.3 22 21 24

Bicycle 30 100 – 3.3 22.3 10.6 9 11 9

Bus and 420 20 – 25 1 2

12.6 39.6 18.1 8 5 12
train

Car 930 – 25 – 30 14.1 20.7 32.8 3 61 63 55

(overland) (D: 45 (D: 46 (D: 40
2700 (town) – P: 16) P: 18) P: 15)

Aircraft 830 60 > 200 km n.d. n.d. no data no data no data no data
1
Coach: 60%; high-speed train: 45%
2
Bus and tram: 400 m; rapid transit rail system: 500–1000 m D = driver
3
Values for driver; passenger: 15.4 km/22.0 km/31.6 km P = passenger
B 2.62 B 2.63
with the urban-planning and architectural cir- Means of transport of our own muscles, and travelling by bicycle
cumstances, and, after all, are triggered by Three key factors influence the energy require- uses 70% less muscle power than walking.
these. In Germany traffic is the sector with the ments of transport systems: efficiency of the Another important factor when assessing the
second-highest energy consumption (Fig. B means of transport, speed and utilisation. different means of transport is their effect on
2.3). Constructional measures and systems of Whereas maximum values are always desirable the climate. The water vapour produced during
incentives create the conditions for transferring for efficiency and utilisation, the optimum combustion is, for example, of little importance
private vehicular traffic to more efficient public speed depends on the distance to be travelled. near the ground, but in higher atmospheric
transportation, also walking and bicycles. An ideal system speed for long-distance jour- strata it plays a significant role in the climate
Basically, we can divide the total volume of neys across Central Europe is, for example, change. So aircraft represent the means of
traffic into passenger and goods traffic (Fig. 250–300 km/h. As a rule, decreasing the speed transport that has by far the greatest impact on
B 2.65). leads to a saving in energy. In urban public rail the climate.
transport, for example, decreasing the maximum Within towns and cities, the use of electric cars
Traffic infrastructure speed from 70 to 50 km/h reduces the energy is one of the measures being promoted in the
The road and rail networks represent full-cover- requirement by 50%. Efficiency, accessibility name of climate protection because on the
age traffic infrastructures. The network of public and speed therefore result in catchment radii urban scale they are essentially neutral in terms
roads in Germany has a total length of about typical for the type of technology (Fig. B 2.63). of their environmental impact. However, the pri-
626 300 km and covers approx. 1.2% of the Railways and waterways are especially energy- mary energy balance and hence the environ-
total area of the country; 63.1% of this is attrib- efficient transport systems for goods traffic. mental effect can only be evaluated on the
utable to local, minor roads (Fig. B 2.66). The Goods transport by road, on the other hand, basis of the electricity generation.
German rail network totals approx. 43 800 km. ensures an optimised distribution of the goods,
Converting the traffic infrastructures into a pro but consumes considerably more energy (Fig. Mobility needs
head land requirement, then the figure of about B 2.67). For passenger traffic, too, railways Every day, mobility accounts for, on average,
50 m2 is higher than the average per head liv- represent the most energy-efficient technology. 75–85 min of a person’s time, regardless of
ing area (see “Architecture and sustainability – The high energy requirements of private vehi- which forms of transport are available to us and
a difficult relationship”, p. 18). In terms of land cles are caused, in particular, by the low utilisa- the national or regional contexts in which we
use and transport performance, the rail network tion (25–30%) and low energy utilisation plus find ourselves [8]. But whereas the time taken
is roughly twice as efficient as the road net- the high total transport weight in relation to the for mobility is obviously undergoing little change,
work. Boats and ships transfer goods traffic to number of people to be transported. An our radius of movement and hence the destina-
lakes, rivers and canals. The low land require- increase in the level of utilisation in passenger tions achievable with the means of transport at
ments for air traffic are placed in perspective transportation would require the introduction of our disposal are increasing. This is accompa-
by the widespread noise pollution and environ- further local public transport alternatives, car nied by a rise in the volume of traffic. Both are
mental impacts. sharing schemes and car rental stations. expressions of the ever more marked increase
The most efficient means of transport is the use in flexibility of our lifestyles [9].
Work Scheduled traffic 8662 Road Length Proportion
Education [km] [%]
Business Rail traffic 2131
Motorways 11 786 1.9
Delivering Air traffic 146
and collecting Trunk roads 41 228 6.6
Private 163,6
A-roads 86 838 13.9
Private 56140
vehicles
15% Shopping Passengers transported [million/a] B-roads 90 996 14.5
Leisure Local roads 395 400 63.1
31 % Rail traffic 317.3
6% B 2.66
Inland
236.8 Means of transport for goods traffic Efficiency-
8% waterways
Sea-going ships 281.0 [t km/MJ]

9% Air traffic 2.9 Air 0.3

19% Crude oil Road 1.7
12% 95.5
pipelines Rail 3.3
Goods vehicles 2765,0 Sea 4.3
Goods transported [million t /a]
B 2.64 B 2.65 B 2.67

78
 Urban space and infrastructure

B 2.62 Air separator: separation of lightweight packag-

Building plot and mobility costs1

[EUR x 1000/a]
10

780 EUR

931 EUR

4225 EUR
ings and foils by means of air pressure within a 8
sorting plant
6
B 2.63 Key data for various means of transport
B 2.64 Volume of traffic in Germany according to type 4
of use 2
B 2.65 Passengers and goods transported in Germany 0
(2005)
-2
B 2.66 The make-up of the German road network
according to types of road (2004) -4
B 2.67 The efficiency of means of transport for goods -6
Average plot Inexpensive plot Inexpensive plot
traffic
price, moderate price, long price, very long
B 2.68 Extra costs for financing a city-centre building distance distance
distance
plot and savings due to the low mobility require-
ment using the example of Hamburg Cost of building plot2 Total (extra costs)
B 2.69 Car-free district, Thalmatt 1 Estate, Herren-
Cost of mobility
schwanden (CH), 1974, Atelier 5
B 2.70 Tram stops in series production, Hannover (D), 1
Size of building plot: 200 m2, one car per household
2
2000, Despang Architekten Difference in cost in relation to a city-centre building plot

B 2.68 B 2.69
People undertake, on average, 3.5 journeys per schools, workplaces, recreational and other
day and 50% of those journeys are shorter than amenities reduce traffic and hence the associ-
3 km. ated energy consumption (Fig. B 2.69).
Urban spaces exhibit a higher proportion of
Urban traffic local public transport plus journeys on foot and
If we include the fact that we spend approx. 90% by bicycle than in rural settlements. Systems of
of our time indoors in the mobility equation, then incentives can achieve a further shift away from
traffic can be described as movement between private vehicles and on to public transport.
buildings. Easy accessibility, frequent services and a bet-
One of the most frequent journeys we under- ter feeling of safety can help here. Districts
take is that between home and work (Fig. B 2.64). develop differently depending on access for
Taking the example of Hamburg, it can be private vehicles, which can restrict the behav-
shown that despite the cost of land being up to iour of users to a greater or lesser degree (Fig.
seven times higher, living in the city is more B 2.73).
economic than living in an equivalent home in In choosing a location, good local public trans-
the suburbs because of the mobility costs that port connections will become a decisive factor.
are saved (Fig. B 2.68). This relationship can And in designing spaces, the clarity and legibil-
be regarded as essentially universal. Added to ity of the corresponding transport interchanges
this are savings because fewer cars are will also be important to users. In principle,
required or journey times are shorter (up to a travellers much prefer single-level situations
factor of five). Comparing the energy require- (Fig. B 2.70 a–c). For underground locations,
ments, an older building with an energy con- bright, well-lit interiors provide a degree of
sumption of 200 kWh/m2a and a floor space of compensation, especially for low passenger
150 m2 is roughly equivalent to a passive-energy numbers and at night. Underground systems
house plus car travel amounting to 10 000 km/a, do reduce the use of land in urban areas, but
for example. The energy balance for a family require a high energy input for ventilation and
can be up to four times less in town than it is in lighting where direct lighting and ventilation
the country. from outside is not possible (Fig. B 2.71).
The best way of avoiding traffic is to provide a Attractive paths and cycle tracks with safe, pri-
dense form of construction coupled with a ority routing and easily accessible cycle parks
range of interesting, local open spaces, diverse should be included in every mobility concept for
spatial situations and close proximity between gaining access to the immediate surroundings.
supply and demand. Short distances to shops,

a b c B 2.70

79
Urban space and infrastructure

Rainwater
Waste water

Electricity,
street lighting,
Rainwater sewer Road drainage
etc.
District
heating Gas
Telephone & data cables High-pressure
supply
water supply
Gas pipeline
Waste-water sewer with
inspection chamber

B 2.71 B 2.72
Urban street design open-space design, at the same time contrib- Stationary traffic
Within settlements, the public traffic infrastruc- utes to enhancing the standard of living in the Mobility is always linked with non-mobility. On
ture occupies 39% of the land on average. In urban area (Fig. B 2.73). average, a car spends only about 1% of its
the light of this high land use, measures for effi- Fast, high-volume traffic has negative effects useful life in motion [1]! Besides their require-
cient use of the spaces, a reduction in the space on the social environment. It has been shown ment for a mobility infrastructure, cars also
required and the conversion of any poorly used that a rise in segregating traffic flows is associ- demand a large amount of space for parking.
traffic infrastructure would seem to be sensible ated with a decrease in contact between local The land requirement for parking spaces for all
(Fig. B 2.72). residents. the cars registered in Germany corresponds to
Different forms of traffic result in different mobil- Around the building there are spaces for parked approx. 20% of the residential floor space in
ity speeds within urban streets. These may vehicles which should take into account the the country. In the case of ground-level park-
impair each other or represent potential dangers. orientation with respect to and accessibility of ing, this leads to a conflict between high-quality
Safety can be improved by harmonising the the building from its access roads. The provi- usage and low-quality parking spaces (Fig.
various speeds or by separating the forms of sion of cycle parks, wherever possible a com- B 2.76). In this context, space-saving parking
traffic. The latter is, however, associated with a pact arrangement of car parking spaces and a options should be considered:
considerable amount of land use and can lead reduction in the number of parking spaces to
to a loss in urban qualities. encourage the changeover to local public • Parking areas:
Appropriate design measures can improve the transport foster the change to energy-efficient The right arrangement of parking spaces can
attention of road users at those points where forms of mobility. Systems of incentives such reduce the land required by up to 35% (Fig.
speeds change. The deceleration of the traffic as tickets that cover all forms of local public B 2.77). In residential districts the use of so-
in the streets, e.g. by way of a traffic-calming transport can help here. called double- and triple-decker garages

• Desired effect

trians and children

More space for
pedestrians
Reducing
traffic noise
Appeal for
consideration
Discouraging
non-local traffic
Reducing
speeds
Illustrating
residential function
Better safety for pedes-
Car ownership Road design
• Probable
effect
• Possible
Decrease in car ownership

Increase in restrictions on private vehicles

effect
District with normal traffic Designed for traffic
Above-average car ownership No restrictions on private vehicles,
per person, usually state sub- speed: 50 km/h
vention, high number of two-car Measures
households Cul-de-sacs • • • •
Traffic routing

Example: city suburbs and Adequate parking spaces, local

countryside parking
No through roads • •

One-way streets • •
District with reduced traffic Traffic-calming measures
Below-average car ownership per Restrictions on private vehicles,
Road design

person, incentives for using local speed: 30 km/h, residential and Change of carriage- •
public transport, car sharing, etc. play streets way surfacing

Example: French Quarter, Tübin- Limited parking spaces, central Narrowing • • • •

gen (D) parking facilities (e.g. basement
car parks)
Visual change in • • • • • •
streetscape design

No-cars district No-cars design Speed humps • • •

No car ownership, incentives for Pedestrian precincts, cycle tracks,

using alternative means of trans- access for deliveries only Changing positions • •
port, e.g. bicycles of parked vehicles
Parking on the edge of the district in
automated systems or multi-storey Raised surface • • • • • • •
Example: GWL Terrain, car parks, designated parking for
Amsterdam (NL) visitors
B 2.73 B 2.74

80
 Urban space and infrastructure

Airflow
B 2.71 Daylighting in the underground tram station Hot air
“Rathaus-Süd”, Bochum (D), 2006, Solar radiation
Pahl + Weber-Pahl
B 2.72 Schematic section through an urban street
B 2.73 Relationships between car ownership, parking
requirements and usage restrictions
B 2.74 Measures and effects for local traffic
B 2.75 Schematic section through the basement car park
of an office building, Wiesbaden (D), 2001,
Thomas Herzog
B 2.76 Aerial view of the centre of Houston, Texas (USA)
B 2.77 Space requirements for various parking arrange-
ments
B 2.78 Schematic sections through various automated
parking systems:
a “Parksafe”
b “Flurparker”
c Double-decker garage
d Triple-decker garage
B 2.75 B 2.76
(Fig. B 2.78 c–d) is one way of reducing the many is about 550 TWh – only approx. 2% of
overall area required. The height-adjustable this theoretical potential! In addition, the gener-
platforms require a parking space height of ating process would create thermal energy
3.50–4.95 m for double-decker garages. amounting to approx. 50 000 TWh, which corre-
• Multi-storey car parks: sponds to about 20 times the annual final energy
Possible number 34 40 68 80
Stacking parking spaces vertically can requirement or 575 times the annual district
of spaces per
reduce the land use in urban areas. However, heating output in Germany! 100 m road length
access requires almost the same area as the
Possible number 4.4 3.2 4.4 5
parking space itself (Fig. B 2.77). In residen- of spaces per
tial districts local parking options in the form 100 m 2
of multi-storey or basement car parks can Space require- 22.5 30.8 22.5 20
help to clear parked vehicles from public ment per
spaces, create additional local meeting places parking space,
(social consequence) and generate a good incl. access m 2
feeling of safety among users.
• Basement car parks:
Underground car parks are expensive to B 2.77
build and operate. The energy requirement
for permanent artificial lighting and mechani-
cal ventilation can exceed the heating
requirement of a building. Natural lighting
and ventilation must therefore be considered,
especially as this also improves the feeling of
safety among users (Fig. B 2.75). The benefit
of underground facilities is that they release
land for amenities above ground in heavily References:
built-up areas. [1] Knoflacher, Herrmann: Stehzeuge. Vienna/Cologne/
• Automated parking systems: Weimar, 2001
These are based on the principle of stacking [2] Hauff, Volker: Unsere gemeinsame Zukunft. Der
Brundtland Bericht der Weltkommission für Umwelt
cars mechanically in a type of “shelving sys- und Entwicklung. (Our Common Future. Report of
tem”, which may be above or below ground, the World Commission on Environment and Develop- a Cross-section Longitudinal section
or integrated into a building. As drivers do ments. Greven 1987
not need access to the parking spaces, the [3] Mehr Wert für die Fläche: Das “Ziel-30-ha” für die
Nachhaltigkeit in Stadt und Land. German Council
overall space required is much less than that
for Sustainable Development (RNE) (ed.). Berlin,
needed for directly accessible parking spaces. 2004
However, the operating costs are higher (Fig. [4] Planning of the grid integration of wind energy in
B 2.78). germany onshore and offshore up to the year 2020
(summary of the “dena Grid Study”). German Energy
Agency (ed.). Cologne, 2005
In energy terms, parked cars represent unused [5] Meyer, Franz: Kältespeicher in großen Kältenetzen.
power stations with an extremely low degree of In: Projektinfo 10/05. Bine Informationsdienst, 2005
efficiency for mobility (approx. 18%). If we take [6] Wasser-Wissen, RWE AG
[7] Steigerung der Energieeffizienz von Kläranlagen. b Cross-section Longitudinal section
the number of cars in Germany (approx. 46 mil-
Presentation at the BMU/UBA conference on energy
lion) and assume an average engine output of
efficiency in sewage treatment plants, Ingenieur-
60 kW, this adds up to a mechanical capacity beratung für Abwassertechnik Bernd Haberkern.
of 2.8 TW! As a motorised object, it contains, in Bonn, 2007
principle, all the components necessary for a [8] Steierwald, Gerd: Stadtverkehrsplanung. Berlin/
decentralised combined heat and power plant! Heidelberg/New York, 2005
[9] Tully, Claus J.; Baier, Dirk: Mobiler Alltag – Mobilität
As our cars stand stationary for 8600 hours zwischen Option und Zwang. Vom Zusammenspiel
every year, they could generate 24 000 TWh of biographischer Motive und sozialer Vorgaben.
electricity! Gross electricity generation in Ger- Wiesbaden, 2006 c Cross-section d Cross-section
B 2.78

81
Building envelope

B 3.1
The outer shell of a building defines the bound- Usage
ary between inside and outside. It dominates The task of the building envelope is to create
the external appearance of the building and safe, secure, healthy and agreeable interior
enters into a dialogue with its surroundings. The conditions for the respective type of use, although
history of the building envelope is therefore some of the boundary conditions differ consid-
dominated by features and attributes that govern erably. Housing, for example, requires a totally
appearance, proportions, choice of materials different specification to that for offices or
and cultural aspects. Its primary function is to museums, theatres or manufacturing facilities.
protect the building against wind, precipitation Just the usage alone can have an effect on the
and solar radiation. As comfort demands have design of the building envelope, e.g. through
grown, however, the building envelope has mandatory stipulations regarding a higher air
taken on a more complex, climate-regulating change rate or level of illumination.
function. The desired degree of comfort involves a sub-
The increasing importance of energy consump- jective perception which is determined by a
tion in buildings has led to more and more number of influencing factors (see “Fundamen-
attention being focused on the building enve- tals”, p. 55). In all the deliberations regarding
lope – the facade design especially – with the energy-efficiency optimisation of the build-
respect to architectural and technical consider- ing envelope, users’ specific requirements are
ations. The external surfaces of a building have both the elementary condition and the objec-
a considerable effect on its energy efficiency. tive. A viable concept contains the synthesis of
This applies to both the optimisation of the heat all relevant parameters and places the user at
transfer between inside and outside, and also the focus of the investigation. It is necessary
to the decentralised energy production via the and also permissible to question the subjective
building envelope (Fig. B 3.1). demands of users, especially in the case of a
At the same time, our awareness of the need building whose energy concept is based on a
for a sustainable use of resources is on the close interaction with the external influences.
increase. The choice of materials for the build- For example, a deviation from the ideal values
ing envelope defines to a considerable extent for a limited period of time is often sensible if
both the energy requirements for constructing this enables a reduction in the auxiliary air-con-
the building in the first place, and also those of ditioning installation. Moreover, static interior
the follow-up period, e.g. for operating the build- conditions not dependent on the weather do
ing, cleaning or maintenance (see “Materials”, not necessarily represent the ideal situation for
p. 165). Further aspects of sustainability are human well-being.
privacy requirements and sound insulation, the
durability of the materials and the deconstruc- Climatic aspects
tion options. In the early days of the history of building,
building forms and types of construction devel-
Factors determining the design oped in the different climate zones of the planet
Numerous demands are placed on the building which were closely related to the local, specific
envelope as the energy interface between the climatic conditions. Contrasting with that, the
ambient conditions and the internal climate architecture of the International Style is in many
needs of users and occupants (Fig. B 3.2). instances characterised by the fact that exten-
Often, the resulting tasks lead to a conflict of sive technical systems can guarantee the
aims between, for example, the view out, the desired interior conditions at any place – with
use of daylight and shading measures. Besides the corresponding energy input. The planning
architectural ideas and economic criteria, the of energy-efficient buildings calls for a sensitive
B 3.1 Semi-transparent solar cells in the facade, design of a building envelope is subjected to understanding of the specific macroclimatic
cable-car station, Lech am Arlberg (A), 2002,
Hans Riemelmoser
complex conditions that must be optimised for and microclimatic conditions. Besides the sav-
B 3.2 Building envelope: influencing factors, each structure. Generally speaking, these con- ings to be made on technical systems and the
properties and functions ditions fall under the following headings: reduced energy demand, it is, in particular,

82
 Building envelope

better comfort that forms the focus of attention. now available, including servo-motors for auto- vant to the building envelope are listed in the
The technical and materials-related properties matic night-time cooling, fully automatically appendix (see p. 268).
of the external surfaces take on a key role here. regulated sunshading systems, facade-mount-
An accurate analysis of the climate data is ed ventilation units and active solar modules. Historical developments
therefore an important prerequisite for design- The different service lives of the building enve- In warm climate zones, buildings have always
ing a building envelope to suit a specific loca- lope materials and the technical components been broken down into loadbearing structure
tion. should be taken into account. And subsequent (e.g. wooden poles) and enclosing elements
improvements to the energy-efficiency proper- (e.g. animal skins). Contrasting with this, in the
Construction ties are coupled with high costs when the temperate and cold climate zones it was better
The configuration of the building envelope can building envelope is involved. For both new to build solid external walls that provided load-
be influenced by the design of the remainder of building works and refurbishment projects it is bearing functions at the same time (e.g. masonry).
the building. One critical aspect here is whether therefore sensible to estimate the ongoing Such forms of construction permitted only small
the outer shell is to provide loadbearing func- trends in comfort demands and to implement openings but introduced a large thermal mass,
tions or is to be relieved of any primary struc- the highest standards possible. and both these factors had a substantial influ-
tural requirements. Accordingly, choice of ence on the interior climate.
materials and design language are mutually Legislative stipulations It was the natural scientists of the 19th century
influential. Whereas in housing solid external The planning work is increasingly affected by in particular who contributed to the further
walls with their climate-regulating effect are legislation. Numerous documents contain speci- development of building envelope functions by
generally preferred, many contemporary office fications and recommendations with respect to explaining their building physics aspects.
buildings keep the loadbearing and enclosing the energy-efficiency properties of the building Around 1820 the Frenchman Jean Fourier pos-
functions separate, often resulting in the large- envelope. In Germany the corresponding legis- tulated a theory about heat conduction in solid
scale use of glass. Transparent surfaces call lation is drawn up at national or federal state bodies, and his use of the terms “heat flux”,
for special care during planning because they level and often forms the basis for further statu- “temperature gradient” and “thermal conductiv-
normally have to satisfy many functions, and tory instruments. Statutory instruments help to ity” still dominate the language today. In 1828
unwanted side-effects can manifest themselves. focus the legislation and also refer to numerous another Frenchman, the physicist Jean Claude
In order to deal with these effects, such facades standards. One German example is the Energy Eugène Péclet, introduced the k-value (now
are mostly supplemented by systems such as Conservation Act (EnEV), which is based on known as the U-value, measured in W/m2K, see
opening elements, sunshades, glare protec- the Energy Conservation Directive (EnEG) and “Materials”, p. 150, Fig. B 5.12) as a coefficient
tion, etc. provides specific information regarding the for a body’s permeability to heat [1]. In the
One increasingly important aspect is integrat- maximum permissible primary energy require- sense of energy, the building envelope con-
ing decentralised building services into the ments of buildings (see “Strategies”, p. 183). sists of six surfaces in the simplest case. These
building envelope. A compressive selection is The statutory instruments and standards rele- must be considered separately according to

External influencing factors Building envelope Internal influencing factors

Light Properties Thermal

Intensity of solar radiation Transparency Interior air temperature

Angle of solar radiation Translucency Average temperature of enclosing surfaces
Illuminance Opacity Surface temperatures
Horizon Thermal conductivity Temperature of incoming fresh air
Surrounding buildings Total energy transmittance Velocity of incoming fresh air
Vegetation Weight Interior humidity, humidity of incoming
Sound reduction index fresh air
Heat capacity Air movements
Vapour diffusion resistance
Air
Acoustic
Air temperature
Protective functions Noise level
Humidity
Air velocity Acoustic loads
Wind direction Moisture control Reverberation times
Air quality Wind
Sound Wintertime thermal performance
Precipitation Summertime thermal performance Visual
Sunshine
Glare
Direct radiation
Ground Noise
Angle of incoming light
Privacy
Illuminance
Ground temperature Intruders
Luminance distribution
Ground moisture Contrast, glare
Ground thermal mass Daylight factor
Supply functions
Daylight autonomy
Colour rendering, contact with outside world
Lighting View out
Ventilation
View out
View in Olfactory
Passive heat gains
Active heat gains Air change rate
Solar-generated electricity Air quality
B 3.2

83
Building envelope

1800
their respective internal and external require- heat gains during the summer led to a high
• Introduction of the terms heat flux, temperature ments. Whereas roof and ground slab have energy consumption. The inadequately insulated
gradient and thermal conductivity been almost exclusively designed from the opaque external components also contributed
• Introduction of the k-value for measuring the functional viewpoint, the facade, as a “commu- to the high heating energy requirements. The
thermal transmittance (today: U-value) nicating system”, has always been designed consequence of this in Germany was the adop-
taking into account architectural aspects. In tion of the Energy Conservation Directive (EnEG)
this context, in European architecture it was in the 1970s, which formed the basis for the 1st
primarily the developments in glass technology Thermal Insulation Act (1977). For the first time,
1850
and the production of iron that were important. legislation defined mandatory maximum k-values
• Crystal Palace in London (GB)
One of the landmarks in glass architecture, the for the external components of heated buildings.
• Introduction of the terms transmission and Crystal Palace in London, was a product of the At the same time, people once again started
ventilation heat losses
mid-19th century. More or less at the same looking at using the energy of the sun more
time, the first patent for insulating glass units and more for space heating requirements. The
• Patent for insulating glazing
was granted in the USA. That part of the build- elementary rules for the passive use of solar
• First solar air-collector facade (USA) ing envelope that frequently goes unnoticed is energy resulted in an era of experimental hous-
crucial in this context: surfaces in contact with ing during the 1980s, with a south-facing orien-
1900 • First double-leaf facade, Steiff production bldg. (D) the soil. Unimportant for the external appear- tation, large amounts of glass and large ther-
• Patent for cork insulating elements ance, they are crucial to the thermal balance of mal masses – “solar architecture”. It quickly
• First glass curtain wall, Halladie Building, a structure. became clear, however, that maximising the
San Francisco (USA) Thermal insulation to the external walls had passive solar gains could not achieve the
• Insulating glazing ready for the market already become an important theme in the 19th desired outcome by itself. Much greater suc-
century in the sense of thermal comfort in the cesses were achieved with measures aimed at
• Invention of solar-control glass
interior. The building physics function, protect- minimising heat losses through the building
ing the components, became relevant with the envelope, which in the end allowed the heating
1950 • Mineral insulating materials development of multi-layer building envelopes energy requirement to shrink to the smallest
• Thermal insulation composite systems made from different materials. Only later did item in the net energy balance. This was dem-
• Introduction of the term building physics thermal insulation attain the economic and eco- onstrated, for example, by the first passive
logical importance it enjoys today in conjunc- housing in Germany in the early 1990s (Fig.
• Development of the Trombe wall tion with energy consumption (Fig. B 3.3). B 3.5).

• Passive house The 20th century Current trends

• Energy-plus house Architectural developments at the beginning of At the same time as the research projects were
2000 the 20th century were characterised by a striv- being built in the 1980s, software programs
B 3.3 ing for filigree constructions and the use of were being written to accompany and influence
glass on a grander scale, as, for example, the entire planning process, from drawing up
Walter Gropius demonstrated impressively at simple energy balances to simulating complex
his Fagus Works (Fig. B 3.4) and Ludwig Mies energy and flow situations. Heat conduction,
van der Rohe formulated in his vision for a radiation and convection are three-dimensional
glass tower in Berlin. At the start of the 20th phenomena and can be visualised with several
century, it was the engineer Ludwig Dietz who zones, taking into account dynamic changes in
enabled a differentiated appraisal of the build- the internal and external boundary conditions.
ing envelope by defining an average k-value This has made a decisive contribution to being
for multi-layer and inhomogeneous components able to develop and design the thermodynamic
[1]. However, the desire for large expanses of system “building envelope” with a high degree
glass to optimise the amount of daylight in the of reliability (Fig. B 3.6). Such options take on a
interior mostly resulted in a worsening of the special significance in the case of energy-effi-
thermal comfort owing to the insufficient know- ciency upgrades for existing buildings, where
ledge about the physical properties of glazing there is a substantial backlog. Energy-efficiency
at that time. Furthermore, high transmission upgrades for existing building envelopes repre-
heat losses during the winter and excessive sent one major task in the meaning of sustain-

B 3.4 B 3.5 B 3.6

84
 Building envelope

able development. This is where the greatest Target Subtargets Concepts Measures
savings potential can be tapped in the short-
term because the few energy-efficient new
buildings are far outweighed by the building
stock, which will determine the energy require- Surface optimisation and Compactness, zoning,
ments for the coming decades (see “Urban envelope geometry thermal envelope
space and infrastructure”, p. 63, Fig. B 2.2).

Thermal insulation of Choice of materials,

Energy-efficient building envelopes
opaque components insulation, thermal bridges
The energy-efficiency planning of the building
envelope means guaranteeing that the interior
climate conditions necessary can be main- Maintaining and Thermal insulation of Proportion of glazing,
tained over the whole year with low energy gaining heat transparent components quality of glass
requirements and, wherever possible, essen-
tially without any costly energy supply techno-
logies. Such planning presumes an accurate Passive use of Buffer zones, transparent
solar radiation thermal insulation, thermal
analysis of the climatic boundary conditions mass
and the usage profile in conjunction with all the
aforementioned aspects. A building envelope Air change rate,
Minimising ventilation
optimised for energy aspects has a maximized heat losses heat recovery,
passive capacity and hence represents the preheating of incoming air,
foundation for viable energy concepts in the airtightness
future. Active solar thermal Roof collector,
Furthermore, by integrating active solar tech- energy gains facade collector
nology, it can make an important contribution to
a building’s energy supply. The building enve-
lope should therefore be devised in close con-
junction with the energy supply technologies.
These days, designers of energy-efficient Thermal insulation,
building envelopes have a large number of Reducing the heat transfer surface temperature,
materials, systems and technologies at their phase lag
disposal. Taking the 10 components of energy-
optimised building as our starting point (see Reducing the incoming Constructional measures,
Avoiding overheating special glasses,
p. 61, Fig. B 1.69), the individual targets, con- solar radiation
sunshading systems
cepts and measures are explained in the follow-
ing (Fig. B 3.7). These are divided up accord-
Release of stored thermal
ing to the five energy themes – heating, cool- Thermal mass and ventilation energy, preconditioning of
Optimisation of
ing, ventilation, lighting, electricity – and hence incoming air
building envelope
provide a structured overview of the optimisa-
tion approaches possible in principle.

Ventilation via windows,

Natural ventilation using the wind,
thermal currents
Decentralised ventilation
Facade-mounted Spandrel panel elements,
mechanical ventilation units underfloor convectors,
ventilation via frames

Building and room geometry,

Geometric optimisation proportion of glazing,
arrangement of glazing
Using the daylight
Transpareny, translucency,
Daylighting systems reflecting, redirecting and
transporting the light

B 3.3 Brief chronology of the building envelope aspects Building envelopes with Photovoltaic facade, photo-
relevant to energy photovoltaic panels voltaic roof, solar shading
B 3.4 Fagus Works, Alfeld a.d. Leine (D), 1911,
Walter Gropius
B 3.5 First passive house in Germany, Darmstadt (D), Segregation, incorporation,
Solar technology and the
1991, Bott, Ridder, Westermeyer Generating electricity amalgamation
building envelope
B 3.6 Semi-detached houses, Mühlheim (D), 2005,
Pfeifer Roser Kuhn
B 3.7 Targets, subtargets, concepts and measures for
Solar technology and Addition, integration,
the energy-efficiency optimisation of building
architecture adaptation
envelopes
B 3.7

85
Building envelope

Transmission Heating requirement Maintaining and gaining heat Surface optimisation and envelope geometry
heat losses e.g. active use Decisive criteria for energy-efficiency optimisa-
Insulation of of solar In the temperate and cold zones of the Earth it tion are laid down as early as the preliminary
opaque components radiation is particularly important to guarantee agreeable design phase through the shape of the building
Insulation of trans- interior conditions by way of appropriate meas- and the layout of the usable floor spaces.
parent components passive ures when outside temperatures are low. The
solar gains
primary aim is to keep as much heat within the Compactness
building by constructing an optimised building Selecting a form for a building has a substantial
envelope. A thermal balance can be drawn up influence on its energy requirements. The volume
Ventilation for the building in order to analyse the heat of a building is normally mainly determined by
heat losses internal
gains flows, specifying the relationship between heat the internal layout and economic considera-
losses and heat gains throughout the year (Fig. tions. In addition, construction and planning
B 3.8). legislation stipulations with respect to site occu-
Losses Gains When assessing the loss factors, we distinguish pancy index and plot ratio, which define the
Areas where the building envelope between transmission and ventilation heat losses. permissible total volume, must be taken into
may have an influence On the gains side, there are internal heat sources account. However, there is usually some lee-
B 3.8 (waste heat produced by lighting, people and way for the architectural design of the building
electrical appliances) and energy gains due to envelope. Surface areas of different sizes have
Uroof solar radiation entering through transparent a direct effect on the heat losses: the smaller
H'T = Area-weighted average sections of the building envelope (passive use the envelope area required for a given volume,
thermal conductivity of the
building envelope [W / m2K]
of solar energy). The properties of the building the lower is the building’s heating requirement.
U = Thermal transmittance
envelope should contribute to evening out this And vice versa: the larger the envelope area for
Uglazing
specific to building
component [W /m2K]
balance as far as possible. The difference a given volume, the greater the thermal insula-
A = Area of building
between the two sides of the equation deter- tion requirements will be. This relationship
Uext. wall component [m2] mines the heating requirement that must be becomes directly visible in the design and can
Ufloor Fxi = Correction factor provided via technical means, and forms the be quantified via the concept of compactness.
(see Fig. B 3.13)
basis for calculating the primary energy require- The variable for assessing compactness is the
WBZ = Thermal bridges surcharge
specific to building ment in the meaning of the Energy Conserva- ratio of the heat-transferring enclosing surface
component [W /m2K]
tion Act (see “Strategies”, p. 185, Fig. B 6.26). area (A) to the heated volume of the building
ht As the internal heat sources are, first and fore- (V) (= A/V ratio). From the geometrical point of
H'T= H'T = Σ (U·A·Fxi )+WBZ · A
A most, determined by the type of use, the opti- view, a sphere represents the ideal form; but in
misation potential of the building envelope lies terms of an orthogonal structure, a cube is
B 3.9 in minimising the losses and maximising the best. Deviations from these optimum forms
solar gains. The average thermal resistance of lead to differences with respect to the heating
Primary energy requirement [kWh/m2 a]

250 Existing building the enclosing surfaces contributing to the heat requirement of a building (Fig. B 3.10).
transfer (H’T in W/m2K, Fig. B 3.9) can serve as Unheated circulation zones, utility and storage
200 the target variable for assessing the passive rooms, garages, etc. are not counted as part of
thermal performance of a building via its outer the heated volume and therefore must be ther-
shell. This figure provides an indication of the mally separated from the heated volume(s).
150 transmission heat losses to be expected. In From the energy point of view, it is not the com-
addition to this, the provision of fresh air from pactness of the gross volume that is relevant,
EnEV* outside at low temperatures represents another but rather the volume of the heated part(s) of
100
loss factor which becomes more significant as the building (Fig. B 3.11).
the air change rate increases. Finally, the pro- A small facade surface area also has a positive
50 portion of glazing with respect to the orientation effect on the construction costs. But striving to
Passive house
expresses the potential for the passive use of achieve a high compactness does have its lim-
solar radiation. Besides the direct thermal energy its – where daylight conditions and visual con-
0 flow via the building envelope, active solar ther- tact with the outside world are impaired (see
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0
mal systems for supplying heat are growing in p. 102).
A/V ratio [1 / m]
importance. Components in the building enve- In principle, the degree of compactness
B 3.10 lope are particularly relevant here (see p. 93). improves as the volume increases. For exam-
In order to improve the thermal performance of ple, large units in apartment blocks exhibit
the building envelope in winter, the following much lower transmission heat losses than
elements must be harmonised with each other: detached houses with the same floor space
(see “Urban space and infrastructure”, p. 70,
• Surface optimisation and envelope geometry Fig. B 2.33).
• Thermal insulation of opaque components
• Thermal insulation of transparent components Thermal zoning
• Passive use of solar radiation Energy-efficiency optimisation potential can
• Minimising ventilation heat losses also be achieved in the layout of the building
• Active solar thermal energy gains by way of thermal zoning. This means appor-
tioning the internal spaces according to their
different temperature requirements. It is impor-
tant to consider the underlying climatic condi-
tions for the orientation of the different rooms.
Accordingly, it is advisable to locate areas with
Building volume Heated volume a high heating requirement on the south side,
B 3.11

86
 Building envelope

1 2 3

5 Component Temperature correction factor [Fxi]

1 Opaque floor/roof against outside air 1.0
6 2 Opaque floor/roof against unheated room 0.8
A1 A2
3 Transparent floor/roof against outside air 1.0
U1 U2 7
A 4 Transparent wall against outside air 1.0
Ueff. 5 Opaque wall against outside air 1.0
8 6 Transparent wall against glass extension –
7 Opaque wall against glass extension –
A1 A 9 8 Opaque wall against unheated room 0.5
Ueff.
effektiv=U1
• + U2• 2
A A 9 Opaque wall against ground 0.6

12 11 10 10 Ground floor against ground 0.6

11 Ground floor against unheated room 0.6
12 Ground floor against outside air 1.0
B 3.12 B 3.13
unheated rooms or those with a low heating average U-value of less than 0.15 W/m2K is walls are so high that a monolithic construction
requirement, also rooms with high internal heat required. During the planning work, we must with a reasonable material thickness can no
loads, on the north side, to act as a thermal distinguish between different components and longer achieve a thermal performance that sat-
buffer. their requirements. As an energy appraisal also isfies modern requirements.
Furthermore, thermal optimisation of the build- takes into account the heat transfer from the A multi-layer or multi-leaf construction makes
ing is possible through a specific arrangement building component to the outside, the same use of additional layers of thermal insulation.
of zones without heating requirements – either wall constructions can exhibit different U-values The range of suitable materials ranges from
through the use of unheated ancillary rooms or, depending on the particular situation (e.g. in natural products such as cork or hemp to the
in particular, by adding an outer leaf of glass. contact with the outside air or soil) (Fig. B 3.13). ubiquitous mineral wool and extruded foams,
The traditional conservatory can achieve this and the latest vacuum insulation panels.
effect just as well as modern double-leaf External walls Choosing the right insulating material depends
facades or atria. Transferred to a larger scale, In most cases the external walls form the largest on the application and the specific require-
the consequence of further development is a area of the building envelope, and their signifi- ments, e.g. compressive strength, moisture
private climatic envelope (see p. 92). cance increases with the height of the building. resistance or fire protection (see “Materials”,
The thermal quality of the opaque external p. 151). Figs. B 3.16 to 3.23 show examples of
Thermal insulation of opaque components walls therefore has a considerable influence on different wall constructions. Furthermore, there
The magnitude of transmission heat losses the transmission heat losses of a building. In are many different types of construction and
through opaque building envelopes is essen- the case of single-leaf masonry external walls, many different types of material that can be
tially determined by the thermal conductivity of highly perforated clay bricks achieve thermal used for facades. External walls that must satisfy
the components enclosing the heated volume. conductivities as low as 0.08 W/mK (Fig. B 3.14). high thermal specifications can be broken
It depends on the specific properties of the This means that with a wall thickness of 360 mm, down into the following principal insulation
materials and the construction of the compo- U-values as low as approx. 0.2 W/m2K are pos- typologies: external insulation, cavity insulation,
nents involved. The parameter for the thermal sible. Alternatively, combining loadbearing cal- internal insulation and frame construction.
quality of a building component is the thermal cium silicate masonry with insulating autoclaved To achieve the ideal sequence of layers in
transmittance (U-value) measured in W/m2K. It aerated concrete can reduce the U-value to terms of the building physics, the insulating
describes the heat flow under static conditions approx. 0.12 W/m2K for the same thickness of material should be placed on the outside of
and is calculated as the heat output per square wall. Even solid concrete walls, if constructed solid external walls (e.g. masonry, concrete).
metre for a difference of 1 K between the two from autoclaved aerated concrete, can achieve This places the wall construction on the warm
surfaces of the component, usually between U-values as low as 0.3 W/m2K for a thickness of side where its mass can have a favourable
inside and outside. The lower this value, the 400 mm (Fig. B 3.16). However, lowering the effect on the interior climate. One widely used
better is the thermal performance of a compo- thermal conductivity of a building component system for insulating external walls is the
nent (see “Materials”, p. 149). In a highly insu- also reduces its loadbearing capacity. In many external thermal insulation composite system
lated building such as a passive house, an cases the requirements placed on external (insulation + render). This solution represents
Building material Thermal
conductivity λ
[W/mK]
Timber 1 Masonry
Structural timber, hardwood, ρ = 700 kg 0.18
B 3.8 The heat balance of a building 2 Adhesive
Structural timber, softwood, ρ = 500 kg 0.13
B 3.9 Determining the average thermal resistance H’T
3 Rock wool
B 3.10 How the compactness of the building influences Materials with mineral binders
batts
the primary energy requirement Normal-wt. conc. w. 1% reinforcement 2.30
B 3.11 Compactness and thermal envelope Ltwt. conc. w. expanded clay agg., ρ = 500 kg 0.16 4 Levelling
B 3.12 Determining the average thermal resistance of Aerated concrete, ρ = 500 kg 0.16 mortar
inhomogeneous building components Aerated concrete, ρ = 350 kg, ltwt. mortar 0.09 5 Glass-fibre
B 3.13 Overview of the components of the building Masonry (including mortar joints) mesh
envelope that must be differentiated for energy Calcium silicate bricks, ρ = 1600 kg 0.79 6 Render
purposes, with reduction factor Fxi according to Solid clay bricks, ρ = 1600 kg 0.68 system
the German Energy Conservation Act Vert. perf. clay bricks, ρ = 550 kg, ltwt. mortar 0.27 6
B 3.14 Thermal conductivities of selected building Insul. clay bricks, ρ ≤ 600 kg, perlite fill., ltwt. mortar 0.08 4
materials 5
Metal 4
B 3.15 Structure of a thermal insulation composite
Mild steel, Fe 360 BFN 56.90 1 2 3
system
B 3.14 B 3.15

87
Building envelope

an efficient, high-quality thermal optimisation control measures when installing the insulation Roofs
for an external wall and at the same time pro- internally. As the amount of internal insulation The roof represents a significant area for losses
vides protection from the weather (Figs. B increases, so the surface temperature of the through heat transfer, especially in low-rise
3.15 and 3.18). inner face of the loadbearing wall construction buildings. We distinguish between heavyweight
Thermal insulation composite systems are decreases. In order to avoid condensation, the slabs, couple or purlin roofs and lightweight
bonded to the outside of a solid wall, additional design must ensure that water vapour in the air constructions. Figs. B 3.24 to 3.26 show exam-
mechanical fixings only being required in the does not drop below the dew point temperature ples of different roof structures.
case of higher structural requirements. Such at any point, especially within the layer of insu-
systems can be used with virtually any sub- lation. The thickness of internal insulation is • Flat roofs are usually in the form of heavy-
strate and are therefore also ideal when install- therefore restricted to approx. 60–100 mm. weight constructions, normally of reinforced
ing extra insulation in refurbishment projects. Furthermore, a vapour barrier (a membrane concrete. In terms of optimising their thermal
Alternatively, the weather protection layer can impermeable to water vapour) must be attached performance, they are comparable to solid
be detached from the insulating layer. This to the inside of the insulation in order to prevent external walls. When choosing the insulating
arrangement requires an air space behind the the transport of moisture from the interior into material, the compression loads should be
outer leaf in order to drain any moisture and the layer of insulation. Alternatively, it is possi- taken into account, especially in the case of
lends itself to a wide spectrum of facade mate- ble to employ insulating materials that can trafficable surfaces or rooftop planting (Fig.
rials and design options (Fig. B 3.20). Fixing absorb large quantities of water vapour and B 3.24). Rigid foam elements are the norm
the outer leaf to the loadbearing wall usually release it again (e.g. boards of calcium silicate here, designed as a warm or cold deck. To
penetrates the layer of insulation, a fact that foam). With such a solution it is important to en- achieve U-values < 0.15 W/m2K, insulating
must be taken into account when calculating sure that the moisture can be dissipated through thicknesses exceeding 200 mm are neces-
the U-value. the normal exchange of air in the interior. sary. The resulting depth of the roof finishes
In a double-leaf solid wall construction (e.g. In frame construction, linear vertical elements should be taken into account when designing
facing masonry, fair-face concrete), it is possi- (studs, posts, columns of timber or metal) pro- parapets.
ble to position the insulation between the two vide the structural functions. Timber stud con- • Pitched roofs for housing are usually in the
leaves (Fig. B 3.17). An air space is not usually struction is very popular for housing. Frame form of couple or purlin roofs. In principle, the
necessary. Mineral-fibre and rigid foam boards, construction enables the loadbearing and insu- same conditions apply here as for a timber
but also loose materials, can be used for the lating layers to be combined in one plane and stud wall. It is particularly important to ensure
insulation. Like with a facade with a ventilation therefore a good U-value can be achieved with that the vapour barrier is installed carefully
cavity, there must be structural connections a thinner wall (Fig. B 3.19). The inhomogene- and completely on the inside. In addition to a
between the outer leaf and the inner loadbear- ous wall construction means that the U-value is continuous layer of insulation, it is also possi-
ing leaf, which inevitably leads to the fixings calculated as the average value according to ble to fill the spaces between the rafters with
penetrating the thermal insulation. The clear- the proportions of the areas of the insulating insulation (Fig. B 3.25). If insulation is not
ance between the leaves and hence the maxi- and loadbearing components (Fig. B 3.12). In installed between the rafters, e.g. so that the
mum thickness of insulation possible is limited non-residential work, the structure is normally roof structure can be left exposed internally,
to approx. 150 mm in standard systems. Thick- of reinforced concrete or steel. Post-and-rail the continuous layer of insulation must be
er insulation calls for custom solutions. systems are then normally used for the sepa- sufficiently thick, which can lead to a very
If external insulation is not possible (e.g. when rate building envelope. A good thermal break deep roof construction. In highly insulated
refurbishing facades protected by preservation in the facade system is important here. The infill forms of construction, both insulating princip-
orders), it may need to be attached to the elements for opaque parts of the building enve- les are combined, but the thing deep roof
inside (Fig. B 3.21). This solution, however, lope can be designed as cold facades with construction must be properly dealt with
places a “thermal break” between the thermal insulation to solid components (e.g. concrete when designing the eaves.
mass of the wall and the interior. In addition, spandrel panel) or as highly insulated panels • Steel structures frequently employ lightweight
the mounting of items on the wall internally is (Fig. B 3.22). Vacuum insulation panels (VIP) sheets (e.g. trapezoidal profile steel shee-
then limited because the insulating material is can be used to achieve excellent insulating ting) for the roof. These require external insu-
not usually rigid enough and fixings that pene- values with thicknesses only marginally greater lation similar to solid reinforced concrete
trate the vapour barrier behind, which is nor- than those of glazing elements (Fig. B 3.23). roofs (Fig. B 3.26). As an alternative to the
mally necessary, lead to building physics prob- layer-by-layer construction, insulated sand-
lems. Great care must be taken with moisture wich panels can be attached directly to the
loadbearing construction.
B 3.16 Solid wall of autoclaved aerated concrete, private
Components for rooms with a temperature
house, Chur (CH), 2003, Patrick Gartmann
B 3.17 Fair-face concrete with cavity insulation, “House difference
of Tranquillity”, Meschede (D), 2001, Peter Kulka Components adjacent to unheated rooms or
with Konstantin Pichler those with low heating requirements must be
B 3.18 External thermal insulation composite system, considered with respect to the heat transfer.
private house, Zweibrücken (D), 2006, dd1
Architekten
This concerns, for example, the topmost sus-
B 3.19 Timber stud wall, private house, Seekirchen (A), pended floor slabs beneath unheated roof
2003, Ebner Grömer spaces, floor slabs over unheated basements,
B 3.20 Metal facade with ventilation cavity, research floors or walls adjacent to garages and unheat-
centre, Bonn (D), 2002, BMBW Architekten +
ed staircases. Owing to the low temperature
Partner
B 3.21 Refurbishment with internal insulation, private differences, the thermal insulation requirements
house, Constance (D), 2003, Schaller + Sternagel are reduced in such instances. In the refurbish-
B 3.22 Post-and-rail facade with insulating panels, office ment of existing buildings, such insulation gen-
building, Düsseldorf (D), 2005, Gatermann + erally proves to be very economical because it
Schossig
B 3.23 Timber stud facade with vacuum insulation
achieves good savings for a low capital outlay.
panels, experimental facade project, Würzburg
(D),1999, Michael Volz

88
 Building envelope

Reinforced concrete
Autoclaved Cavity Insulation
aerated concrete Reinforced concrete
B 3.16 B 3.17

Cladding
Air space
Thermal insulation Timber stud wall/
composite system insulation
Solid masonry wall Lining
B 3.18 B 3.19

Facade panel Render

Air space Timber frame
Insulation Internal insulation
Solid wall Plasterboard
B 3.20 B 3.21

Post-and-rail construction/ Glass panel

insulating panel Vacuum insulation panel
Glass Hardboard
B 3.22 B 3.23

89
Building envelope

Components in contact with the soil positions of the layers of insulation and the Thermal insulation of transparent components
The lower temperature fluctuations in the soil insulating glazing units at an early stage in the When planning transparent components,
mean that components in direct contact with design process. In new construction work, numerous requirements such as daylight utili-
the soil exhibit a more favourable thermal careful planning can result in the avoidance of sation, the views in and out, freedom from
behaviour than components in contact with the thermal bridges. But for those thermal bridges glare, etc. must be considered. In well-insulated
outside air. Thermal insulation below ground is that cannot be eliminated and for refurbishment structures, transparent surfaces usually exhibit
usually attached outside the waterproofing to projects, the building physics of the correspond- a poorer thermal performance than opaque
the structure. Rotproof materials are essential ing weak spots should be critically analysed components because of the materials used.
and they must able to withstand moisture and and taken into account as causes of losses The size and arrangement of areas of glazing
compression loads (see “Materials”, p. 151). when calculating the heating requirement. therefore have a great influence on the trans-
The more favourable temperature boundary Thermographic images can be used to back mission heat losses. In this respect, the signifi-
conditions mean that the layer of insulation up the analysis. Such images provide informa- cance of transparent components increases
required is usually thinner than that for wall tion on the surface temperatures and therefore with the area of glazing. We speak of a high
elements exposed to the outside air. When allow conclusions to be drawn concerning the proportion of glazing when the transparent area
specifying the dimensions, however, it should thermal transmittance (Fig. B 3.27). Thermal of a facade exceeds 30% for residential build-
be remembered that subsequent improvements bridges can be taken into account by means of ings or 50% for buildings with other functions.
to the thermal quality of buried components is general surcharges or by way of detailed calcu- As the height of the glazing increases, the
not normally possible. lations [2]. The significance of thermal bridges body of cold air descending on the inside of
increases with the quality of the thermal insula- the cooler glass surfaces can lead to draughts.
Thermal bridges tion to the building envelope. In very well-insu- Such effects must be counteracted by heating.
Avoiding thermal bridges is a very important lated buildings, even minor constructional ther-
aspect when insulating building components. mal bridges can cause high heat losses. In The quality of the glass
Thermal bridges are local disruptions to the addition, they lead to a lower surface tempera- Just like with the opaque building components,
insulating enclosure at which – compared with ture on the inside compared to the surrounding the thermal quality of different types of glass
the surrounding surface – a higher heat flow components, which means there is a risk of varies considerably. Depending on climate
from inside to outside takes place, e.g. at canti- condensation and subsequent moisture dam- zone and building function, systems from sin-
levering balcony slabs, fixings for facade pan- age. Careful planning of those areas at risk is gle glazing right up to highly advanced insulat-
els or housings for roller shutters (Fig. B 3.29). therefore extremely important if later damage to ing units with different coatings and gases can
We distinguish here between geometrical and the building is to be prevented. be employed (see “Materials”, pp. 152 and
constructional thermal bridges. In principle, 155). The standard today in temperate climate
from the thermal point of view, we should try to zones is low E double glazing. The U-value of
achieve an insulating envelope that is as homo- the window (UW) is made up of the specific
geneous as possible. It is helpful here to fix the values for the glass (UG) plus the frame (UF).
1
1
1 2
2 3 2
4
3 5 3
6
7
4 4
5 5

6
6

1 Sheet zinc
1 Green roof, waterproofing 2 Separating layer 1 Photovoltaic modules
2 Wood-based board product 3 Decking 2 Waterproofing, wood-based board product
3 Thermal insulation 4 Thermal insulation/rafters 3 Thermal insulation
4 Vapour barrier 5 Vapour barrier 4 Vapour barrier
5 Reinforced concrete slab 6 Battens 5 Trapezoidal profile steel sheeting
6 Plaster 7 Plasterboard 6 Steel beam

B 3.24 B 3.25 B 3.26

90
 Building envelope

Triple glazing is being increasingly used for fer with the help of various types of thermally
housing, and even quadruple glazing with insulating elements placed in front of or behind
U-values as low as 0.3 W/m2K is now available the glass temporarily. Typical elements are
on the market. Vacuum glazing, which should folding and sliding shutters, insulated roller
guarantee an extremely high level of thermal shutters or vertical or horizontal louvres that
insulation with very thin units, is still undergoing can be closed completely (Fig. B 3.33).
development.
The optimum quality of glass required can be Passive use of solar radiation
determined on the basis of a heating require- Up until now, so-called solar architecture has
ment calculation depending on the proportion been characterised by positioning buildings to
of glazing and the orientation plus the desired suit the available sunlight, large openings on
efficiency of the building envelope. Fig. B 3.30 south-facing elevations, mainly closed surfaces
illustrates how the quality of the glazing influ- to the north, roof overhangs to protect against
ences the heating requirement. overheating in summer while still allowing plen-
ty of sunlight into the interior in the winter, and
Multi-leaf arrangements an interior layout based on thermal zoning.
Further optimisation potential can be achieved Glass plays a decisive role in these designs B 3.27
through the use of multi-leaf arrangements; because it enables thermal separation but at
these range from coupled windows to double- the same time still permits the use of daylight
leaf facades. However, the thermal aspect is and visual contact with the outside world.
usually of only secondary importance in these Furthermore, its specific physical properties
systems. They can prove economically viable allow it to be used specifically as a “heat trap”
if other performance requirements, e.g. sound for heating the interior.
insulation or natural ventilation in tall buildings, This effect is based on the following principle:
are of prime importance in the planning (see the short-wave solar radiation (ultraviolet radia-
p. 99). Double-leaf facades in particular must tion) from the sun is absorbed by materials and
be guaranteed adequate ventilation in the cavity converted into long-wave heat radiation (infra-
so that the desired buffering effect during the red radiation). Glass possesses the property of
winter months does not lead to thermal loads being permeable to short-wave radiation but
during the summer. impermeable to long-wave heat radiation. This
The double-leaf principle can also represent a characteristic, known as the greenhouse effect,
sensible alternative for energy-efficient upgrades can be used to optimise the thermal use of
to existing buildings. Combining the existing solar radiation through a combination of trans-
B 3.28
building envelope surfaces with a second leaf parent areas and absorbent materials. Such a
of glass will increase the total thermal quality simple form of gaining energy should be
substantially. Such a solution presents the assessed as particularly positive because the B 3.24 Reinforced concrete slab with rooftop planting,
chance of reusing the existing glazing and heat absorption takes place by way of the mixed residential and commercial development,
Vienna (A), 2002, Delugan Meissl
frames. building components that are provided anyway
B 3.25 Couple roof with sheet metal covering, apart-
This approach also considerably diminishes and therefore does not employ any moving ment block, Dortmund (D), 2005, ArchiFactory.
the effects of existing thermal bridges. In addi- parts and is completely free from emissions de
tion, facades worthy of preservation can be and noise. This energy potential is, however, B 3.26 Flat roof on steel structure, private house “R128”,
protected from the weather and are given a subjected to certain limits owing to the con- Stuttgart (D), 2000, Werner Sobek
B 3.27 Thermographic image of the Centre Georges
new look without altering their existing struc- stants of the sun’s trajectory, which we cannot Pompidou, Paris (F)
ture. influence (and hence the resulting “passivity”). B 3.28 Example of isotherms at a constructional thermal
There is thus a conflict between energy needs bridge (plinth of building)
Temporary thermal insulation and energy availability in many situations. Sun- B 3.29 Typical thermal bridges
a in an existing building
As during the night there is no daylight and a shades and thermal masses play an important
b example of refurbishment: reducing thermal
view through the windows is mostly unimpor- role in this context. Thermal masses can com- bridges
tant, transparent components provide the pensate for brief fluctuations in the day and c example of new building work: avoiding
chance of temporarily reducing the heat trans- night rhythm efficiently. thermal bridges

1 Thermal insulation 1 1 Continuous layer

composite system of insulation
1

2
2 Separate balcony construction 2 Thermally isolated
2 in front of facade construction
Thermal bridges surcharges (e.g. Isokorb)
according to Energy Pass
in accordance with DIN 4108-6: 3 3 Functioning elements
surcharge = 0.05 W/ m2K positioned outside
e.g. sliding shutters)
not in accordance with DIN 4108-6:
surcharge = 0.1 W/m2K 3 External insulation below ground
with internal insulation 3 4 Insulation beneath floor 4 4 External insulation
surcharge = 0.2 W/m2K 4 over basement below ground
a b c B 3.29

91
Building envelope

TWD* External wall

Primary energy requirement [kWh/m2 a]

120 North-West North North-East

So
Ug =1.8 lar
100 rad
iat
ion

80 Losses
Heat gains
60 West 0.00 East
Ug =1.1

0.05
40
Ug =0.7
0.10
Ug =0.4 Reflection
20
*TWD Transparent • 50 °C
0.15
thermal insulation

0 0.20
0 20 40 60 80 100 • 20 °C South-West South South-East
Average U-value, dynamic [W/ m2K]
Proportion of glazing in facade [%] 0 °C • Average U-value, static [W/ m2K]
B 3.30 B 3.31 B 3.32
The passive use of solar radiation via the win- solar optimisation is normally sensible for resi- lope offers new opportunities for energy-effi-
dows is, in principle, always available (even dential buildings, whereas in offices the over- ciency optimisation and also creates a special
those facing north – by way of diffuse solar heating problem in summer generally out- space that provides a good-quality climate
radiation). The solar gains via the glazing should weighs because of the higher internal loads. compared to the outside, especially on cool
be taken into account accordingly in the heat- days (see example 11). The investment
ing requirement calculations. The magnitude of Solar buffer spaces required for the additional envelope can be
these energy gains can be influenced decisively Besides direct energy gains from solar radia- compensated for by the lower requirements
by the design of the building plus the size and tion, a further concept that can be used is to placed on the internal envelope. In the refur-
arrangement of the transparent surfaces. It is, provide solar buffer spaces, so-called sun- bishment market, this approach can generate
in particular, the orientation of transparent sur- spaces. These range from the traditional con- interesting alternatives to conventional energy-
faces with respect to the solar radiation that servatory and glazed atria right up to complete efficiency upgrades.
plays a key role. The thermal effect of glazing climatic envelopes. The main idea here is
in the heating period is calculated as the differ- always to create an intermediate space between Transparent thermal insulation
ence between the transmission heat losses and interior and exterior which is heated exclusively Various materials, elements and facade systems
the solar gains. On elevations facing away from by solar radiation and where the temperature is that permit the use of solar radiation even via
the sun, the losses prevail, whereas those fac- higher than that of the outside air. This reduces opaque components, e.g. transparent thermal
ing the sun can generate heat gains to be the transmission heat losses of the interior which, insulation, have been developed for the build-
entered into the calculation. Accordingly, for an however, must be verified by way of simulation ing envelope over recent decades (Fig. B 3.31).
energy-efficient optimisation, both the propor- calculations. The external shell is generally in The underlying principle is that during the heat-
tion of glazing and the thermal quality should the form of single glazing. The buffer space is ing period solar radiation can pass through a
be determined separately depending on the not heated, but should always be linked with layer of insulation and heat up the outer surface
orientation. Optimum passive use of solar radi- some form of usage (Fig. B 3.34). of a solid wall. If the temperature is the same as
ation starts with establishing the size, geometry Synthetic membranes can be used instead of the internal temperature, no transmission heat
and orientation of the transparent areas in the glass. In a triple-layer, air-cushion design, losses ensue.
building envelope necessary for visual contact U-values ≤ 1.7 W/m2K are possible. The outer Translucent elements with integral storage
with the outside world and the provision of day- and middle membranes can be printed with materials can be used instead of opaque sys-
light. Important in all approaches aimed at an patterns, one a reverse of the other. The posi- tems (Figs. B 3.38 and 3.39). Various types of
increased use of solar radiation is, however, tion of the middle membrane can then be latent heat storage systems (e.g. PCM, see
that the advantages during the cold months do adjusted manually (by varying the air pressure “Materials”, p. 158) can be used. Furthermore,
not lead to negative consequences during the in the cushion) to alter the total energy transmit- glass elements with inexpensive honeycomb or
hotter part of the year (see p. 95). The usable tance (g-value) of the membrane roof depend- lamella structures are also possible. Overheat-
solar potential also differs markedly depending ing on requirements (Fig. B 3.35). ing is avoided in these systems by using spe-
on the use of the building. For example, passive On a large scale, a transparent climatic enve- cial types of glass or a special geometric struc-
B 3.30 Example of how the proportion of glazing and
the quality of the glass affect the primary energy
rqmt. of a private house (S : W/E : N = 3 : 2 : 1)
B 3.31 Schematic diagram showing the function of TI
B 3.32 Dynamic U-value of a timber stud wall (180 mm
insulation + 50 mm TI)
B 3.33 Folding shutters as temporary sunshades and
thermal insulation, apartment blocks, Innsbruck
(A), 2000, Baumschlager & Eberle
B 3.34 Double-leaf facade, Aschrott home for senior citi-
zens, Kassel (D), 1931, Otto Haesler
B 3.35 Atrium roof with membrane cushions, kindergar-
ten, Wismar (D), 2005, Institut für Gebäudetech-
nik + Energie + Licht Planung (IGEL)
B 3.36 Lucido® facade, Wildhaus (CH), 1999, Architheke
B 3.37 Solid timber wall with glass elements, joinery
workshop, Ehrenkirchen (D), 1999, Pfeifer Kuhn
B 3.38 TI with integral thermal mass
B 3.39 Facade with TI, sheltered housing, Domat/Ems
(CH), 2004, Dietrich Schwarz
B 3.33 B 3.34

92
 Building envelope

B 3.35 B 3.36 B 3.37

ture so that the incident solar radiation can Minimising ventilation heat losses masses and a considerable increase in energy
penetrate as far as the absorber surface in win- More attention will have to be paid to ventilation consumption (see p. 100, Fig. B 3.70).
ter, but is reflected in summer because the sun heat losses if a good-quality building envelope • Natural ventilation concepts can make use of
is high in the sky and the angle of incidence is has been provided. This applies especially to fresh air preheated via various systems such
steep (Fig. B 3.36). buildings whose uses require guaranteed high as double-leaf facades, atria or special air
Combinations of solid timber walls with a glass air change rates. Four aspects are essentially collectors (Fig. B 3.40).
outer leaf are also possible (Fig. B 3.37). In relevant to this topic of minimising ventilation • Heat exchangers in conjunction with ventila-
addition to the passive functions, such an heat losses: tion systems with mechanical assistance can
arrangement offers the chance of solar pre- help to avoid up to 90% of the heat losses (see
heating of the incoming fresh air. • The design and construction of the building “Building services”, p. 135). Very efficient
As a rule, this “dynamic insulation” has a lower envelope should ensure a high airtightness in buildings (e.g. passive houses) require mecha-
U-value than high-quality opaque insulation, at order to prevent an uncontrolled exchange of nical ventilation with heat recovery in order to
least when considered in a static calculation. air. To achieve this, careful detailing of the achieve a low heating energy requirement.
Whether it offers advantages taken as a whole many junctions and connections is neces-
over the year, can be determined only through sary. The so-called blower-door test can be Active solar thermal energy gains
dynamic thermal building simulation and moni- used to check the airtightness of a building In contrast to the passive use of solar energy,
toring (Fig. B. 3.32). (Fig. B 3.41). By creating an overpressure or the active use of solar thermal energy via col-
a partial vacuum, the fan output required to lectors does not depend on the interior climate.
maintain a certain pressure (50 Pa) in the Active solar energy systems in conjunction with
building is determined, which in turn allows efficient storage technology mean that solar
the actual air change rate per hour (1/h) to be energy can be used essentially irrespective of
calculated. A guarantee of high airtightness the momentary incident solar radiation conditions.
is especially important for buildings with Well-developed technologies and concepts are
mechanical ventilation in order to ensure their already available (see “Building services”,
proper functioning and the efficiency of the p. 118).
heat recovery. Values < 0.6/h are usual here. At the heart of the planning there is the collec-
• In buildings with ventilation via the windows tor for converting the incident solar radiation
only, the choice and arrangement of opening into thermal energy for generating heat. The
lights can help to achieve energy-efficient collector is both part of the building services
user behaviour. For example, an opening and a building envelope component. Its techni-
light without a tilt function will prevent conti- cal and architectural integration represents a
nuous ventilation while the heating is in ope- special challenge, but at the same time this
ration, which leads to the cooling of thermal synergy effect brings economic advantages.

B 3.38 B 3.39

93
Building envelope

B 3.40 Air-collector facade, business start-up centre,

Hamm (D), 1998, Hegger Hegger Schleiff
B 3.41 Schematic diagram of the blower door test
B 3.42 Flat-plate collectors integrated into terrace house
facade, Batschuns (A), 1997, Walter Unterrainer
Measurement of B 3.43 Flat-plate collectors added during refurbishment,
differential pressure Karlsruhe (D), 2005, Hinrich Reyelts
B 3.44 Vacuum-tube collectors as safety barriers, apart-
ment block, Zurich (CH), 2001, Beat Kämpfen
Door Δ p=50 Pa
B 3.45 Examples of the construction of facade collectors:
(0.5mbar)
a with ventilation cavity, b without ventilation cavity
B 3.46 Sawtooth roof with collectors, sports hall,
Großostheim (D), 2000, Dierks Blume Nasedy
. B 3.47 Collector roofs for a solar-powered group heat-
V= m 3/ h ing network, residential development, Rostock
Fan flow rate (D), 1999, Carewicz AP Rostock
B 3.48 Residential development with air collectors,
. Kolding (DK), 1998, 3XNielsen
flow rate V
n 50 = [1/h] B 3.49 Vacuum-tube collectors as sunshading, “Solar-
building volume V café”, Kirchzarten (D), 1999, Roland Rombach
B 3.40 B 3.41
Solar facades total wall construction must be carefully checked
Solar thermal collectors are these days mainly with respect to moisture diffusion or condensa-
produced as standard products with fixed tion. Solar thermal flat-plate collectors can also
dimensions and technical specifications. How- be added to existing buildings (Fig. B 3.43).
ever, the solar activation of building envelopes Without a ventilation cavity, the collector sur-
calls for custom solutions that up until now face also improves the passive thermal per-
have been available from only a few manufac- formance and can therefore replace other insu-
turers. Flat-plate collectors are ideal for inte- lating measures. In the case of timber stud
grating into facades or roofs. Both the formats construction without solid components, the
and the horizontal and vertical divisions in the external wall can be built directly in the form of
collector surfaces can be customised to suit a collector (Figs. B 3.42 and 3.45). This results
the grid of the building design (Figs. B 3.40 in a very efficient external wall with a minimal
and 3.42). Even the colour of the absorber and wall construction. For the building physics, the
the optical properties of the glass cover can be requirements of a non-ventilated collector apply
modified. But for reasons of efficiency, the with respect to heat transfer and moisture.
great majority of solar thermal flat-plate collec- If there is a large demand for low-temperature
B 3.42 tors use a covering of highly transparent glass. heat (< 40°C, e.g. as a heat source for heat
But in principle, any conceivable design is pos- pumps), metal elements without a glass cover
sible by using different types of glass (e.g. pat- can be designed as thermal collectors too. This
terned, tinted, etc.). Collectors can be prefabri- makes use of a heat exchanger, which enables
cated to a large degree and are available in the solar activation of metal or roofs and
sizes up to 30 m2. For the integration into a facades.
facade, we must distinguish between flat-plate, In energy concepts with warm-air heating sys-
air and vacuum-tube collectors. tems, there is the possibility of preheating the
On a solid external wall, the flat-plate collector fresh air with solar energy via air collectors inte-
can be attached like external cladding, with a grated into the facade. This can be achieved
ventilation cavity between collector and wall via a corresponding facade construction, e.g.
(Fig. B 3.45). It can therefore replace conven- solid external wall plus glass elements, or pre-
tional cladding materials and at the same time fabricated air collectors can be installed. The
provide weather protection to the building. This principle of the air collector is the same as the
arrangement does not affect the wall construc- flat-plate collector containing water pipes,
tion – apart from avoiding the thermal bridges except that the absorber is constructed with a
that can ensue due to the fixings. Alternatively, shallow duct structure through which external
B 3.43 collectors can be integrated into the wall con- air passes. Integration can be similar to flat-
struction without a ventilation cavity. This plate collectors, but the air intakes must be
approach achieves a greater degree of syner- properly considered (Fig. B 3.48).
gy because the insulation required for the col- The constructional and architectural integration
lector itself can also function as the thermal of vacuum-tube collectors has not played a
insulation to the external wall. Another positive major role to date. Although they have a high
effect is that even diffuse solar radiation leads aesthetic potential, the geometrical and archi-
to high temperatures behind the absorber, tectural options are severely limited. Fig. B 3.44
which reduce the heat flow to the outside. Like shows an interesting application in which the
with transparent thermal insulation, this can vacuum-tube collectors double as safety barri-
lead to external walls without heat losses. Care ers. Synergy effects for sunshade applications
needs to be taken with the direct integration of are also possible.
collectors (i.e. no ventilation cavity) that the
heat conduction from outside to inside during
the summer does not lead to increased heat
loads in the interior, i.e. collector and wall must
have high levels of insulation. Moreover, the
B 3.44

94
 Building envelope

1
2
3
4
5

1 1 Solar glass
2 2 Absorber
3 3 Collector insulation
4 4 Rear wall of collector
5 Ventilation cavity
7
6 Wall
7 Thermal insulation
8 8 OSB
b
B 3.45 B 3.46
Solar roofs Avoiding overheating
In most cases, roofs are ideal for solar thermal
activation. On flat roofs most collector installa- Like the thermal performance in winter is
tions hitherto have been mounted above the intended to protect occupants and users
roof surface, but vacuum-tube collectors can against unpleasant, low temperatures, protec-
also be laid horizontally without a drop in yield tion against excessive temperatures in the
provided the absorber in the tubes is properly building must be guaranteed during the sum-
aligned. The constructional and architectural mer. In the light of global warming, the secure
integration of flat-plate collectors is relatively knowledge about the relationship between the
straightforward on pitched roofs. Like on the operative room temperature and human effi-
facade, they can also take on the functions of ciency plus higher comfort demands means that
the roof covering (Figs. B 3.46 und 3.47). Pre- summertime thermal performance is becoming
fabrication in the form of complete roof elements more significant. Deviations from the ideal tem-
is possible for large roof surfaces. In principle, perature are generally less in summer than they
the technical and building physics conditions are in winter, but human beings can protect
apply as for solar collectors on the facade. themselves much better against low tempera-
Vacuum-tube collectors can be integrated into tures than against high temperatures (Fig. B 3.47
the construction and the architecture by using B 3.50). In addition, the generation of heat,
them, for example, as sunshades (Fig. B 3.49). from the physical point of view, is connected
Owing to the different incident radiation condi- with a small effort and can make use of a wider
tions, roof and facade collectors exhibit differ- technological spectrum than cooling, which,
ent energy yields. In Europe, facade collectors after all, can only take place through the removal
have to be about 20–25% larger than properly of heat (see “Building services”, p. 128).
aligned roof collectors in order to achieve the Even in summer, buildings, as climate-regulat-
same annual energy yield. However, when ing systems, have to guarantee pleasant interi-
using solar thermal energy, it is not the annual or temperatures if at all possible. Attention
yield that is primarily important, but rather the focuses here on the building envelope, the
solar coverage (see “Building services”, p.119), construction and materials of which can be
which depends on the operative load profile. If coordinated such that overheating is avoided
collectors are used for generating heating without the use of expensive, elaborate techni-
energy, a vertical installation may be more cal systems. In buildings with a proportion of
effective because the yields during the heating windows > 30%, the Energy Conservation Act
period are greater and the risk of overheating calls for proof of the summertime thermal per-
of the collector fluid in summer is reduced. formance. This is based on solar gain data B 3.48
determined statically, which may not exceed a
permissible value (Fig. B 3.66). In buildings
with a very high proportion of glazing, it is rec-
ommended to investigate the thermal behaviour
of rooms with a high thermal load in detail by
means of a dynamic simulation. Besides deter-
mining the cooling load and the cooling energy
requirement, such a simulation can calculate
the temperatures over the course of the day
and the year. One widely used parameter for
assessing the summertime thermal perform-
ance is the resulting number of hours in which
the maximum permissible operative interior
temperature is exceeded.

B 3.49

95
Building envelope

Area Influencing variable Relevance

Location Air temperature +
Intensity of radiation ++
Form of Room geometry +
3 construction Thermal transmittance (U-value) ++
6 Heat capacity of
room surfaces +++
clo (clothing) Heat capacity of
factor 5 insulating material +
1 4
External loads: Temperature amplitude ratio +
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.5 3.0
1 Solar radiation
2 Transmission Ventilation Type of ventilation +
Temperature Intensity of ventilation ++
3 Ventilation
range
Internal loads: Glazing Proportion of glass +++
40 °C 35 °C 28 °C 26 °C 23 °C 20 °C 15 °C 10 °C -10 °C 2 Orientation ++
4 People
5 Equipment Total energy transmittance
6 Lighting (g-value) ++
Typical temperature
range in buildings Sunshading Effectiveness (fc value) +++

B 3.50 B 3.51 B 3.52

Thermal loads face temperature of the outermost layer. A low carefully. The trajectory of the sun and the
The room temperature is influenced by the heat absorption (e.g. by way of light colours) or intensity of the radiation are important parame-
effective thermal loads. We distinguish here a ventilation cavity behind the outer layers has ters for assessing the nature of the solar heat
between internal and external thermal loads a favourable effect on the transmission heat gains. Areas of the building envelope subject-
(Fig. B 3.51). The internal thermal loads depend flow. Special attention must be paid to this ed to thermal loads can be determined for a
on the type of use and are generally caused by aspect when planning rooms that have a high specific project based on an analysis of the
people, lighting and electrical appliances. Effi- proportion of roof surface; they suffer from an shading. The shading caused by neighbouring
cient technologies (e.g. low-energy bulbs, often considerable proportion of heat transfer structures can lead to differing situations for
power-saving computers, etc.) result in low through the roof, or the topmost floor, in addi- different storeys, even different rooms.
levels of waste heat. tion to the facade. Rooftop planting has a posi- For a simplified estimate of the shadows, it is
The factors that can be influenced by the build- tive effect in this context because the localised sufficient to consider the incident solar radia-
ing envelope concern the external thermal evaporative cooling keeps surface tempera- tion on three days: 21 December, 21 March
loads. These can be divided into heat transfer, tures down. and 21 June. When calculating the summertime
incoming solar radiation and ventilation heat Another parameter for assessing the summer- thermal performance, the intensity of the inci-
gains. In order to optimise the interior tempera- time thermal performance of opaque building dent solar radiation on 21 June is important. It
tures in summer, numerous influencing variables components is the temperature amplitude ratio should be remembered that in Central Europe
are available to the planner (Fig. B 3.52). (TAR), which specifies the period of time it the sun’s trajectory means that the east and
takes for a temperature rise on the outside of west facades attract much more radiation than
Reducing the heat transfer the wall to be passed on to the inside (phase southern facades, and that the maximum radia-
If the outside air temperature is higher than the lag/shift, Fig. B 3.54). The TAR improves with tion intensity is measured on horizontal surfaces
room temperature, a heat transfer takes place increasing thermal insulation, and the time of (Figs. B. 3.58 and 3.59). Moreover, shading on
from outside to inside. To avoid this type of the phase lag depends on the thermal mass. east and west elevations due to the low solar
heat transfer, the same principles apply as for Optimising these parameters allows the heat to altitude angle is usually linked with a consider-
thermal insulation in winter. A building envelope be released into the interior once other thermal able loss of daylight and external views. Fig.
optimised with respect to minimising transmis- loads are no longer effective or can be easily B 3.53 shows the sun’s trajectory and gives
sion heat losses (= low U-value) at the same dissipated (e.g. ventilating with cool night air). examples of the solar radiation values for vari-
time therefore provides good protection against ous surfaces of the building envelope.
overheating in summer. This applies to both Reducing the incoming solar radiation
opaque and transparent surfaces. Fig. B 3.55 In the majority of cases, the heat gains through Proportion of glazing
shows an example of how the thermal transmit- transparent building elements represent the Transparent surfaces always represent a weak-
tance of the building envelope influences the largest component in the summertime heat bal- ness with respect to summertime thermal per-
heat gains in the interior. Important here, ance for a room. The planning of areas of glaz- formance. Even with optimised sunshading, the
besides the thermal transmittance, is the sur- ing must therefore be carried out especially heat gains are generally several times higher
B 3.50 Use of clothing to protect against excessive high
and low temperatures 5.5
B 3.51 Internal and external heat loads in office buildings W N Surface Summer’s day Winter’s day
B 3.52 Variables that influence the summertime room
3.0 Horizontal
temperatures and their relevance 3.5 Azimuth angle 55 – 305 ° 130 – 230 °
B 3.53 Solar radiation intensities for various building
Horizontal angle 0 – 63 ° 0 – 17 °
envelope surfaces using the example of
S E Hours of sunshine 16 h 8h
Stuttgart (D) Summer’s day
B 3.54 Temperature amplitude ratio (TAR) and Sun’s trajectory Quantity of energy [kWh / m 2] East/West
phase lag Δt Azimuth angle 55 – 180 ° / 130 – 180 ° /
B 3.55 How the quality of the glass affects the heat 180 – 305 ° 180 – 230 °
gains due to transmission Horizontal angle 0 – 63 ° 0 – 17 °
B 3.56 How the quality of the facade affects the heat 114 0.7 Hours of sunshine 7.5 h 3.5 h
0
gains due to radiation South
B 3.57 Possibilities for reducing the solar radiation 880 1.2 Azimuth angle 90 – 270 ° 130 – 230 °
B 3.58 Typical day and night radiation levels for 750 0.5 Horizontal angle 33 – 63 ° 0 – 17 °
Stuttgart (D) Hours of sunshine 9h 8h
B 3.59 Typical radiation levels at the summer solstice
for Stuttgart (D) Annual incident radiation Winter’s day
2
Quantity of energy [kWh / m 2] Quantity of energy [kWh/ m ]
B 3.53

96
 Building envelope

θ se θ si

U-value [W/m 2 K]

Proportion of glazing [%]

Δt 3.0 a b c 90 a b c
80
θ i,m 2.5
θ si, Amp t 70
θ se, Amp
2.0 60
50
θ a,m 1.5
t 40
1.0 30

Temperature curve Temperature curve 20

0.5
for external surface for internal surface 10

θ si, Amp 0 0
TAR = 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 100 150 200 250 300
θ se, Amp Heat gains due to transmission [W / m 2facade] Heat gains due to radiation [W/m 2facade]
TAR = temperature aptitude ratio Room temperature: 24· C Glazing g-value: 0.6
θ se = surface temperature, external External temperature: a: 28° b: 32° c: 36° Radiation incident on facade: 500 [W/m 2 ]
θ si = surface temperature, internal Reduction factor for sunshade fc: a: 0.2 b: 0.6 c: 1.0
B 3.54 B 3.55 B 3.56
than those for an opaque wall. A large area of to optimised coatings or printing, such glasses Besides constructional aspects and special
glazing thus always results in an increase in the can achieve low energy transmittance values glazing products, shading systems represent
thermal loads. Fig. B 3.56 shows the maximum (g-values), which mean that in the best cases the third group of optimisation measures for
solar gains for three typical glazing qualities in only about 20% of the incoming heat energy is summertime thermal performance. The range
relation to the area of glazing. From the energy released into the interior. The downside of this of systems available is very broad and can be
view point, transparent surfaces should be is a high degree of reflection, greater colour categorised according to various criteria such
planned in relation to their orientation. Consid- distortion and hence reduced transparency as fixed or movable, single- or twin-axis track-
ering all the functions of glazing such as pas- (Fig. B 3.61). This also applies to types of glass ing systems, opaque or translucent, horizontal
sive solar energy gains, visual contact with the in which the cavity between the panes is filled or vertical, etc. From the energy point of view,
outside world, daylight, etc., a proportion of with reflective or absorbent materials. In addi- however, it is the position of the sunshade that
max. 50% has proved sensible for south-facing tion, the fixed parameters of such components is significant. We distinguish here between
facades. On east and west facades, propor- lead to lower solar energy gains in the winter. internal and external systems. Basically, exter-
tions > 30% are regarded as critical. The north From the energy viewpoint, the preferred glaz- nal systems provide the best shading effect
facade plays only a subsidiary role in summer- ing systems are those that can react flexibly to (Fig. B 3.62). One of the advantages of external
time thermal performance. changing incoming radiation quantities and systems is that the windows can still be opened
interior conditions, e.g. by using movable lou- inwards even when the sunshades are in use.
Sunshades vre blinds in the cavity between the panes, a One popular form is the louvre blind, which can
There are many ways of optimising the thermal solution that is already available for double be readily adjusted to deal with different light-
quality of transparent surfaces (Fig. B 3.57). glazing units. Such systems achieve very good ing situations. Closed louvres in conjunction
The first group of measures involves the con- values that are almost equal to those of external with insulating glazing units can achieve effec-
structional design of the facade. Overhangs, sunshades. At the same time, the blinds are tive g-values below 0.1. Louvre blinds are,
returns or favourable angles of inclination can protected against soiling and wind. However, however, vulnerable to the wind and are there-
protect transparent areas against direct sun- such products place high demands on the stiff- fore often unsuitable for tall buildings. In order
light during the summer months. Deep window ness of the facade, and the entire insulating to guarantee their operation despite this draw-
surrounds have proved worthwhile, e.g. as unit must be replaced in the case of defects. back, an additional pane of glass is sometimes
brise-soleil for southern elevations (Fig. B 3.60). Variations on this principle can be realised in added simply to protect against the wind (double-
The constructional measures can be very easily multi-leaf systems (coupled windows), where leaf facade). The alternative is to attach the
optimised for extreme solar altitude angles, the sunshade is fitted between the outer and sunshades on the inside, behind the glazing,
although this means they are often less useful middle panes. Switchable glasses, which use a solution that protects the sunshade against
in the spring and autumn. In order to reduce electrical or chemical processes to achieve soiling and wind. A highly reflective sunshade
the amount of radiation entering a building different g-values, represent another form of will reflect a certain proportion of the incident
through glazing, special solar-control glasses sunshading, but such products are still at the solar radiation back to the outside, but the heat
can be used (see “Materials”, p. 157). Thanks development stage. energy absorbed by the sunshade will intro-
Radiation intensity [W/m2]

1000
Radiation intensity [W /m2]

1000

Horizontal
S
Element Shading by… 800 800
SE SW
Construction Overhang Hori- E W
Return E W
zontal
Inclination 600 600
SE SW
Glazing Coating S
Printing
Fixed elements in cavity between panes 400 400
Movable elements in cavity between
panes
Switchable glasses N N
200 200
Sunshade Internal
External, rigid and flexible
Diffuse & reflected radiation Diffuse & reflected radiation
Fitted in double glazing, rigid and flexible
0 0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 20 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Time [h] Time [h]
B 3.57 B 3.58 B 3.59

97
Building envelope

duce a further thermal load into the interior. In

addition, some of the reflected solar radiation is
absorbed by the glazing and reflected back
into the room. Internal sunshades therefore do
50%
not usually achieve nearly such good figures
as external ones. Due to their interaction with
the glass, their effectiveness is particularly
dependent on the properties of the glass (Fig.
B 3.63).

ρ = 15% α = 12% τ =23% Solar gain index

ε = 6% ε =6% The solar gain index can be used to obtain a
ρ = degree of reflection rough estimate of the effectiveness of a sun-
g = 29 %
α = degree of absorption shading system (Fig. B 3.66). This is the sum
τ = degree of transmission of the heat gains through the glazing related to
ε = emissivity the floor area of the room. The critical factor
B 3.60 here is the effective g-value of the total system
(gtotal), which is the product of the g-value of the
glazing and the reduction factor fc for the shad-
ing system (Fig. B 3.64). Fig. B 3.65 lists the
DIN 4108 reduction factors that can be used in
100%
calculations if more accurate figures are not
available. The majority of building products,
however, achieve considerably better
values so users are recommended to refer to
the manufacturer’s data whenever possible.
The parameters for the cooling load related to
the usable area for various shading situations
ρ = 50% α = 20% τ = 20%
are given in Fig. B 3.67. The importance for the
ε =15% ε = 15%
cooling load of the solar radiation entering via
g = 35 % the glazing and the resulting requirements for
optimising the transparent building envelope
are evident here.
B 3.61
Thermal mass and ventilation
100% The heat capacity of the enclosing components
and the ventilation measures are further impor-
tant parameters for avoiding overheating in
summer. A lack of thermal mass leads to the
τ =14% heat gains causing an unpleasant rise in the
temperature of the interior air. If sufficient ther-
2% mal mass is available, e.g. in the form of solid
soffit, wall and floor components, a part of the
ρ = 58% α = 22% α = 4% τ = 8%
heat gains can be temporarily stored in those
2% components, which, however, must be dis-
2%
4% charged at a later time. Suitable measures are
ε =15% 7%
g = 14% therefore necessary to guarantee the release of
that stored thermal energy (e.g. ventilation with
cool night air). Critical for the effectiveness of
thermal masses is their direct thermal link with
B 3.62 the interior. Cavity floors, suspended ceilings
100% and inner linings to the walls prevent the flow of
τ = 7%
heat between interior air and thermal mass,
8% meaning that the heavyweight components
τ =46% 6% cannot fulfil their function. The thermal activa-
4% tion of thermal masses often has consequences
g = 25% for the design of the interior and the room
acoustics, e.g. fair-face concrete soffits and
ρ = 30% α= 24% ρ = 27 % τ =7% walls. Such parameters must be considered
ε =12% accordingly in the interior design.
α = 12% Besides transmission and incoming solar radia-
ε =6
6% tion, unwanted heat flows can occur in con-
ρ = 8% ε=6
junction with the indispensable exchange of air.
τ =11% α = 8% This is the case when the external air lies
ε =7% above room temperature and is fed directly into
ε =4 ε =4 the room. The air in the cavity of a double-leaf
facade can be subjected to an extreme thermal
B 3.63

98
 Building envelope

Sunshading system fc [%]

Without sunshading system 1.0

Internal or between the panes

White/reflective surface with low transparency 0.75
Light colours or low transparency 0.8
Dark colours or high transparency 0.9
100% 20% 100% 20%
g =0.8 g t ot al =0.2 External
Σ j (A W, j x g total,j )
Pivoting louvres, with ventilation cavity 0.25 S=
AG
Louvres/fabric blind with low transparency,
g total 0.2
fc = = = 0.25 with ventilation cavity 0.25
g 0.8 Louvres, general 0.4 S [-] Solar gain index
Roller shutters, window shutters 0.3 A W,j [m 2] Area of windows in room
fc = sunshade reduction factor g total [-] Total energy transmittance of glazing,
g = total energy transmittance (for comparison) Canopies, loggias, free-standing louvres 0.5
including sunshading (gtotal = g x fC )
gtotal = total energy transmittance Awnings, with ventilation at top and sides 0.4 fC [-] Reduction factor for sunshading
(including sunshade) Awnings, general 0.5 AG [m 2] Floor area of room
B 3.64 B 3.65 B 3.66
situation. Optimising the exchange of air can Decentralised ventilation Natural ventilation
take place via thermal preconditioning (e. g. The planning of natural ventilation systems
ground coupling, evaporative cooling, heat or Good-quality air in buildings calls for a regular calls for an accurate analysis of the climatic
cooling energy recovery). In the majority of exchange of air that depends on the type of and usage-related requirements. Pressure
cases, mechanical assistance with a corre- use and the number of persons. Modern forms differences caused by temperature differences
sponding energy requirement is necessary. A of construction render possible a high airtight- always result in a natural circulation of the air.
combination of natural and mechanical ventila- ness; an uncontrolled exchange of air via joints In macroclimate terms, this energy is available
tion is advisable. The mechanical ventilation is and cracks is to a very large extent prevented. as a wind, in microclimate terms as thermal
used only during periods of extremely low or This demands careful planning of ventilation currents (Fig. B 3.72). In principle, natural
extremely high temperatures (in Europe systems, which can be realised via the building ventilation can take place by way of a direct
approx. 30% of the year) and the rest of the envelope or by building services (see “Building exchange of air via the building envelope or
time the building is ventilated naturally without services”, p. 133). From the sustainability view- via special systems that generate a natural air-
placing thermal loads on the interior. Further- point, a maximum amount of natural ventilation flow by way of concentrated thermal- or wind-
more, mechanical ventilation can be employed should be the aim. This means that the air induced pressure differences.
to increase the efficiency of night-time ventila- change rate for habitable rooms is achieved by
tion. Fig. B 3.68 shows a typical daily rhythm way of thermal currents or differing pressures Ventilation via the windows
for an office building on a summer’s day. This due to the wind. Electrical ventilation leads to a Opening a window allows the user to regulate
schematic diagram shows the principal bound- considerable increase in the energy consump- the exchange of air himself exactly as required.
ary conditions for summertime thermal perform- tion; on average, a specific electrical power of In addition to the supply of fresh air, the direct
ance. approx. 2500 W is necessary per m3 of air per contact with the outside air triggers further sen-
second. Owing to the long operating hours of sations such as the warmth of the unfiltered
ventilation systems, there is a substantial sunlight, smells and acoustic stimuli, all of
potential for savings in energy consumption which can have a positive effect on the quality
and operating costs if mechanical ventilation of the habitable room. Natural ventilation sys-
can be avoided. In addition, the horizontal and tems are therefore particularly user-friendly
vertical ducts of many ventilation systems from the emotional viewpoint. Habitable rooms
occupy considerable valuable floor space. In a should therefore always include the possibility
high-rise building, the omission of fresh- and of opening the facade. In many cases the glaz-
exhaust-air ducts will result in a considerable ing is designed to be opened for cleaning pur-
saving in the overall height of the building. poses and the daylight acquisition, visual con-
tact the outside world and ventilation functions
are all accomplished via one and the same
component. Exposed or concealed ventilation
Energy gains

Energy gains

Energy gains
[W/m2]

[W/m2]

[W/m2]

100 100 100 Energy gains

solar
Energy gains
lighting
Energy gains
people B 3.60 Brise-soleil, Unité d’Habitation, Berlin (D), 1958,
0 0 0 Le Corbusier
B 3.61 Office building, Frankfurt am Main (D), 2003,
Schneider + Schumacher
B 3.62 Office building, Stuttgart (D), 1998, Behnisch,
Dimensions Behnisch & Partner
of room: B 3.63 Company headquarters, Senden (D), 2007,
3m wide Gerken Architekten + Ingenieure, Braun-Gerken
5m deep B 3.64 Determining the reduction factors for sunshading
systems
B 3.65 DIN 4108 reduction factors for sunshading
Proportion of glazing: 30% Proportion of glazing: 60% Proportion of glazing: 90% systems
g-value of glazing: 0.6 g-value of glazing: 0.6 g-value of glazing: 0.3 B 3.66 Calculating the solar gain index S to DIN 4108
Sunshading: Sunshading: Sunshading: B 3.67 Examples of cooling loads, related to the floor
external louvre blind fc =0.2 internal louvre blind fc =0.5 none area, for different facade arrangements
B 3.67

99
Building envelope

Ventilation heat losses [kWh /m2 a]

Air change rate [1/ h]
N 30 150 1 2 3
0:00 a
[°C] 25 125
21:00 30 3:00 4
26 20 100
22
18 15 75
14
Wasted energy
W 18:00 6:00 E 10 50
Adequate ventilation
5 25
b
Recommended range
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 4 8 12 16 20 24
15:00 9:00
Temp. difference between internal and external air [K] Average duration of ventilation per day [h]

Hours of use (sunshade must 12:00 Hours of sunshine Window size: 1.2 m 2 1 Window fully open
guarantee view out) S External air temp. Room size: 30 m 2 2 Window half open
Complete shading possible External air temp. >26 ° a: open window 3 Window tilted with cross-ventilation
External air temp. <26 ° b: tilted window (10 cm opening) 4 Window tilted without cross-ventilation
B 3.68 B 3.69 B 3.70
flaps independent from the glazing are another ing elements in offices where ventilation via the sound-insulated air inlets can be incorpora-
option (Fig. B 3.75). The type of opening ele- windows is usually adequate (Fig. B 3.71). How- ted in the facade. As a rule, these require
ment should generally permit many different ever, natural ventilation can lead to unpleasant mechanical assistance owing to the high
adjustments so that the ventilation can be indi- effects: pressure resistance (extract system).
vidually regulated as required. With an opening • Polluted outside air, e.g. on busy roads. In
on one side only, the exchange of air takes • Extremely low temperatures in winter and such situations it is advisable to draw in the
place by airflows in and out of the same open- extremely high temperatures in summer can fresh air for the interior mechanically from
ing (Fig. B 3.73). The movement of the air and be a problem. Natural ventilation does not less polluted areas. Filters can be used to
hence the air change rate that can be achieved permit any heat recovery, which leads to improve the quality of the fresh air further.
differs depending on the temperature differ- unwanted ventilation heat losses during the
ence between the internal and external air. Fig. heating period. In addition, the direct inflow Besides purely manual operation, the elements
B 3.69 shows the air change rates for different of cold outside air can be unpleasant. In in the natural ventilation installation can also be
window openings in a typical room. In winter Central Europe, however, natural ventilation controlled electronically. In addition to the pro-
the high temperature, and hence pressure, dif- is suitable for the temperatures experienced tective function (e.g. automatic closure during
ference means that the window need be open over about 70% of the year. rainfall or opening to allow smoke and fumes to
for only a few minutes in order to replace the air • High wind pressures on the facade can lead escape in the event of a fire) and climate func-
in the room once completely (Fig. B 3.70). If, to a serious increase in the air change rates tions (e.g. automatic ventilation with cool night
however, the internal and external tempera- and draughts. Furthermore, there is a risk air), it is also possible to improve the level of
tures are similar, natural ventilation on one side that pressure or suction forces could be comfort by fitting temperature- and wind pres-
only results in only a limited air change rate. transferred to interior components, making it sure-regulated controls to the fresh-air inlets
The airflow can be improved by employing difficult, for example, to open a door. High-ri- (Fig. 3.76).
cross-ventilation, a situation in which wind se buildings are particularly affected by this.
movements have a considerable driving effect. Natural ventilation is possible if additional
With good flow conditions, very high air change “windbreaks” are positioned in front of the
rates of up to 50/h can be achieved. In princi- opening elements (e.g. coupled windows,
ple, it is advisable to place exhaust-air outlets double-leaf facade, etc.). It should be
as high as possible and fresh-air inlets as low ensured that there is adequate ventilation in
as possible in order to maximise the effective the cavity during the summer months in order
thermal height. Prerequisites for natural ventila- to avoid heating up the incoming fresh air
tion are favourable room geometries and an excessively (Fig. B 3.74).
adequate number of large opening elements. • High noise pollution from the direct environs.
In Germany, the Places of Work Directive stipu- Additional panes of glass assist the natural
lates limiting values for room depths and open- ventilation in this situation. Alternatively,
B 3.68 Factors influencing the summertime thermal per-
formance in an office building over the course of
a day
B 3.69 Air change rate for ventilation via the windows in
relation to the temperature difference System Max. perm. Inlet/outlet cross Ventilation Ventilation by Ventilation by wind
B 3.70 Ventilation heat losses in relation to the duration room section per m2 by wind thermal currents & thermal currents
and type of ventilation to VDI 2067 depth [m ] of floor area
B 3.71 Ventilation cross-sections for natural ventilation [cm2] cp = 0.6
according to the German Places of Work Directive
B 3.72 The principle of air movements due to wind and One-sided ventilation 2.5 ≈ H 200
thermal currents with openings in one
B 3.73 Window ventilation, mixed residential and external wall
commercial development, Berlin (D), 2001, Cross-ventilation with 2≈H 120
Grüntuch Ernst openings in external
cp =0.8

cp =0.5

Thermal currents Pressure

B 3.74 Horizontal louvres, high-rise office building, walls in the room itself
Hannover (D), 1999, Herzog + Partner Suction
Cross-ventilation with 2≈H 80
B 3.75 Ventilation flaps, office building, Senden (D), 2007,
openings in external
Gerken Architekten + Ingenieure, Braun- Gerken
walls and duct
B 2.76 Vertical louvres, office building, Kronberg (D), 2000,
Schneider + Schumacher H = Height of room
B 3.71 B 3.72

100
 Building envelope

Natural ventilation by way of wind forces

Wind flows around a building lead to forces
acting on the buildings, which are essentially
influenced by climatic conditions, topography
and the surrounding buildings. Pressure and
suction forces are the result, the magnitude
and distribution of which are influenced by the
height and geometry of the building itself. An
individual analysis is necessary in each case.
On tall buildings, a double-leaf facade with
appropriately designed opening elements can
control the wind forces to such an extent that
natural ventilation is possible via the inner leaf.
Specially shaped components can generate a
partial vacuum from the movement of the wind,
and by linking this to the interior, it is possible
to provide natural ventilation even for large B 3.73
internal spaces (e.g. exhibition halls, atria, etc.).
If the suction forces are directed into an exhaust-
air duct, it is possible to extract the air adequately
from several adjoining rooms. The application
of these principles requires careful planning of
the make-up air inlets. In order to compensate
for fluctuations in the temperature and wind
conditions, exhaust-air ducts can be supple-
mented by mechanical ventilation in order to
guarantee continuous operation.

Natural ventilation by way of thermal currents

Wind movements are not the only way of creat-
ing a suction effect. Such an effect can also be
established via thermal currents, which can be
employed as the driving force for extracting air
from the interior. The strength of this suction B 3.74
effect depends on the temperature difference
and the effective height (Fig. B 3.78). Tall build-
ings are therefore particularly suited to a venti-
lation concept making use of thermal currents.
Three basic principles apply to the construc-
tional implementation of this type of system:

• Buildings with a double-leaf facade can make

use of the thermal currents induced by the
higher air temperature in the cavity to esta-
blish a ventilation concept. The double-leaf
facade can, for example, serve as an exhaust-
air duct in the summer for extracting air from
the interior.
• Using the same principle, glazed atria can
be employed for removing the exhaust air.
Owing to the ensuing high air temperatures B 3.75
beneath the atrium glazing (heat build-up),
the atrium must be higher than the adjoining
structure in order to reduce the thermal load
on the topmost floors.
• Furthermore, thermal currents can be used
as an alternative or supplementary driving
energy for shaft-type ventilation. This system
is also known as a “solar chimney”, and by
integrating such a system into the roof or
facade, its dark absorber surfaces can exert
a considerable influence on the architecture
(Fig. B 3.79).

B 3.76

101
Building envelope

B 3.77 Exhaust-air expelled via rooftop ducts, office

building, Solihull (GB) 2000, Arup Associates
Facade-mounted mechanical ventilation units Using the daylight
B 3.78 Natural ventilation via “venturi spoiler”, trade fair The operation and efficiency of natural ventila-
hall, Hannover (D), 1999, Herzog + Partner tion systems depend on the external climatic Daylight is a key factor for pleasant interior
B 3.79 “Solar chimney”, residential building, Boston conditions. Considerable fluctuations in the conditions. Natural light stimulates the human
(USA) 2003, Office dA
flow rates and air change rates therefore occur. organism and controls a number of bodily func-
B 3.80 The principles of systems for decentralised
mechanical ventilation: a unit mounted in facade, If a constant air change rate is desired, addi- tions. It is critical for our visual perception and
b unit mounted on spandrel panel, c unit in tional mechanical ventilation is necessary. has a considerable influence on the efficiency
frame, d unit under floor Numerous systems with different types of air of our work.
B 3.81 Typical temperature increases in the incoming feeding and air treatment are available (see Transparent or translucent building compo-
fresh air, compared with the external air, for cer-
tain types of facade and the case of high inci-
“Building services”, p. 133). Decentralised nents are necessary if we wish to make use of
dent solar radiation in Europe mechanical ventilation via the building envelope daylight. However, such components always
B 3.82 Pros and cons of decentralised mechanical ven- enables a constant air change rate without lead to solar heat gains in the interior, which
tilation compared to central ventilation systems ventilation ducts – which leads to space savings, are undesirable in summer. But if daylight
B 3.83 Facade elements with integral ventilation units,
greater flexibility in the event of a change of reduces the reliance on artificial lighting, besides
Capricorn House, Medienhafen, Düsseldorf (D),
2006, Gatermann + Schossig usage and high efficiency thanks to the individ- reducing the electricity requirement for the
ual, demand-driven form of operation (Fig. B lighting, the internal heat loads are diminished
3.82). If used to supplement natural ventilation, as well because artificial lighting generates
such a system, besides securing the flow rate, more heat than daylight for the same level of
can compensate for other disadvantages inher- illumination.
ent to natural ventilation: As glazed areas generally exhibit a higher ther-
mal conductivity than opaque walls, a large
• In the case of excessive outside noise, venti- expanse of glazing weakens the wintertime
lation can still be provided with the windows thermal performance of a building envelope.
closed to provide the necessary sound insu- Daylight planning is therefore always closely
lation. tied to the summertime and wintertime thermal
• The use of air filters improves the quality of performance. In particular, it is always neces-
the incoming fresh air. sary to weigh up the energy required for
• Systems responsible for fresh air and exhaust removing the heat caused by excessive incom-
air can reduce the ventilation heat losses dur- ing daylight and the energy-savings brought
ing the winter quite markedly through integral about by the shorter period of operation of the
heat recovery. artificial lighting (Fig. B 3.84).
• The inclusion of heating or cooling batteries
enables the fresh air to be preheated or pre- Daylight
B 3.77 cooled as required. These systems can Daylight is made up of direct and indirect (dif-
therefore be used to provide heating and fuse) components, which differ considerably
cooling capacity as well. depending on the location (see “Fundamen-
tals”, p. 54, Fig. B 1.48). Daylight can be trans-
Facade-mounted ventilation units draw in the mitted, absorbed, reflected and refracted. It is
fresh air directly from the vicinity of the facade basically the case that diffuse radiation results
– so care must be taken to ensure good-quality in a better illumination of interiors, but direct
air. A rise in temperature next to the facade in radiation can be steered into the farthest corners
summer can therefore have a negative effect of an interior by way of additional elements. An
on operation (Fig. B 3.81). The units can be important parameter for the quantitative
integrated into a cavity floor or suspended ceil- assessment of the daylight in a room is the
ing. Moreover, there is the option of incorporat- daylight factor, which describes the ratio
ing them in spandrel panels or frame elements between the illuminance of a horizontal, unshaded
(Fig. B 3.80). The flow rates of facade-mounted surface in the open air under an overcast sky to
ventilation units are limited. The use of such the illuminance of a horizontal interior surface,
units is particularly useful in offices of low depth. usually taken to be 0.85 m above the floor. Cru-
Furthermore, facade-mounted ventilation units cial to the visual comfort, besides the illumi-
B 3.78 can also be retrofitted, for instance, within the nance, is the avoidance of glare caused by
scope of building refurbishment projects. excessive contrast. Whether a room has a con-
sistent illumination can be assessed by the
ratio between the maximum and minimum day-
light factor values. This ratio should not exceed
1:6 in the case of daylight entering via the
walls, or 1:2 if coming from overhead.
In buildings with specific requirements for the
illuminance (e.g. office workplaces), the day-
light factor for a certain point can determine the
degree of “daylight autonomy” (Fig. B 3.90).
This value, expressed as a percentage, repre-
sents the proportion of a typical period of
usage during which the lighting requirements
are guaranteed exclusively by daylight. Although
universally applicable, this factor is employed
almost only for offices and relates to typical
B 3.79

102
 Building envelope

Temperature increase
typical maximum
Layer of air adjacent to facade,
without wind 5K 10 K
Layer of air adjacent to facade,
with wind 2K 5K
Absorbent facade surface 10 K 15 K
Coupled window 5 – 15 K 20 K
Fresh air Fresh air Fresh air Fresh air
Coupled window optimised
for sound insulation 5 – 20 K 30 K
Non-segmented double-
leaf facade 5 – 20 K 30 K
Controllable double-leaf facade 5 – 10 K 20 K
Shading louvres 2–5 K 10 K
Awning 5 – 10 K 15 K
a b c d
B 3.80 B 3.81
working hours (weekdays, 8 a.m. to 6 p.m.). On metric optimisation of daylight can be divided Large single-storey buildings, e.g. production
average, office buildings should have a day- into three areas: building, interior and glazing. buildings, sport halls, can receive daylight via
light factor of 3% (which results in approx. 50% the roof. Even quite small openings are ade-
daylight autonomy for office workplaces). As Building quate here because in Central Europe the illu-
there are no defined figures for illuminance in The form of the building has a considerable minance for horizontal surfaces is about three
residential buildings, it is not possible to deter- influence on the potential scope for using day- times that for vertical ones.
mine the daylight autonomy. Adequate illumina- light. A high proportion of envelope area in
tion for a living room lit from one side is assured relation to the building volume is advantageous. Interior
when the daylight factor in the middle of the Daylight optimisation therefore stands in direct The layout and geometry of the interior spaces
room and 1 m in front of the two side walls is conflict with wintertime thermal performance, also influences the daylight potential. Rooms
at least 0.9% on average. where maximum compactness is an advan- with high lighting requirements or those used
tage. Low compactness, on the other hand, intensively during the day should therefore be
Geometric optimisation provides ample surface area for transparent or positioned near the facades, rooms with low
Owing to the path of the sun across the sky, translucent components. Buildings with a com- lighting requirements in the middle of the build-
daylight is a dynamic variable, in terms of both pact overall volume can optimise their use of ing.
its daily and its annual trajectory. Accordingly, daylight by including an internal courtyard or In terms of the form of the interior spaces, tall
the planning of a building must be considered an atrium. In many situations such measures rooms and low room depths are more favour-
in terms of its specific location. For instance, an enable rooms to be lit from two sides, which able, likewise light-coloured surfaces with a
analysis of the sun’s trajectory and the shading helps to provide a consistent level of illumina- high reflection component.
by neighbouring buildings or vegetation is an tion. Natural lighting to circulation zones can be
important fundamental parameter. In order to The intensity of the light entering rooms adja- achieved via transparent or translucent parti-
establish the daylight potential of a building, cent to an atrium diminishes quite noticeably as tions, glazed doors or continuous high-level
three geometric parameters are required: hori- we approach the ground floor, but at the same windows in the partitions.
zon angle, vertical shade angle and lateral time the percentage of diffuse radiation increases.
shade angle (Fig. B 3.88). The surfaces of the The facades of the lower storeys therefore Glazing
neighbouring buildings and the open areas enjoy a more even luminance distribution (Fig. The design of the building envelope is critical
also influence the daylight situation, so daylight B 3.87). The dimensions of the atrium, the form for the use of daylight, defining the usable day-
planning begins outside the building; light-col- of the roof construction and the type of shading light potential principally by way of the propor-
oured or reflective external surfaces (e.g. water can, however, reduce the amount of incoming tion of glazing. However, the proportions of
features) increase the amount of daylight avail- light to such an extent that the minimum day- windows in the facades and daylight autonomy
able at the facade. light factor for offices is not reached in the do not exhibit a linear relationship. For example,
The principal influencing variables for the geo- bottommost storeys. with a proportion of facade glazing exceeding

Decentralised ventilation systems

Advantages Disadvantages

• Low space requirements for ducts, plant rooms and • Specific capital outlay equal to or marginally higher
suspended ceilings than that for a central ventilation plant with constant
• Low energy requirement for transporting external flow rate
(e.g. < 1Welec / (m3/s) • No humidification
• Low energy requirement for post-treatment of external • With no dehumidification, the dew point temperature
air thanks to proper ventilation (e.g. three switchable, limits the cooling capacity
fixed fresh-air flows) • Higher maintenance costs
• Variable fresh-air flows • Usage conflicts when servicing units in office spaces
• Upgrade options and good adaptability for • Higher operating noise in the case of high fresh-air flows
variable room uses
• Greater control requirements in order to compensate
• Popular with users thanks to individual controls for wind pressure, to limit the temperature of the
incoming air and to protect against frost
• An air intake directly on the facade may lead to higher
air temperatures
B 3.82 B 3.83

103
Building envelope
Costs [GBP/ m2 a]

20 Other
about 50%, the effects on daylight autonomy amount of light passing through the glass as a
Server room
diminish drastically; increasing the proportion percentage. There is a close relationship
Resources
15 of glazing from, say, 70 to 90% has no notice- between this value and the sunshading effect
Lighting
able effect on the quality of daylight in the inte- of glass (g-value, see “Materials”, p. 154), and
Ventilation
rior. In residential buildings, a proportion of it exerts an almost linear influence on the day-
10 Cooling
windows equal to between 20 and 30% of the light factor: glazing with a τ-value of 0.4
Catering,
electricity room area is necessary in order to guarantee achieves over the full depth of the room only
5 Catering the basic needs with respect to natural lighting 50% of the daylight factor of glazing with a
gas and visual contact with the outside world. DIN τ-value of 0.8.
Space heating 5034 describes a simplified method for calcu- Generally speaking, in order to comply with the
0 and hot water
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4
lating the minimum window sizes for one-sided requirements of the Places of Work Directive
lighting to habitable rooms. (300/500 lx), offices illuminated from one side
Type 1: Row of separate offices with natural ventilation Besides the ratio of the area of glazing to the only can be lit naturally up to a depth of 5 m
Type 2: Continuous open-plan office with natural ventilation volume of the room, the orientation of the glaz- without any additional artificial lighting.
Type 3: Standard air-conditioning
ing is also important. In Central Europe, south-
Type 4: Higher standard of air conditioning
facing elevations enjoy a high illuminance which Daylighting systems
B 3.84 can lead to considerable differences in the Systems that redirect the light can improve the
luminance near the facade owing to the steep availability of daylight quite considerably and
100 angle of incidence. On facades facing east and achieve a consistent, higher level of daylight
Daylight autonomy [%]

west, the low position of the sun and the shallow even with lighting from the side and in deeper
80 angle of incidence must be taken into account. rooms. Moreover, some systems can redirect
Adequate protection against glare must be the light via roof glazing to illuminate even very
assured in both instances. Beneficial for day- tall or narrow spaces (e.g. atria).
60
light utilisation is the almost exclusively diffuse The multitude of different solutions possible
light that falls on northern elevations. Another can be divided to static and controllable sys-
40 aspect to be considered is the storey in which tems (Fig. B 3.93). We also distinguish these
a room is located. For example, the availability systems according to their positioning (roof,
20 of daylight over the facade differs considerably rooflight, window and spandrel panel) plus their
Office Corridor in the case of heavily built-up surroundings with location with respect to the glazing (outside, in
lmin 500 Lux lmin 50 Lux
tall buildings. Such a situation might dictate the the cavity between the panes or inside). The
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 need for different amounts of glazing in differ- light-redirecting systems described below
Distance from facade [m] ent storeys. function in one of the following three ways:
Furthermore, the arrangement of the glazing
Room potential Aperture
eff. Aperture influences the efficiency of the daylight utilisa- • Scattering the light: diffuse light is introduced
Room with facade
B 3.85 tion. Positioning the glazing at the top of a wall into the interior and produces an even level
– ideally also in the lintel region – results in bet- of illumination.
ter illumination of the room, whereas glazed • Redirecting the light: light is shone into the
spandrel panels have hardly any effect on the depth of the room via reflective surfaces.
1,9 :1
1,6 :1
f : h=1,5 :1

daylight factor. Several individual glazed ele- • Transporting the light: light is conveyed into
h f ments illuminate the interior better than one dark external areas, interior areas remote
A
B central element. If rooms are lit from more than from windows or windowless interiors via
one side, the level of illumination is noticeably fibre-optic or other elements.
C more consistent and the better subjective
D impression of the room has a considerable,
D C B A positive influence on how users perceive the
B 3.86
interior and the daylight. Finally, the quality of
the glass is a very important factor in the use of
daylight. The most important parameter for
8
assessing transparent components is the light
transmittance (τ-value), which describes the
7
6 45
Horizon South East/ North Vert. shade South East / North Lat. shade South East / North
5 angle [°] West angle [°] West angle [°] West
4 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 0 1.00 1.00 1.00
3 10 0.94 0.92 0.99 30 0.93 0.91 0.91 30 0.94 0.91 0.99
2 20 0.68 0.75 0.95 45 0.80 0.79 0.80 45 0.86 0.83 0.99
30 0.49 0.62 0.92 60 0.60 0.61 0.65 60 0.74 0.75 0.99
1 >45
40 0.40 0.56 0.89

8 Possible window in 1st–5th floors

7
Horizon
6 angle
5 Vertical shade angle
4
3 Lateral shade
2
1 angle

B 3.87 B 3.88

104
 Building envelope

100 100

Daylight autonomy [%]

Electricity requirement [%]

B 3.84 Examples of the cost structures for energy
requirements in office buildings (GB) Daylight
B 3.85 How the facade design affects the supply of 80 80
daylight to an office and the adjoining circulation
zone through a high-level glass panel
B 3.86 Daylight availability in relation to height of 60 60
spandrel panel Geographical location
B 3.87 Daylight availability for rooms adjacent to an 40 40
atrium in relation to their vertical position
B 3.88 Horizon angle, vertical shade angle and lateral
shade angle 20 20
B 3.89 Options for optimising daylight utilisation Geometric Component
optimisation optimisation
B 3.90 Relationship between daylight autonomy, day- 0 0
light factor and electricity requirement 5 10 15 20 25 30
B 3.91 Daylight factors for various overhead glazing Obstructions/shading Type of glazing Daylight factor [%]
forms [%] Orientation Selectivity
B 3.92 Lighting quality in offices: Proportions of room Degrees of reflection
a High daylight factor (3.8%) Size and proportions of of internal surfaces
b Low daylight factor (1.6%) daylight inlet Sunshading system Daylight autonomy
Daylighting system Electricity requirement for artificial lighting
B 3.89 B 3.90
Light-scattering glasses Light-redirecting glasses Louvres
A glass designed to scatter the incoming light Incorporating zero-maintenance light-redirect- Horizontal louvres and louvre blinds are used
has either a special surface or, in the case of ing elements in the cavity between the panes primarily as sunshades, but they can also be
insulating units, the cavity between the panes of insulating units means that such glasses are employed to redirect the incoming daylight. Of
can be filled with various materials in order to equally suitable for facade and roof applica- the many systems and designs available (adja-
scatter direct sunlight and hence produce illu- tions. In vertical glazing, sunlight entering at a cent to the glass or within the cavity, rigid, piv-
mination without glare (Figs. B 3.95e and f). shallow angle is reflected up to the ceiling, oting, Venetian blinds, narrow or wide louvres,
Light-scattering fillings made from translucent which enables an enhanced light transmission aluminium or glass sections, etc.), the following
thermal insulation achieve a similar effect. that decreases as the angle of incidence types are especially relevant:
They, too, guarantee an even distribution of increases. Installed horizontally, the direct radi-
light across the interior and, through absorp- ation is reflected and the diffuse radiation • Horizontal pivoting louvres at high-level in
tion, exhibit a higher luminance at the facade allowed to pass through (Fig. B 3.95c). front of the glass cut out the direct radiation
in comparison to transparent glass. in summer and reflect the daylight into the
Light Shelves farthest corners of the room in winter (Figs.
Holographic optical elements (HOE) Direct sunlight can be reflected onto the ceiling B 3.96c and d).
Transmission holograms can be embedded in by light shelves (Figs. B 3.94 and 3.96a). A light • Venetian blinds positioned at high level can
laminated glass in the form of a transparent foil. shelf is best positioned in the upper third of a deflect the incoming light up to the ceiling of
In order to avoid splitting the incoming daylight wall, either on the inside or outside of a trans- the room, but positioned at a different angle
into the colours of the spectrum, which can be parent element. Light shelves also help to pro- in the windows or spandrel panels can guar-
disturbing and can happen when redirecting tect against direct sunlight directly adjacent to antee effective shading (Fig. B 3.95a).
the light, white-light holograms are used, which the facade. • Special light-redirecting louvres (louvres with
allow the diffuse light to pass through unhindered a retroreflective coating) have selective prop-
while bending the direct sunlight depending on Laser-Cut-Panels (LCP) erties: a W-shaped outer edge to the louvre
its wavelength and redirecting it in the desired LCPs consist of perspex panes with thin, paral- cuts out the sunlight with a steep angle of
direction (Fig. B 3.96b). lel incisions or air inclusions (Fig. B 3.95d). incidence, whereas the shape on the inner
The holographic effect, owing to its diverse Depending on the solar altitude angle, the light edge allows the light at a shallow angle to be
application options, enables a combination of striking the horizontal incisions is subjected to reflected up to the ceiling. The design of
daylight redirection, sunshading (total reflec- single or multiple reflection and is directed up these louvres is such that even when they are
tion) and energy gains (focusing and redirect- to the ceiling or scattered across the depth of in use, they still permit a view through the
ing the light to photovoltaic modules). the room. As laser-cut panels restrict the visual window (Fig. B 3.95b).
contact with the outside world, they are mainly
used for high-level windows and rooflights.

10 10
5 5
0 0

10
10
5 5
0 0

10 10
5 5
0 0

B 3.91 a b B 3.92

105
Building envelope

Daylighting systems

Static Tracking Movable Switchable

systems systems systems glasses

Scattering the light Light-scattering glasses Photochromic

HOE Thermochromic
Gasochromic
Redirecting the light Prismatic plates Pivoted light- Light-redirecting
Fixed louvres redirecting louvres venetian blinds
Light shelves
Light-redirecting glasses
HOE
Transporting the light Lightpipes Heliostats
Fibre-optics
B 3.93
Heliostats and lightpipes • Will the view through the glass be restricted taking on more and more additional functions
Heliostats consist of tracking parabolic mirrors or interrupted? and are hence achieving numerous synergy
rotating about one or two axes which convey • At what angle of incidence is the daylight effects: photovoltaic panels can provide pro-
daylight, especially direct radiation, from directed into the interior? tection from the weather, sunshading and pri-
unshaded surfaces into deep lightwells or • To what extent is the level of illumination in vacy functions, or, as insulating units, even
underground structures (Fig. B 3.97). If the the farthest corners of the room improved? constitute the thermal envelope itself. In addi-
heliostats track the sun constantly over the • Is protection from glare guaranteed? tion, they can also characterise the architecture
course of the day, and are possibly assisted by • Could thermal problems occur, e.g. due to (Fig. B 3.102).
additional fixed mirrors for further distribution, multiple reflection and absorption by ele-
then an adequate level of direct radiation pro- ments in the cavity between the panes? Building envelopes with photovoltaic panels
duces virtually natural lighting conditions in the • Does the system react “generously” to a Photovoltaic modules are mainly available in
interior. When used in combination with pipes change in the angle of incidence or is track- the form of laminated glass or plastic elements
with a highly reflective lining, so-called light- ing necessary? and should therefore be employed like glazing
pipes, or fibre-optic elements, heliostats can • What intervention and regulation options are components. Numerous special modules are
redirect daylight over great distances to inter- there for users? available for special applications (e.g. solar
nal, windowless areas (Fig. B 3.98). roof tiles, solar membranes, etc.). In principle,
virtually all conventional planar building com-
Switchable glasses Generating electricity ponents can be provided with photovoltaic
Electrochromic glass is either transparent (liquid functions and this enables electricity to be gen-
crystals arranged) or translucent (liquid crystals Photovoltaics technology enables electricity to erated over the entire building envelope, pro-
disarranged) depending on the electric voltage be generated via the building envelope without vided the surfaces are exposed to an adequate
applied. This enables them to scatter the light any mechanical wear, emissions or noise. amount of solar radiation. However, in contrast
accordingly (Figs. B 3.95g and h). Further types Alongside solar thermal energy, this is the sec- to solar thermal applications, in photovoltaics
of switchable, or smart, glass are described in ond way of exploiting solar radiation actively even relatively little shading of the solar cells
“Materials”, p.157. (see p. 93). Whereas solar thermal systems can lead to a considerable reduction in the
have always been closely tied to the planning energy yield (see “Building services”, p. 140,
Selection criteria of buildings, developments in photovoltaics Fig. B 4.113). An unshaded surface is therefore
The many different daylighting systems avail- technology began fairly recently; only since the an absolute priority, and an accurate analysis
able on the market differ considerably with early 1980s have photovoltaic elements been of the location and the building is essential dur-
respect to the cost of their installation and integrated into the building envelope. Many ing the planning (Fig. B 3.103).
upkeep, and exhibit specific features. Answer- different photovoltaic modules are now avail- In addition, it is important to plan the routing of
ing the following questions will help the designer able (see “Building services”, p. 138). Besides the cables carefully, a matter that is especially
make the right choice [3]: the generation of electricity, these modules are important with transparent components; but is

a b c d

e f g h
B 3.94 B 3.95

106
 Building envelope

a b

c d
B 3.96 B 3.97 B 3.98
usually possible to route the cables in suitable be installed over the entire roof surface at a B 3.93 Systematic presentation of systems for
facade sections. In such cases, the electrical very shallow angle, almost horizontal. Although redirecting daylight
B 3.94 Light optimisation with light shelves, office
connections to the modules must be fitted on this does reduce the specific yield of each building, Schweinfurt (D), 1998, Kuntz + Manz
the side, and not on the rear as is usually the module, the overall energy yield in relation to B 3.95 Schematic drawings of light-redirecting glazing
case (see “Building services”, p. 140). the area of the building envelope is, however, elements:
The positions and arrangement of the inverters maximised (Fig. B 3.99). a Venetian blind
b Light-redirecting louvres
(DC-AC converters) necessary must also be On opaque flat roofs, active solar waterproofing
c Reflective sections
taken into account in the planning. Short dis- elements represent yet another alternative. d Laser-cut panel
tances from the photovoltaic modules to the Even curved surfaces such as arched metal e, f Light-scattering glasses
inverters are desirable, and the latter must be roofs or membrane structures can be fitted with g, h Electrochromic glazing
accessible for maintenance. The heat given off photovoltaic installations. B 3.96 Schematic drawings of light-redirecting
systems:
by the inverters in operation is another aspect a Light shelf
that must be considered when deciding on Photovoltaic facades b Holographic optical element
their positions. Facades provide further potential surfaces for c, d Pivoting louvres
generating electricity from the sun. Although B 3.97 The principle of the heliostat
Photovoltaic roofs the amount of incident radiation on vertical sur- B 3.98 The principle of heliostat + lightpipe
B 3.99 Solar yields of photovoltaic systems for horizon-
On pitched roofs, photovoltaic modules can be faces is lower than that on inclined surfaces, tal surfaces in relation to the angle of inclination
used directly as the water run-off layer and facades do offer considerable energy-generat- (location: Frankfurt am Main)
therefore as a replacement for conventional ing and economic potential if conventional B 3.100 Photovoltaic modules as roof covering, solar
roof coverings, e.g. roof tiles (Fig. 3.100). high-quality components, e.g. metal panels or housing, Schlierberg, Freiburg (D), 2000,
Rolf Disch
South-facing monopitch roofs or sawtooth roofs natural stone, are replaced by photovoltaic B 3.101 Pivoting photovoltaic louvres as sunshades,
have proved to be ideal. panels. When used as architectural features office building, Schwerin (D), 1999, Roland
On flat roofs, there is the option of mounting the and when they provide other functions as well Schulz
modules clear of the roof surface similar to as energy generation, the use of photovoltaic
when installing them on open ground, which modules in facades is justified, even if they do
permits optimum orientation of the panels and not achieve their maximum efficiency.
guarantees a high efficiency. However, the
solar radiation conditions in Europe mean that
the panels tend to throw shadows on each
other and so must be installed at considerable
spacings, which reduces the area of roof sur-
face available for electricity generation quite
substantially. The modules can therefore also
Inclination of Usable Specific Usable
module surface solar area incident rad. incident rad.
[°] [%] [ %] [%]
0 100 100 100

10 75 106 80

20 61 111 68

30 53 113 60

40 48 113 54

B 3.99 B 3.100 B 3.101

107
Building envelope

B 3.102 Possible multiple functions of active solar tech- Requirements placed on Influence of active
nology in the building envelope building envelope solar energy usage
B 3.103 Typical shading situations
Thermal separation o
B 3.104 Works depot, Constance (D), 1996,
Schaudt Architekten Weather protection +
B 3.105 PV modules as weather protection, Tü Arena, Privacy + Adjacent building
Tübingen (D), 2004, Allmann Sattler Wappner
B 3.106 PV modules as roof covering, Lehrter Station, Sunshading +
Berlin (D), 2006, von Gerkan Marg & Partner Glare protection o
B 3.107 Ecological community centre, Ludesch (A),
Noise protection o
2006, Hermann Kaufmann
B 3.108 Burgweinting sports hall, Regensburg (D), Security o
2004, Tobias Ruf Building geometry
Daylight utilisation –
B 3.109 Plant building for solar-powered residential
development, Emmerthal (D), 2000, Views in and out –
Niederwöhrmeier + Wiese Architecture +
B 3.110 Construction and design strategies for active
solar technology Passive solar energy usage –
B 3.111 Office building and production plant,
SMA, Kassel (D), 2001, Hegger Hegger Schleiff o neutral + symbiosis – conflict Planting Rooftop structure
B 3.102 B 3.103
Solar shading Whereas a solid, loadbearing external wall Incorporation
Shading elements, owing to their function, are represents a clear amalgamation between Incorporating solar elements into a building
generally exposed to direct solar radiation and loadbearing structure and enclosing envelope, envelope as the outer leaf or layer, thus replac-
are therefore ideal for integrating into a photo- a frame construction is also perceived as one ing conventional materials and forming the
voltaic installation. This applies to both fixed element, but the loadbearing and enclosing weather protection to the building, represents
and movable elements, where solar modules functions can be allocated to the individual an incorporation of the technical services into
can replace opaque or translucent materials, components frame and infill respectively – an the building envelope subsystem. In this case
e.g. metal panels, printed glass (Fig. B 3.101). incorporation of the functions. The third stage the building envelope could not function with-
Photovoltaic modules can also be used directly is the frame construction with a suspended out the solar elements because they provide
as shading glazing elements. The desired facade, where there is a clear segregation of one indispensable function of the building
g-value of the components can be influenced the functions. envelope. This type of integration calls for a
by the extent of the active cell area. What This classification is also obvious with respect careful coordination of dimensions and details
should be considered here, however, is the to the possible ways of using photovoltaic between photovoltaic modules and facade sys-
high heat radiation towards the inside caused modules or solar thermal collectors on or in the tem plus an exact coordination of the different
by the heat build-up at the solar cells. Never- building envelope. These strategies are explained trades (Fig. 3.105).
theless, in a dense installation, very good out- below using the example of photovoltaics, but
puts are achievable. And this means that, for they also apply to solar thermal systems (see Amalgamation
example, roof glazing allowing good daylight p. 93). Amalgamation is achieved when the solar ele-
exploitation can at the same time achieve a ments can fulfil all the functions normally pro-
generous shading effect (Fig. B 3.107). Segregation vided by the building envelope. One example
The segregation of solar elements and building of this is the photovoltaic panel the form of an
Solar technology and the building envelope envelope is when the solar components are insulating glass unit, which besides generating
The building envelope, the loadbearing struc- perceived as autonomous elements and are electricity can also provide the thermal separa-
ture and the technical services represent the clearly demarcated from the envelope subsys- tion between inside and outside plus shading,
energy subsystems in a building. They have tem. One widespread segregation method is privacy, sound insulation and weather protec-
mutual effects on each other and can be inter- the rooftop mounting of solar modules on resi- tion functions, and at the same time possesses
linked in different ways, described by the terms dential buildings with tiled roofs. The normal a high architectural potential. The solar element
segregation, incorporation and amalgamation reasons for segregation are the need for an represents a fusion between the technical ser-
[4] (Fig. B 3.110). This becomes clear when inexpensive, usually retrofitted installation and vices and building envelope subsystems (Fig.
considering the possible connections between a clear separation of trades with corresponding B 3.106).
the building envelope and the loadbearing warranties. The multiple functions of the solar
structure: elements possible are limited here to shading
and visual appearance (Fig. B 3.104).

B 3.104 B 3.105 B 3.106

108
 Building envelope

Solar technology and architecture Adaption

In addition to the constructional integration, the If components for the active use of solar radia-
architectural treatment of active solar compo- tion, with their specific requirements regarding
nents, right up to the form of the building, will orientation and freedom from shadows, are
become especially important for future develop- integral to and dominate the design concept,
ments in solar architecture. After all, it is the this will entail adapting the planning in many
harmony between building and solar technolo- senses, possibly even changes to the form of
gy and the attractiveness of the ensuing archi- the building and the building envelope. To a
tecture that, to a large extent, will govern the large extent, the building or parts thereof will
level of acceptance and the success of these need to be adapted to suit the requirements of
technologies. the solar elements, to assist in optimising their
It is necessary to distinguish between three energy efficiency. The use of solar energy then
design strategies in this context: addition, inte- becomes a primary criterion of the architectural
gration and adaptation (Fig. B 3.110). In con- language for the entire building (Figs. B 3.109
sidering a strategy, it is irrelevant as to how the and 3.111). The building and the solar elements
solar elements are fitted into the building enve- are mutually dependent on each other. This
lope. form of integration embodies a high potential B 3.107
for developing new forms of architectural
Addition expression based on the active use of solar
The principle of addition stands for a design radiation.
attitude in which the building is, in principle,
planned without the use of solar technology.
Accordingly, when adding any solar technolo- References:
gy, the architectural and geometrical configura- [1] Usemann, Klaus: Entwicklung von Heizung und Lüf-
tung zur Wissenschaft, Oldenbourg-Verlag, Munich,
tion of the building envelope is ignored. The 1993.
building is merely a supporting structure for the [2] Without an analysis, a thermal bridges surcharge of
solar technology. The lack of an architectural 0.1 W/m2K should be applied according to the
integration can lead to the solar technology Energy Conservation Act (EnEV). When carrying out
the planning work according to DIN 4108 supp. 2,
components appearing alien to the building this value can be reduced to 0.5 W/m2K. Alternatively,
and this may have a detrimental effect on the a simplified analysis is possible according to DIN
appearance. This becomes evident when retro- EN 10211.
fitting solar technology installations to existing [3] After: Köster, Helmut: Tageslichtdynamische Archi-
buildings. As a rule, an additive approach tektur. Grundlagen, Systeme, Projekte, p. 96, Basel,
2004 B 3.108
results in an unsatisfactory solution, even if the [4] System developed at the Institute for Building Con-
elements are incorporated into the building struction & Design, Chair 2, University of Stuttgart
envelope at great expense.

Integration
In this approach the solar elements are con-
sciously incorporated in the architectural con-
cept of the building envelope and the building;
their proportions, patterns of horizontal and ver-
tical joints and surfaces do not appear alien.
The solar elements therefore fit in with the
three-dimensional form of the building, but this
can lead to a reduction in the exploitation of the
available solar radiation. This is justified, how-
ever, by the additional functions and the high
visual compactness (Figs. B 3.107 and 3.108).

B 3.109

Solar technology

Constructional integration Architectural integration

Segregation Addition
Incorporation Integration
Amalgamation Adaption

Building envelope Architectural design

Architecture

B 3.110 B 3.111

109
Building services

B 4.1
The key issue in energy-efficient building is the the materials used must be taken into account.
attempt to use constructional measures to And last but not least, a high consumption of
accomplish a convenient, comfortable use of energy media results in corresponding logistics
the building with the minimum use of energy. costs, e.g. when using biomass.
This is achieved in the first place through Secondly, at the same time building services
designing the building and building envelope, affect the architecture in many instances. They
and choosing the materials, to suit the climate. interact with the design and should therefore
In addition, buildings in many climate zones take full account of the constructional boundary
require a controllable energy supply. The tech- conditions and users’ specifications. When
nologies necessary for this have a considerable considering sustainability, building services
influence on user comfort and also the environ- cannot be simply assembled from technical
mental impact of the structure. The latter can components straight out of the catalogue and
be assessed by calculating all the energy require- installed according to statutory instruments and
ments that occur during operation, as is now standards. Accordingly, the system compo-
stipulated by the EU Directive on the Energy nents cannot be seen as add-ons provided in
Performance of Buildings for space heating, the sense of a “technical fitting-out” to make a
hot water, cooling, ventilation, lighting and their building usable. Instead, it will be necessary to
respective auxiliary power requirements. And provide a technical concept integrated into the
extending the calculation to the primary energy design which provides the optimum solution for
requirement means that the environmental the specific demands of the project. Building
impacts related to the technology and specific simulations for energy purposes will enable the
to certain energy media are also ascertained. technical planning to proceed without exces-
Building services are consequently an integral sive safety margins – and they also have the
constituent of the overall energy concept of a potential to provide considerable impetus for
building. the building design itself. This is especially sig-
nificant with photovoltaics and solar thermal
energy. Furthermore, building services influ-
Sustainable building services ence user behaviour. Extensive and intuitive
control options promote sustainable usage.
In essence, three aspects are critical for sus- Thirdly, building services always tie up capital
tainable building services: – in terms of both production and the cost of
Firstly, special attention must be paid to the operation (cost of energy media plus service
ecological consequences of the technical sys- and maintenance). Optimisation is therefore
tems. When using fossil and nuclear energy only possible when considering the entire life
sources, dwindling resources should be used cycle. One key aspect here is the careful plan-
as sparingly as possible in order to minimise ning required when using components whose
the environmental problems caused by their technical service lives may be totally different.
usage. In addition to guaranteeing a high energy The easy replacement of technical components
efficiency, is also necessary to achieve exten- is an important planning criterion.
sive use of renewable energy sources for the Renewable energy sources promise environ-
energy supplies to buildings. For the ideal case mentally compatible energy usage. So when
B 4.1 Active solar installation with holographic shading this means complete CO2 neutrality (i.e. zero using energy supplies exclusively from renew-
elements, terrace house, Stuttgart (D), 1993,
carbon emissions on balance), and the bound- able sources we could come to the conclusion
Hegger Hegger Schleiff
B 4.2 Example of passive air management and aries of the CO2 audit could even be extended that the energy consumption is no longer rele-
evaporative cooling from Arabian architecture, beyond an individual building to cover a build- vant. However, the use of such sources is
2nd century BC ing complex, a whole community, even regional always coupled with a high cost, which is
B 4.3 Hypocaust heating for a Roman bath, or national structures. However, the use of revealed in the cost of the energy conversion
c. 3rd century AD
B 4.4 Solar power plant at the World Exposition in Paris (F),
renewable energy sources calls for investment (e.g. geothermal energy) in particular. Reduc-
1878, Augustin Mouchot in the technology. Besides the embodied pri- ing losses, increasing efficiency and using
B 4.5 Milestones in building services mary energy, the further ecological effects of renewable energy sources therefore represent

110
 Building services

1 Living room, winter

2 Water basin hollow bricks (tubuli)
3 Living room, summer
4 Cooling wind

1 3
2

B 4.2 B 4.3 B 4.4

1700 • First calculations for the heating requirements
mutually beneficial aims. Besides measures to were finite: “We have discovered that coal of buildings
reduce demand, the choice of energy source deposits from ancient times lie within the earth,
and the ensuing building services must be given which have accumulated over such long periods
equal weight in the planning (see “Strategies”, of time that all of mankind’s history is negligible
p. 176). by comparison … We are consuming these
• Energy crisis in Europe owing to the scarcity
now and in doing so behave like laughing heirs of coal
Historical development enjoying a rich inheritance. It is dug out of the
Building services first became a separate disci- earth … and consumed as if it were inexhaust-
1750
pline in the 20th century, although the majority ible … Once this supply is consumed, … man- • First solar thermal high-performance system
of principles and many of the technologies can kind will have to rely on the energy that the sun
look back on a longer period of evolution. will continue to supply through its rays for many
Numerous historical examples from the realm of years to come” [2].
Arabian culture bear witness to the intelligent After the Association of German Engineers (VDI)
coupling of technical systems and natural cli- was founded in 1856, the German physicist
matic boundary conditions in order to ensure a Schinz carried out further calculations on the
comfortable interior climate. Fig. B 4.2 shows an heating requirements of buildings, the results of
example of the use of wind, the evaporation of which led to the introduction of the expression 1800
• Introduction of the terms heat flow, temperature
water and thermal currents to cool the supply of “heat losses due to transmission and ventilation”. gradient and thermal conductivity
fresh air to a building. In Roman building cul- Towards the end of the 19th century, the exten- • Introduction of the k-value as a means of measur-
ture, long before the birth of Christ, it is remark- sive practical work of Hermann Rietschel laid ing the thermal transmittance (today: U-value)
able how intelligent systems of ducts were the foundation for our current calculation of the • Invention of the heat pump
installed in bathing facilities to create central heating requirements of buildings, work that
• Discovery of the photoelectric effect
heating systems in which the heat was released was published in the first manual and textbook
via the floors and walls (Fig. B 4.3). But it was for heating engineers. All the technological • Discovery of the sorption principle
not until the 18th century or thereabouts that systems common today have their origins in 1850 • Crystal Palace in London (GB) (Paxton)
people began to have specific ideas about the scientific studies and findings of the 19th • Introduction of the terms transmission and
heating buildings and guaranteeing agreeable century. For instance, the physicist Alexandre ventilation heat losses
interior conditions. One of the earliest documents Edmond Bequerell had already discovered the • Patent for insulating glazing
on the subject was written, rather surprisingly, photovoltaic effect by 1839, and this still forms
by a German clergyman, Johann Georg Leut- the basis of all current systems for generating • First ideas about integrating photovoltaics into
mann, in 1720 – a treatise on the “calculation of electricity from sunlight. Worthy of note in this the building envelope
heating requirements in buildings”. In this docu- context is that the need for active solar surfaces • Numerous patents granted for solar thermal
ment, he establishes that “the size of the oven and the resulting use of facades and roofs for 1900 collectors
must depend on the chamber to be heated” [1]. the large-scale development of photovoltaics • Fagus Works, Alfeld a.d. Leine (D) (Gropius)
was already known in the 19th century. This is • Boom in the USA for solar thermal installations
19th century evident in a quote by the American physicist • Vision of the glass tower (Mies van der Rohe)
The demonstration of the first solar thermal Charles Fritt dating from 1880: “Photovoltaics • MIT solar houses
power machine by Augustin Mouchot at the only has a chance if it can be harmoniously
• Insulating glazing ready for the market
1878 World Exposition in Paris (Fig. B 4.4) integrated into the architecture.” The first proto-
shows that renewable energy technology was types in the field of thermodynamics also date
already playing an important role in the 19th from this period – prototypes in which com- 1950
• First photovoltaic modules ready for the market
century. The motivation behind the develop- pression and decompression could be used to
ment of this machine was an appeal by the influence the heating potential specifically via a • Solar house with Trombe wall
French king to discover alternative sources of transfer medium. The vast majority of our • Worldwide oil crises
energy because of the dwindling reserves of present refrigeration plants and heat pump sys- • Comeback for passive solar architecture
coal. We can certainly speak here of an early tems are based on these findings. Absorption • First photovoltaic facade
global energy crisis! A quote by the physicist and adsorption technologies also have their • First passive houses
Clausius dating from 1885 shows that, right at roots in the 19th century, and they are enjoying
• Self-suffficient solar house in Freiburg (D)
the beginning of the age of fossil fuels, it had a comeback in current developments for solar 2000
already been realised that these energy sources cooling.
B 4.5

111
Building services

B 4.6 B 4.7 B 4.8

20th century interior air totally irrespective of the external thermal systems so that today a wide range of
By the end of the 19th century, numerous patents conditions. These developments called for a fully developed components is available. In
had been granted for solar thermal collectors. marked increase in technology requirements addition, photovoltaic installations for generat-
In the USA it would be fair to speak of a “solar for the use of buildings, a fact reflected by the ing electricity have been integrated into build-
boom” in thinly populated regions (Figs. B 4.6 addition of the term “air conditioning” to the VDI ing envelopes since the 1980s (Fig. B 4.9). And
and 4.7). Architects were now thinking about “Building Services” study group in 1967. At that the vision of the self-sufficient building, i.e. not
energy technology, and that was the reason time, photovoltaic modules were already being requiring any external energy supplies, finally
behind the book written by the German profes- used by satellites, but their integration into became reality in 1992 (Fig. B 4.10); its opera-
sor of architecture Richard Schachner in 1926, architecture was not yet foreseeable. tion was made possible primarily through a
the first “comprehensive book on building During the 1940s and the 1960s, many research solar water circuit, photovoltaic elements and
services for the construction industry” [1]. Just and pilot projects in housing were aimed at fuel cells.
three years later, the latest information was achieving the maximum use of solar thermal
incorporated in the new DIN 4701 standard, systems for space heating and hot water.
“Rules for calculating the heating requirements Among those developments were passive
of buildings and for calculating boiler and radi- applications such as the Trombe wall and
ator sizes in heating installations”. This 47-page active solar thermal systems with long-term
publication included the climate tables of the storage such as the MIT solar house (Fig. B 4.8).
Prussian Meteorological Institute, advice on A major breakthrough was, however, not forth-
natural ventilation by exploiting the leaks coming because at that time the costs of con-
around doors and windows, and a list of ther- ventional energy supplies were at a very low
mal insulation values (in those days expressed level. The turning point for further development
as k-values) for various building components. was the first oil crisis of 1973. Besides the eco-
The subject of energy was first introduced into logical aspects, the driving force was now pri-
the university education of architects in 1940 marily the effort to reduce dependence on
by including compulsory lectures on “technical uncertain energy supplies. Since the 1980s,
fitting-out” in the foundation studies in architec- important progress has been made in the effi-
ture [1]. As industrialisation took hold in the ciency of building services, e.g. the great
building industry and numerous technical improvements in boilers through the introduc-
developments in the areas of building materi- tion of condensing technology and more effi-
als, design and systems appeared, so the cient heat pumps, making them viable alterna-
buildings in the highly industrialised countries tives to conventional heating systems. Work
were increasingly characterised by very was undertaken to improve, for example, the
sophisticated machinery for conditioning the operational reliability of and controls for solar

B 4.6 Advertisement for the “Climax Solar-Water

Heater”, Baltimore (USA), 1892
B 4.7 Private house with solar thermal collectors,
Pamona Valley (USA), c. 1910
B 4.8 MIT solar house, research project with integral
collector roof (USA), 1939
B 4.9 First building with integral photovoltaic installa-
tion, residential development, Munich (D), 1982,
Herzog + Partner
B 4.10 Self-sufficient solar house, Fraunhofer ISE research
project, Freiburg (D), 1992, Planerwerkstatt
Hölken & Berghoff
B 4.11 Targets, subtargets, concepts and measures for
the energy-efficiency optimisation of building
services
B 4.9 B 4.10

112
 Building services

Current trends Target Subtargets Planning aspects Technical systems

Natural gas has been the dominant fossil fuel in
Europe since the 1990s. Condensing boilers
have in the meantime become standard in this
sector. The main developments are now taking Use of fossil fuels and Condensing boiler,
place in technologies for the use of renewable nuclear energy electrical heating
energy. The thermal use of biomass – primarily
in the form of wood pellets – has become
Wood logs, chippings
established thanks to efficient technology. Use of biomass and pellets
Solar thermal systems for hot-water provision
and for assisting the space heating are now
standard products, and photovoltaic modules Gaining and distributing Unglazed, flat-plate, air and
can be custom-made for any project. Heat Use of solar heat vacuum-tube collectors
heat
pumps and decentralised combined heat and
power (CHP) plants are viable alternatives.
Currently undergoing development are, in par- Use of ambient heat via External air, waste heat,
heat pumps ground and water heat
ticular, new storage technologies, concepts for pumps
building automation, fuel-cell technology and
systems for solar cooling and solar thermal Sensible, latent and sorption
Heat storage, distribution
electricity generation. From the technical point and output storage media, coil heating,
of view, many fully developed technologies are convectors
therefore already available for using energy
efficiently and for using renewable energy. Ground coupling, adiabatic
Natural heat sinks cooling, night purging
Through the use of biomass, CHP plants, cus-
tomised photovoltaic modules, solar thermal
collectors plus efficient storage systems and
Compression-type refrige-
control technology it is now possible to operate Electrical cooling ration unit, reversible heat
a building with a neutral CO2 balance without pump
Gaining cooling energy
incurring any significant extra costs. Taking the and dissipating heat
10 components of energy-optimised building Absorption- and adsorption-
(see “Fundamentals”, p. 61) as a starting point, Thermal cooling type refrigeration units, solar
the individual technologies will be explained on cooling
the following pages. Fig. B 4.11 provides a Optimisation of
Storage, distribution and Water and ice storage, coo-
structured overview of the five energy themes building services
output of cooling energy ling fins, activation of buil-
and the systems feasible in principle. The oper- ding components
ation of the individual technologies is explained
and together with advice on relevant planning Heating and cooling batter-
criteria this should serve as a basis for the Requirements and sizing ies, humidification, dehumid-
development of an overall energy concept ification, air ducts
(see “Strategies”, p. 177).
Optimising mechanical Air management and driving Air ducts, displacement
ventilation energy ventilation outlet, long-range
nozzle, “venturi spoiler”,
Heating
solar chimney, fans
Recovery of heat, cooling Cross-flow, counter-flow and
The provision of heat is one of the most impor- rotary heat exchangers
energy and moisture
tant functions of building services. Heat guar-
antees agreeable interior temperatures when
the passive capacity of the building can no Equipment, lamps
Lighting technology
longer offer this. As the majority of people on
the earth need some form of heating system,
there is a huge potential for avoiding negative
Optimising the artificial Direct/indirect, task lighting,
environmental impacts embodied in heating Lighting concept surface characteristics
lighting
technology. The extent and duration of heating
supplies are essentially influenced by the cli-
matic boundary conditions, users’ specific Occupancy detection,
Lighting automation daylight-level controls
requirements and the thermal quality of the
building envelope. The basis for planning heat-
ing installations is the so-called (standard) heat
Module types, construc-
load (formerly: heating requirement), which Photovoltaics tional integration, multiple
specifies the amount of heat that must be fed functions
into the building, or individual rooms, in the most
unfavourable situation in order to guarantee the Generating electricity and Engine generator, Stirling
required interior temperature (Fig. B 4.12). In Combined heat and power engine, turbine, fuel cell,
using it efficiently
principle, the calculation is based on the same combined heat and power
method as that used to determine the annual
heating requirement according to the German Battery, hydrogen life cycle
Storing electricity
Energy Conservation Act (EnEV). However,
B 4.11

113
Building services

Building envelope (thermal quality) whereas the latter determines the quantity of which means that a time buffer is possible in
Utilisation (desired room temperature)
energy per year, for the heat load only the most order to detach the use of the electricity from
Climate (e.g. minimum air temperature, wind conditions)
unfavourable case is relevant. Variable energy the use of the heat (e.g. for using low-cost
gains such as internal heat sources or solar night-time electricity). Electric heating systems
gains are left out of the equation. As we continue require neither a chimney nor a separate plant
Transmission heat losses Ventilation heat losses to optimise the building envelope, so we reduce room because there is no combustion. When
not only the heat load, but also shorten the assessing the ecological quality of electricity
heating period considerably (Fig. B 4.14). The as a secondary energy medium, the energy
heat load forms the starting point for sizing the sources for generating the electricity are impor-
Standard heat load [kW]
heating plant (boiler, heat pump, etc.) and the tant. These can be determined for each coun-
heat output elements (radiators, fresh-air heat- try. In Germany, for example, the electricity mix
B 4.12 ing battery, etc.). DIN EN 12831 is used when consists of 88% fossil fuels and nuclear energy
Rough heat load calculation accurate calculations are required, but a rough (as of 2006). Owing to their dependence on
estimate for residential buildings can be obtained uranium, even nuclear power stations face the
Q [W] ~ Qspec · GFA heated · ftemp by using the usable floor space, specific heat problem of the finite resources of this raw mate-
GFA: gross floor area
TIA: Thermal Insulation Act
load values and surcharges (Fig. B 4.13). The rial. In terms of CO2 emissions, nuclear power
ECA: Energy Conservation Act most important heating installations, arranged is better than other fossil fuels when generating
Specific heat load Qspec [W/ m 2GFA heated]

175 according to their energy sources, are explained electricity, but the highly problematic and as
Old
building below. Systems for combined heat and power yet unsolved international problem of disposing
150
can be found in a separate section on p. 143. of the radioactive waste, also the security
issues, weigh heavily on the downside of this
125 Use of fossil fuels and nuclear energy technology (see “Fundamentals”, p. 45).
TIA ’77 Worldwide, energy supplies are mainly met by With high conversion losses in electricity gener-
100 fossil fuels in the form of coal, oil and natural ation from fossil fuels, the direct use of electricity
TIA ’84
gas. The finite nature of these energy resourc- for heating has a particularly unhelpful effect on
75 es was properly recognised right at the start of the primary energy balance of a building (Fig.
TIA ’95
ECA
the “fossil-fuel age”, but not the equally serious B 4.15). Heating with electricity is generally
50 problem of damaging greenhouse gases and only advisable when, firstly, an efficient system
the resulting global climate change (see “Fun- such as a heat pump can be used. In such a
25 damentals”, p. 39). system the use of ambient heat can achieve
Passive house
The – in terms of technology – simple principle ecological advantages over generating heat
0 of combustion and its period of development from fossil fuels (Fig. B 4.48). Secondly, elec-
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
A/V ratio [1/m]
mean that very well-developed heating systems tricity is a good choice for extremely low heat-
are now available for buildings. Thanks to low- ing requirements, e.g. decentralised hot-water
Corr. factor ftemp[-]

1.4 temperature technology and electronically con- provision in office buildings. Thanks to the
1.3 trolled, modulating systems, the originally sim- simple technology and the avoidance of line
ple boiler is now capable of very efficient com- losses, efficient heating is possible when con-
1.2 bustion. And in the meantime, advanced con- sidering the system as a whole.
1.1 densing-boiler technology enables virtually the In principle, electricity should be generated –
entire energy content of oil or natural gas to be in central or decentralised installations – com-
1.0 converted into useful heat. The efficiency is pletely from renewable energy sources.
-18 -16 -14 -12 -10
Standard outside temperature [°C] improved by exploiting the latent heat energy
stored in the water vapour in the exhaust gases.
The water vapour condenses due to the cooler
Examples Standard outside temp./annual average return from the heating circuit and the heat
released raises the temperature of the return
Hamburg -12 °C/8.5 °C Hof -18 °C/3.0 °C pipe. The acidic condensate is handled appro-
Berlin -14 °C/9.5 °C Stuttgart -12 °C/10.2 °C priately and drained away. As the degree of
Cologne -10 °C/8.1 °C Munich -16 °C/7.9 °C efficiency of a boiler is related to its calorific
B 4.13 value (without exhaust-gas heat), condensing-
boiler technology that includes the use of
exhaust-gas heat can achieve values exceed- Oil
Heating output

Standard heat load ing 100% (Fig. B 4.18)!

to DIN EN 12831 Gas
(max. output in kW)
Nevertheless, even extremely efficient conver-
sion does not alter the underlying problem that
Annual heating Elec. N
requirement to ECA fossil fuels are finite and cause CO2 emissions,
(annual energy quantity aspects that from the sustainability viewpoint A
in kWh)
that must be considered as negative.
a J A S O N D J F M A M J CH

Electrical heating S
Heating output

Old building Electricity began to be used for space heating

NL
and hot water more and more in the second
ECA
half of the 20th century. In the case of small D
amounts of energy (e.g. decentralised hot-
Passive house
FIN
water requirements), an electric instantaneous
heating appliance can be used; storage tanks 0 1 2 3 4
b J A S O N D J F M A M J are included for greater energy requirements, Primary energy factor [- ]
B 4.14 B 4.15

114
 Building services

Biomass volumes suitable for producing energy

B 4.12 Determining the standard heat load for a building

B 4.13 Rough estimate of the heat load for a residential
Energy crops grown on
Harvesting residue Organic byproducts Organic waste building in Germany with recommended values,
unused agricultural land
correction factors and examples
Logging debris Industrial scrap wood Manure Rape B 4.14 a Relationship between standard heat load and
Straw Liquid manure Sewage sludge Giant Chinese silver grass annual heating requirement
Industrial kitchen waste b Relationship between building quality and
heat load or duration of heating period
B 4.15 Comparison of primary energy factors
B 4.16 Biomass volumes suitable for producing energy
in Germany with percentage distribution
B 4.17 CO2 life cycle for biomass
B 4.18 Condensing-boiler technology
Potential 30% Potential 25% Potential 5% Potential 40% a Schematic diagram of energy flow
b Technical realisation in the boiler
B 4.16
Use of biomass a substance (e.g. paper, organic domestic Biomass forms
Vegetable biomass is a renewable raw material waste, vegetable oils, biogas, etc.). The bound- Biomass occurs in various forms and is influ-
that has the potential to guarantee an energy ary between biomass and fossil fuels is marked enced by countless factors such as the pres-
provision life cycle that does not produce addi- by peat. From the energy viewpoint, biomass ence of water, temperature, type of soil, nutri-
tional amounts of carbon dioxide because can be divided into primary and secondary ents, etc. Solar radiation and the photosynthe-
when incinerated it releases only the quantity of products. Primary products are in the first place sis process are responsible for the growth of
CO2 that was taken up by the plants during created by direct photosynthetic conversion of organic substances, which is why vegetable
their growth (Fig. B 4.17). Biomass is therefore solar radiation (e.g. wood, grass, straw, etc.). biomass is also referred to as stored solar
considered to be a “CO2-neutral” energy Secondary products are energy media that energy. The substances produced by photo-
source – provided the management of its require energy for their production (e.g. wood synthesis are cellulose (approx. 65%), hemicellu-
growth and use is sustainable. The primary chippings, wood pellets, vegetable oils, etc.) lose (approx. 17%) and lignin (approx. 17%),
energy input in the chain from growth to usage and also materials created by the decomposi- which together make up about 99% of the glo-
must be considered in the overall calculation. tion or conversion of organic substances from bal increase in biomass every year. Ligneous
The fossil primary energy value of biomass is organisms (e.g. liquid manure, sewage sludge, plants constitute the greatest potential here. In
therefore not zero. However, the permanent etc.). In the literature biomass is often employed terms of the forms that can be used for energy
availability is an advantage and so the potential as a synonym for “renewable raw materials”. purposes, biomass in Europe can be divided
for optimisation lies mainly in easy provision, Here again, there is no generally applicable into four areas (Fig. B 4.16):
highly efficient conversion and minimising pollu- definition. One way of distinguishing this is that
tants during combustion. The problem of the term “raw material” means a material for • Harvest residues – including solid biogenic
ultrafine particles is the main problem here use by mankind, which does not generally energy sources from the direct management
because in future developments, both generally apply to biomass. At the other end of the scale of forests (logging debris, low-strength
and for biomass in particular, definitions and we have the boundary with foodstuffs. The use wood), landscaping and road maintenance in
limiting values plus more advanced technolo- of biomass for energy purposes focuses on the addition to those from agricultural operations.
gies are necessary in order to reduce emissions aspect of “stored solar energy”, which can be • Organic by-products – residues that occur
and avoid health risks. rendered useful via suitable conversion sys- due to a primary treatment process; typical
The term “biomass” describes a very wide tems. Which materials are specifically suitable examples are scrap wood from industrial
range of energy sources. In biological terms it for this is also a question for ethics, e.g. decid- woodworking or liquid manure from commer-
covers basically all substances of organic origin ing whether the use of cereals or animal car- cial animal husbandry for the production of
(materials containing carbon) and hence all casses may be used to produce energy. biogas.
plants and animals and their residues (e.g. ani- • Organic waste – biogenic secondary energy
mal droppings), dead but not yet fossilised sources that remain as residues after final
plant mass, and, in the broadest sense, all usage, e.g. sewage sludge, landfill gas.
media produced through conversion or use of • Energy crops – the greatest potential for

Condensing boiler Flow 55 °C Exhaust gas,

e.g. 40°C

CO2 CO2
Gross 1st heat exchanger 1st HE 160 °C 2nd HE
calorific calorific value (100%) Useful heat
value (combustion energy) 10% (oil)
11% (gas)
Return
Water π +6 % (oil) 3 5 °C
vapour π +11 % (gas)
Condensate
Gas

2nd heat exchanger Air

Decomposition Biomass Heating Fan
condensation Exhaust gas
(latent heat)
Condensate drain

B 4.17 a b B 4.18

115
Building services

12

11

1 Bunker 1

2 Feeding screw 11
3 Combustion chamber
11
4 Hearth 7
8
5 Electric ignition
10 7
6 Ashes 3
9 5
7 Fan 2
3
8 Primary air supply 2
9 Secondary air supply 4 4
10 Secondary air screen 6 6
11 Heat exchanger 12 12 12
12 Inspection opening
a b c B 4.19
using by biomass for providing energy; fields sawdust (pellets, Figs. B 4.20 and 4.26). households, horticultural operations and indus-
not used for other agricultural operations are The main liquid energy fuels made from bio- try, or sewage sludge. Feeding biogas into
specially managed and used exclusively for mass are vegetable oils and alcohols. Soya, existing supply networks is currently being tried
cultivating such crops, which include plants and in particular rape, are the important vege- out in a number of pilot projects prior to large-
containing oil (rape, sunflowers, soya, etc.), table oils. When fully mature, the seeds of the scale usage.
fast-growing grasses with a high cellulose rape plant have a crude fat content of about
mass and hedges and trees with very low 44% and by way of pressing or additional
cultivation requirements. extraction in large-scale plants can be turned
into an energy source (rapeseed oil). In a further
Provision of biogenic energy media stage, it is possible, via ester interchange, to
In order to be able to use biomass for heat sup- refine the rapeseed oil into rape methyl ester
plies in buildings, it must be turned into energy (RME). This energy source known as “biodiesel”
media. Biomass passes through several phases can be used in conventional diesel engines.
from its creation to its thermal use. Cultivation Alcohols obtained through the fermentation of
and harvesting, or recovery, together form the plants containing starch (e.g. sugar cane,
so-called production and supply phase. This is maize, potatoes, etc.) have played only a sub-
followed by the provision phase, which spans sidiary role in the European energy sector up
the time between the supply of the biomass until now. New developments are expected
and its use for energy purposes, and which here, particularly by way of the “biomass-to-
includes the transport, storage and, first and liquid” process. Using this process, many differ-
foremost, the treatment processes. Biogenic ent types of biomass can be converted into a
energy sources can be categorised as follows: very high-quality and universally applicable oil
In the case of solid fuels we distinguish between whose properties correspond to those of the
ligneous and culmiferous biomass. The pro- ubiquitous crude oil products. Instead of direct
duction locations and supply options for wood combustion in oil-fired boilers, the oils are used
fuels are very diverse. Typical biogenic solid almost exclusively as fuels for engines in com-
fuels are logging debris, scrap wood from bined heat and power plants and for vehicles
woodworking operations and wood from plan- (see p. 143).
tations with short cutting cycles. The treatment Under favourable boundary conditions, methane
to provide materials ready for energy purposes can be obtained from biomass through fermen-
is primarily by way of the sawing and splitting tation processes under exclusion of air. Suita-
of trunks (logs), mechanical chipping of all spe- ble substrates are, for example, liquid manure
cies of wood (chippings) or the compression of from animal husbandry, organic waste from

a b c B 4.20

116
 Building services

max. 30 m
Filling nozzle
to road
DN 100
Suction nozzle
Boiler Boiler Silo DN 100

Bunker Suction
Feeding screw pipe Baffle plate
Boiler
a c

Suction Suction
pipe pipe

Boiler Boiler

Under-
ground
Bunker tank
b d
B 4.21 B 4.22
Combustion systems for buildings Wood pellets enable a particularly high-quality
A number of firing principles are available for incineration of biomass. DIN 51731 defines the
incinerating biogenic energy media and these essential properties of this fuel, such as size
depend on the form of energy used. Those suit- (40 mm long, 6 mm diameter), density, water
able for decentralised supplies in buildings will and ash content, etc. This enables them to be
be explained here (Figs. B 4.19 and 4.23): matched to the system technology exactly,
The burning of wood (logs) is the oldest method which leads to degrees of efficiency of well
of turning biomass into energy. An open fire, over 90% and very low emissions at the same
however, achieves only a very low degree of effi- time. However, the production requires addi-
ciency and the uncontrolled inflow of air results tional operations which in terms of primary
in exhaust gases with a high pollutant content. energy represent 10–20% of the energy content.
Special burners for logs are now available which Pellet installations are available with manual or
enable an automated incineration process with automatic feeding (via feed screws or suction
degrees of efficiency of up to 90%. Advanta- pipes). Storage over several months is also
geous here are the simple preparation of the fuel possible, which means that in the case of low
and the manual feeding of the burner. The heating requirements (e.g. detached house), B 4.19 Wood-burning installations (selection):
a for logs
ashes must be cleaned out at regular intervals. the fuel for a complete heating period can be
b for chippings
Processing wood to form wood chippings stored (Figs. B 4.21 and 4.25). With the excep- c for pellets
enables a suitable heating plant to be fed auto- tion of cleaning out the ashes, a pellet-burning B 4.20 Wooden energy media:
matically. Owing to the minimisation of the installation with automatic feeding is in terms of a Logs
moisture content (large surface area), this fuel footprint and comfort requirements comparable b Chippings
c Pellets
should not be stored too long, which is why with a conventional oil-fired boiler. Owing to the B 4.21 Storage options for bulk biomass products:
short delivery intervals – normally two weeks – growing popularity of pellets for heating, an a Bunker with feeding screw
are preferred (Fig. B 4.24). Besides adequate economic supply of wood pellets is now guar- b Bunker with suction pipe
storage facilities, properly planned logistics are anteed throughout Europe. Pellets are delivered c Silo with suction pipe
d Underground tank with suction pipe
necessary for the deliveries, which usually take in road tankers just like heating oil. Suction
B 4.22 Plan of typical wood pellet bunker with feeding
place in tipper trucks. Plants fired with wood pipes up to 30 m long are used to discharge screw
chippings can achieve good economics the pellets into a bunker (Figs. B 4.21 and 4.22). B 4.23 Range of supplies and typical outputs for
because of the low cost of the raw material biomass-burning installations
(minimal processing). Owing to the relatively B 4.24 Calorific value of ligneous energy media
plotted against moisture content
high maintenance and feeding costs, wood B 4.25 Estimate of the storage space required for a
chippings are primarily suitable for larger, defined annual energy requirement
centralised heating plants. B 4.26 Pelletising machine
Cal. value [kWh/ kg]

Wood chip- 6 a b c d
1
pings burner 2
Wood pellets 4 3
burner
Logs 2
burner
0 10 100 1000 0
Rated output [kW ] 10 20 30 40 50 60
Range on offer Moisture content [%]
1 Wood pellets
Typical output 2 Wood logs a Air-dried c Moist
3 Wood chippings b storage m.c. d Green
B 4.24
Energy medium Unit Calorific value
[kWh] Rough sizing
Crude oil 1 m3 = 1000 l 10 000 ¤per 1 kW heat load = 0.9 m3 space (incl. empty space)
Wood logs 1 m3 (bulk) 1700
¤usable storage space = 2/3 of storage room volume
Wood chippings 1 m3 (bulk) 800
Wood pellets 1 m3 (bulk) 3200 ¤1 m3 pellets = 650 kg
B 4.23 B 4.25 B 4.26

117
Building services

Transparent building Use of solar heat How the system works

envelope Converting solar radiation into heating energy is The basic principle of solar thermal applications
known as a solar thermal application. All bodies is the conversion of short-wave solar radiation
Heat emissions
(uncontrolled) exposed to solar radiation absorb this to differ- into long-wave heat radiation. This process
ent degrees and convert it into heat radiation by takes place when light strikes a material and its
Thermal way of the photothermal effect (Fig. B 4.33). For intensity depends on the absorption properties
mass buildings, this effect is included in the planning of that material (see “Materials”, p. 158). In an
a
in principle as “passive use of solar energy”. ideal absorber, reflection and transmission are
The so-called active use of solar energy is minimised and at the same time the heat energy
described below; the differentiation between absorbed should not be re-radiated, but rather
Collector Heat emissions this and passive use is not always clear. transferred, as far as possible through conduc-
(controlled) Active solar thermal energy systems are char- tion, to the transfer medium. This has led to the
Storage acterised by the fact that the functions of solar development of selective absorber materials,
(internal/external)
energy absorption, conversion and storage are which for technical reasons are mostly dark
not carried out exclusively by the building or blue to black in colour. Other colours are possi-
building components (Fig. B 4.27). Such sys- ble, but this reduces the efficiency (Fig. B 4.30).
Collector circuit Heating circuit
b tems generally consist of collector, heat trans- Owing to diverse losses, the heat absorbed is
B 4.27 fer medium, transport system and means of not equal to the total global radiation incident
heat storage so that the heat output can be on the absorber (Fig. B 4.31). In order to reduce
controlled properly. The aim of the majority of the convection losses to the surroundings,
active systems for providing heat is to decou- absorbers are formed into collectors that are
ple the use of the heat from the occurrence of insulated on the side facing away from the sun
the solar radiation as much as possible (Fig. and covered with highly transparent special
B 4.29). A means of storage combined with glass on the side facing the sun. A heat trans-
controls play a crucial role within the overall fer medium flows through the collector in order
system (see p. 124). Besides the heat load pro- to carry away the usable heat. The difference
file and the collector orientation, the efficiency between the energy of the incoming and out-
of a solar installation is mainly influenced by the going transfer medium represents the heat
solar radiation levels at a particular location. flow. One important criterion for the quality of
This differs considerably across Europe and the collector is its degree of efficiency, which is
System efficiency reaches values of approx. 850–1750 kWh/m2a the ratio of the heat flow in the heat transfer
for horizontal surfaces (see “Fundamentals”, medium to the global radiation incident on the
p. 53). As the available solar radiation is sub- collector. This is heavily dependent on the tem-
jected to a time limit, a correspondingly high perature difference between exterior air and
material input is necessary for the technology absorber (Fig. B 4.34). Besides the collector’s
System costs required for converting and storing the energy. efficiency, the “solar coverage component” is
Solar thermal installations produce no emis- particularly important for the whole system, and
0 20 40 60 80 100 sions apart from during their production and – describes, expressed as a percentage, the
Solar coverage [%]
unless they operate on the gravity principle – in share of the usable energy provided by the
B 4.28
connection with the operation of pumps (auxil- solar system with respect to the total heating
iary energy). Active solar thermal heating sys- energy requirement of the building. This is par-
tems have in the meantime reached a high ticularly influenced by the discrepancy
Heating technological standard. The developments are between the time of the supply of the solar radi-
Heat not available requirement
for heating purposes characterised by constant improvements to ation and the demand for usable energy, and
individual components and, in particular, by the ensuing unusable solar radiation (storage
optimised system concepts and electronic con- media at maximum temperature) plus line and
Solar yield
trol strategies. The focus in the future, however, storage losses (Fig. B 4.35). Owing to the
will be the constructional and architectural inte- aforementioned boundary conditions, it is gen-
J F M A M J J A S O N D gration of thermal solar collectors into the build- erally true that as the solar coverage compo-
B 4.29 ing envelope (see “Building envelope”, p. 94). nent increases, the size of the installation
Energy yield [%]

100% solar radiation energy 100

90

7 % reflection
80

Glass 2 % absorption
70

60
15 % 5 % reflection
convection 8 % heat radiation 50
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
60% absorbed energy Angle of inclination [°]
Absorber
Energy supplied Radiation level
by collector array at collector
Insulation 3 % heat conduction [kWh / a] [kWh / m2a]
B 4.30 B 4.31 B 4.32

118
 Building services

Process heat
Space heating Annual solar radiation at collector surface
– + Light energy excites
Hot-water provision
the electron
Open-air pool heating
Conversion into heat Size of Conversion
storage losses

Degree of efficiency [%]

100
–
80 Transport lines Line losses
– + Excited electron jumps
to a higher energy level
60
Vacuum-tube collector
Storage Quality of Storage losses
storage
40

20
– – Excited electron Unglazed
returns to lower collector Flat-plate collector
– + 0
energy level and Solar
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 coverage Total annual heating requirement
emits heat energy
Temperature difference, external air/absorber [K]
B 4.33 B 4.34 B 4.35
(absorption area and storage volume) mush- buildings. Their construction allows them to processes and for solar thermal electricity
rooms disproportionately, whereas the efficiency be very easily integrated into the building generation (see p. 144).
of the system per unit area drops (Fig. B 4.28). envelope (Fig. B 4.37). Occasionally, the air
space in the collector is filled with a noble In principle, either gases or liquids can be used
Technical system components gas to minimise convection heat losses. as a transfer medium, although liquid-filled sys-
A solar thermal system consists of several com- • As an alternative to the flat-plate collector tems are more common. To avoid frost damage,
ponents required for the primary functions of containing water pipes, air collectors are the collector circuit is separated from the actual
heat absorption, heat transport and heat storage. used to preheat the air for a warm-air heating usable water circuit and filled with a water/glycol
The solar thermal converters, normally called system. Such collectors are constructed in a mixture. Pipes, typically made from copper or
collectors, are the chief elements in a solar similar way to flat-plate collectors. However, polyethylene, join collectors and storage tanks.
thermal installation. Various types of collector the heat absorbed is not transported via In the case of vacuum-tube collectors, the liquid
are used in practice, and the most common pipes filled with water, but instead via the air either flows directly through the collectors, like
types are shown in Fig. B 4.36. The collector flowing past the absorber. the flat-plate variety, or the tubes contain a liquid
array is the part of the installation visible exter- • In vacuum-tube (or evacuated-tube) collec- separated from the brine circuit which via eva-
nally. The architectural and functional integra- tors, a flat or curved absorber is fitted into an poration and condensation effects the heat
tion places considerable demands on the plan- evacuated glass tube (Fig. B 4.41), which transport from collector to brine circuit (“heat-
ning because the orientation of the active solar prevents convection heat losses almost com- pipe principle”). Air collectors are generally
thermal surfaces has a great influence on the pletely. Depending on the form of construc- connected directly to the system of warm-air
efficiency (Fig. B 4.32). From the technical tion, the degree of efficiency of such collec- ducts.
point of view, solar thermal collectors can be tors per unit area can be increased by using Storage options for solar thermal energy (solar
divided into five categories: integral or external reflective surfaces. Vacu- storage tanks) enable the energy needs of
um-tube collectors achieve the best degree users to be decoupled from the energy genera-
• Unglazed collectors represent the simplest of efficiency and the highest operating tem- tion, which is dependent on the incoming solar
type of solar thermal converter. But their high peratures. The individual tubes of many prod- radiation. Storage has a considerable influence
thermal losses mean that their degree of effi- ucts can be rotated to suit the incoming solar on the limits of solar energy utilisation. For a
ciency is low. They are used for heating radiation, which means that these collectors simple hot-water supply, storage can be built
swimming pools or as a heat source for heat also achieve a good level of efficiency on into the collector if the risk of freezing is only
pumps. horizontal or even very steep surfaces. low (combined collector and storage tank).
• In a flat-plate collector, insulation is attached • The use of special lenses or reflective surfaces However, in the majority of applications sepa-
to the rear of the absorber and a special enables collectors to reach very high temper- rate heat storage is used (see p. 124).
glass cover is fitted on the side facing the atures (> 300°C) when exposed to direct The function of controls is in the first place to
sun. Flat-plate collectors are the most popu- radiation. Concentrating collectors are regulate the operation of the collector circuit.
lar type of collector for supplying heat to employed for supplying heat to production Typical designs use temperature sensors at
Designation Unglazed collector Air collector Flat-plate collector Vacuum-tube collector
Cross-section

B 4.27 Use of solar energy in the building:

a passive b active
B 4.28 Relationship between system efficiency and Flow of energy medium
system costs depending on the solar coverage
B 4.29 The problem of supply and demand when using
solar thermal energy for residential buildings
B 4.30 Coloured selective paints for solar thermal
absorbers
B 4.31 Loss factors for heat absorption using the
example of a flat-plate collector
B 4.32 How the angle of inclination affects the yield of a
typical solar thermal installation for space heat-
ing backup (south-facing, Germany) Degree of efficiency 40 % 60–65 % 65–70 % 80–85 %
B 4.33 The principle of the photothermic effect Typical operating temperature 30–40°C 40–50 °C 60–90 °C 70–130 °C
B 4.34 Efficiency curves for different collector types Typical applications Open-air pool heating, Warm-air heating, Hot-water provision, Hot-water provision,
B 4.35 Main loss factors for solar thermal systems heat pump solar cooling space heating, solar space heating, solar
B 4.36 Typical collector types and their applications cooling cooling, process heat
B 4.36

119
Building services

B 4.37 Private house with integral flat-plate collectors,

Satteins (A), 2002, Walter Unterrainer
B 4.38 Solar thermal installation concepts:
a Open-air pool heating
b Hot-water provision
c Hot-water provision/space heating backup
d Group heating system
e Warm-air heating
B 4.39 Monthly amounts and annual coverage for a
solar hot-water provision system for a four-person
household in Germany
B 4.40 Example of the relationship between collector
area, storage volume and solar coverage for a
detached house in Central Europe
B 4.41 Vacuum-tube collectors, office building,
Hannover (D), 2002, Behnisch, Behnisch & Partner
B 4.42 How a heat pump works
B 4.43 Typical temperature curves for constant heat
sources in Central Europe compared to the heat-
ing requirement
B 4.37
Solar collector array
collectors and storage tanks to control the efficient building, this allows between 20 and
pumps depending on the temperature differ- 30% of the total heating requirement to be cov-
ence. At the same time, the control monitors ered by solar thermal energy. The interim stor-
Swimming pool the limiting temperature values in brine circuit age for the heating circuit can be designed as
Pump
and storage tank. additional to the hot-water tank or a single com-
bination tank can serve both space heating
a Solar system concepts for buildings and hot-water systems. For a detached house,
In Europe, decentralised solar thermal energy appropriate sizing of the collector area and
is principally used in the temperature range up storage volume, which is located within the
to approx. 120°C. The applications include hot- thermal envelope, permits a solar coverage of
Solar collector array Hot-water water provision, heating of swimming pools, up to 100% for the total heating requirement
take-off
space heating and, via suitable chillers, cooling (Fig. B 4.40). The efficiency of the installation
Standard
solar as well (Fig. B 4.38, see also p. 131). presumes a low heating requirement and a low
storage Heating plant Up until now, a solar thermal installation for hot- temperature level in the heating circuit. Combin-
water provision was the most popular applica- ing a warm-air installation with an air collector
tion. The size of the system is influenced by the enables the incoming fresh air to be preheated.
Pump
Cold-water hot-water requirements and the desired solar Group heating networks can be fed from solar
b
supply coverage. Typical installation sizes for four-per- thermal installations with long-term heat stor-
son households are approx. 5 m2 collector area age. The discrepancy between the high level of
and a storage volume of 0.3–0.4 m3, covering radiation in the summer and the maximum
Solar collector array Hot-water approx. 50–60% of the annual needs (Fig. B 4.39). heating requirement in the winter can be com-
take-off In the case of a higher annual hot-water require- pensated for to a large extent (approx. 50%
Combination
Heating flow line ment, e.g. apartment blocks, hospitals, hotels, solar coverage of total heating requirement)
of storage
installations with collector arrays totalling several through seasonal storage. Sensible sizes for a
Heating plant hundred square metres and correspondingly solar-powered group heating network with
larger storage tanks are possible. Flat-plate long-term heat storage are residential estates
Heating collectors are mostly used, but also vacuum- with upward of about 100 housing units. The
Pump return line
Cold-water tube collectors with higher degrees of efficiency. heat gain in the collectors is transported via
supply
c Solar thermal heat generation is the ideal solu- appropriate lines to the central plant and dis-
tion for heating public and private open-air tributed directly to the buildings as required.
swimming pools because the heat is required The excess solar heat in the summer is fed into
Solar collector array Long-term in the hotter months of the year anyway. Only the long-term storage system (see p. 125).
heat storage
minimal technical requirements are placed on During the heating period, the heating energy
the installation and the system components, is retrieved from the store and supplemented
which are usually unglazed collectors. As the by further central heat generation as required.
Central
heating Heating plant Group heating
volume of water in the swimming pool renders The collector arrays can be located centrally or
plant network flow line interim storage unnecessary, very economical distributed over various building roofs or
Group heating operation is possible. Generally, if limited tem- facades. Besides the planning of the buildings
Pump network return
line perature fluctuations are accepted, additional themselves, the urban planning of the area
d heating plant will not be required at all. In served by the group heating network is also
Central Europe, the area of the absorbers important. The sizing of such installations
should be equivalent to about 50–80% of the depends on the individual circumstances such
External air Bypass
area of the pool. as total size of settlement, specific heating
When solar thermal energy is to be used to requirements, type of long-term storage, tem-
assist the space heating in addition to provid- perature level, etc. As a guide, approx. 1.5 m2
Expelled Fan
air Fresh air
ing hot water, the installation must be enlarged collector area and 3 m3 storage volume per
Exhaust air
in accordance with the desired solar coverage. MWh of annual heating requirement can be
Solar collector array Heat recovery Typical values for a four-person household in assumed. Further information on sizing can be
Germany are a collector area of 10–20 m2 and found in “Urban space and infrastructure”
e a storage volume of 0.7–2.0 m3. With an energy- (see p. 74).
B 4.38

120
 Building services
Solar coverage [%]

Solar coverage [%]

100 100
Storage volume: 20 m3
80 80
10 m3

5 m3
60 60

2 m3
40 40
1 m3

20 20

0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
6 m2 collector area 4 m2 collector area Collector area [m2]
B 4.39 B 4.40 B 4.41
Use of ambient heat via heat pumps The external air is available as a source of heat porarily stored solar energy with corresponding
The term “ambient heat” covers both the at all times and in unlimited quantities. It is seasonal fluctuations, which, however, are con-
atmospheric strata near the earth’s surface, up either fed via fans directly to the evaporator of siderably smaller than those of the external air
to an altitude of about 100 m, and also the soil a heat pump or transferred via a heat exchanger (Fig. B 4.43). The heat flow from the ground is
strata down to a depth of approx. 200 m (soil, indirectly to a fluid heat transfer medium. The generally < 1 W/m2, the extraction capacity var-
groundwater and surface waters). Both media external air is cooled by a few kelvins at the ies from approx. 20 to 40 W/m2 of ground cou-
obtain their energy content primarily from the evaporator. Using this method, heat can be pling depending on the moisture content of the
absorption of solar radiation and are therefore extracted from very cold air (even below freez- soil. This method of tapping the heat can be
available as energy stores for indirect use of ing). The low energy density calls for a high air realised inexpensively as part of new building
solar energy. The third type of ambient heat is circulation, which leads to a marked cooling in measures, but does require large areas.
waste heat from production processes, waste the vicinity of the air/air heat exchanger and Alternatively, the heat potential of lower strata
water or expelled air. brings with it the risk of disturbing noise. One can be exploited via vertical boreholes. The
The temperature of these heat sources is nor- major disadvantage of using the external air as seasonal temperature fluctuations in the
mally too low for supplying heat directly to a a heat source is the considerable temperature ground decrease with the distance from the
building. In order to exploit the energy content, fluctuations over the day, over the seasons. In earth’s surface. Below a depth of approx. 30 m,
however, technical devices are used to prepare particular, the conflicting nature of external an almost constant temperature corresponding
the ambient heat (Fig. B 4.42). The principle temperatures and heating requirements over to the average annual temperature for that
can be reversed both physically and technically the year have an unfavourable effect on the region prevails throughout the year (about 12°C
and thus used for cooling, too (see p. 130). energy efficiency of the system as a whole. in Central Europe). The boreholes are normally
Despite this twin application possibility, we still When the heating requirement is high, the ener- approx. 100 m deep. The brine-filled plastic
generally speak of a heat pump. gy content of the external air is very low, and pipes, in the form of a pair of U-pipes or pipe-
during the summer the heat remains virtually in-pipe arrangement, and contact with the
Heat sources unused (Fig. B 4.43). The upshot of this is that ground over their full surface area is assured
In terms of technical exploitation, we distin- heat pumps using air as a heat source are gen- by using a suitable backfilling material (Fig.
guish between the following heat sources: erally used only where a low capacity is B 4.44). The extraction capacity varies depend-
required, or they are operated in conjunction ing on the properties of the ground and the flow
• External air in the direct vicinity of the heat with a further heat exchanger. of groundwater, and in Central Europe approx.
pump or the building In principle, there are two approaches relevant 40–80 W can be expected per metre depth of
• Soil, which is tapped by constructional in practice for tapping the heat of the ground: borehole. To minimise the risk of mutual inter-
measures shallow and deep ground couplings. The ference, the pitch of the boreholes should not
• Groundwater or surface waters former requires a horizontal grid of brine-filled be less than 6 m. An alternative to the borehole
• Waste heat in the form of cooling water, pipes to be laid at a depth > 1.5 m in the is the so-called solid absorber – normally solid
waste gases, expelled air, etc. ground. The heat absorbed is essentially tem- concrete elements required for structural pur-
poses anyway (e.g. pile foundations) which are
Temperature

Temperature [°C]

Exergy: 35 External air

high temperature
activated thermally via brine-filled pipes.
30 The thermal energy stored in bodies of water
electricity
fuel 25 above or below ground can also be exploited
for heating buildings. At suitable locations with
20 open bodies of water or a water table near the
15 Ground 5 m surface, the thermal potential tied up in the
Net energy: water can be used to operate heat pumps.
10 Here, the water is pumped up directly via
space heating Ground 50 m/
hot-water provision groundwater bored wells and hence itself becomes the heat
5
transfer medium. When using the groundwater,
0 corresponding quantities of water are pumped
Anergy: Required
-5 via the production well (depth approx. 15 m) to
air temperature level Heating requirement
the evaporator of the heat pump and fed back
ground -10
water into the ground via a separate, re-injection well
waste heat -15 at another position – provided there is a contin-
J F M A M J J A S O N D uous flow of groundwater. When using the ther-
B 4.42 B 4.43

121
Building services

Brine Heating
Backfilling 30 °C 40 °C
Pair of U-pipes
Condenser
Refrigerant,
liquid
150–200 mm
45°C 50 °C Energy
(e.g.
electricity)
Expansion Compressor
valve
borehole spacing

Evaporator
min. 6 m

Refrigerant,
0 °C 5 °C gaseous

5 °C 10 °C
3m

Thermally Heat source

activated area (e.g. ground, water, air)
B 4.44 B 4.45 B 4.46
mal potential of groundwater directly, chemical heating requirement is minimal (the case with
and microbiological processes can lead to passive houses in particular), the heating
negative phenomena such as corrosion of requirement of the building can be accom-
installation components or deposits in the sys- plished with a heat pump integrated into the
tem. The geological boundary conditions and ventilation system (see p. 135). In this situation
the quality of the water must therefore be ana- the expelled air, which has a higher temperature
lysed in advance of the planning. than the external air even after heat recovery,
In Europe, groundwater exhibits a relatively can be employed directly as a heat source for
constant temperature of approx. 7–12°C over the heat pump process.
the year and the output capacities during the
heating period are about 5–6 kW/m3 ground- Heat pump technology
water per hour. When using bodies of open Heat pumps use driving energy (exergy) to
water, it is normally possible to pump out the raise the temperature of a heat source by way
water directly. Higher temperature fluctuations of a thermodynamic cyclic process (Fig. B 4.42).
of approx. 2–25°C are possible here. The In doing so, the latent energy potential in the
extraction capacities during the heating period form of “anergy” can be made available for
are typically 3–4 kW/m3 water per hour. Owing heating the building (see “Fundamentals”, p.
to the effective heat extraction, using the 43). From the technological viewpoint, there
groundwater is a very economic method for are, in principle, two ways of realising this pro-
large capacities. In addition, the groundwater, cess:
like the borehole method, can also be used as In a sorption heat pump the thermodynamic
a powerful heat sink for cooling purposes (see process is driven by the inflow of thermal energy.
p. 128). Extra special care must be taken when This technology is of only minor significance for
using groundwater in order to prevent contami- heating buildings and is used in the case of
nation of this valuable fundamental resource. waste heat (also district heating) or when cool-
Many production processes produce consider- ing is required (see p. 130).
able waste heat that can be sensibly used for As an alternative to the sorption process, the
heating buildings. If the temperature level is too rise in temperature required can be achieved
low for a direct link to the heating circuit, the via compression. In principle, any type of motor
energy potential can be used as a heat source can be used as the drive unit, but electric com-
for a heat pump. Another application for using pression heat pumps are used almost exclu-
waste heat on a small scale is in systems for sively for building heating requirements.
controlled ventilation with heat recovery. If the

Ground coupling, Ground coup- Ground- Air Solid

grid of pipes ling, borehole water absorber
Availability Preferably open Anywhere Depends on Anywhere New construction
areas local availability works
Space requirement High Low Low Low Low

Average temperature -5 to +5°C 0 to 10°C 8 to 12°C -25 to +15°C -3 to +5°C

in winter
Permit required No Almost always Always No No

Typical energy 4.0 4.5 4.5 3.3 –

efficiency ratio (EER)
for heat pump
B 4.47

122
 Building services

How the compression heat pump works fossil fuel-fired heating systems. Critical here is B 4.44 Pair of U-pipes in borehole for exploiting
The basic ingredient for the heat pump process the source of the electricity for the driving ener- geothermal heat
B 4.45 Schematic diagram showing how an electric
is a liquid with a very low boiling point which is gy. Fig. B 4.48 compares the energy flows in a compression heat pump works
known as a refrigerant. This liquid passes heating system with a gas-fired condensing B 4.46 Cascaded heat pumps for high performance
through four stages in one cycle (Fig. B 4.45): boiler and a heat pump installation. In the gas and use of groundwater
In the evaporator the refrigerant is initially in a installation, the preparation and transport of the B 4.47 Comparison of different heat sources for heat
pumps
liquid state. Feeding in energy from the heat energy medium and the annual degree of utili-
B 4.48 Comparison of typical energy and CO2 audits
source raises the ambient temperature of the sation of the boiler result in only low losses (in (assumptions: natural gas 0.2 kg/kWh, CO2
evaporator beyond the boiling point of the percentages) in the primary energy input. By emissions for electricity 0.57 kg/kWh, energy
refrigerant corresponding to the respective contrast, in the heat pump system, some 60 to efficiency of heat pump 3.5):
pressure. This cools the heat source by approx. 80% of the final energy stems from a renewable a Gas-fired condensing boiler
b Compression heat pump operated with
4–6 K. The refrigerant, now in vapour form, is heat source (e.g. geothermal energy), but the conventional electricity, CFC refrigerant
compressed in the next stage, a process that electrical driving energy required results in, in c Compression heat pump operated with
requires a considerable amount of energy to be Germany, for example, a correspondingly high electricity from renewable sources, zero-CFC
fed into the system. In the case of an electric primary energy consumption due to the high refrigerant
B 4.49 Parameters for heat pumps
compressor, the quantity of electricity required cost of generating the electricity. In addition,
has an effect on the primary energy balance. the use of refrigerants containing fluorocarbons
The enormous pressure increase also raises results in the emission of CO2-equivalent sub-
the temperature of the refrigerant by up to 70 K. stances. To achieve a noticeable reduction in
2 t CO2
The highly compressed, high-temperature carbon dioxide compared to a gas-fired con-
Gas-fired heating
refrigerant now passes to the condenser where densing boiler, more favourable operating con-
it is in contact with the water circuit for the heat ditions must be presumed (e.g. a high EER). It 10 MWh 10 MWh
Primary energy Heat
output (heating circuit) via a second heat therefore seems obvious to include decentral- (natural gas)
exchanger. The temperature of this flow of ised electricity generation using renewable
water is lower than that of the condensation sources in the planning alongside an efficient a
temperature of the refrigerant corresponding to heat pump system (see p. 138).
the respective pressure, whereupon it cools 1.65 t CO2 0.65 t CO2
and condenses. The heat of condensation Typical installation concepts
Power station 2,9 MWh 2.9 MWh Heat pump
released is transferred to the heating circuit. In The output of heat pumps ranges from mini instal- 7,6 MWh Electricity Electricity
10 MWh
order that the cycle can begin again, the pres- lations with just 1 kW to large systems supplying Primary energy
Heat
(coal, gas,
sure of the refrigerant must be relieved via an several hundred kilowatts. The arrangement and uranium) Power station
expansion valve, which causes the temperature type of components vary depending on the heat waste heat
4.7 MWh 7.1 MWh
to fall again. As it re-enters the evaporator, the source (Fig. B 4.52). Up until now, more than Ambient heat
initial pressure and temperature have been 90% of new heat pump installations have been b
restored and the process can begin again. in residential buildings, but they are being
increasingly used for other types of building as
0 t CO2 0 t CO2
Parameters well. To cover the enormous requirements of
Sun/wind etc. 2.9 MWh 2.9 MWh Heat pump
Like with the degrees of efficiency of boilers, office buildings, for instance, several heat pumps Electricity Electricity
heat pumps also have parameters to enable an can be operated in parallel. And as they are also 10 MWh
Heat
energy assessment (Fig. B 4.49). The coeffi- suitable for cooling, they represent an interest-
cient of performance (COP) for a heat pump ing alternative for buildings with high cooling
7.1 MWh
frequently specified in manufacturers’ docu- requirements. In principle, heat pumps can be Ambient heat
mentation designates the ratio of the energy integrated just like boilers, although it is normal c
released at the condenser to the electrical to include some form of interim storage in order B 4.48
power of the drive motor for the compressor. It to avoid high cycle rates and to bridge over the
is therefore only an assessment of the quality of periods between special heat-pump electricity
the heat pump cycle and is always related to a rates (see p. 125). Special plant rooms are not
certain operating situation. It should always be required and so heat pumps can be set up
specified in conjunction with the primary boundary anywhere. Even a chimney is unnecessary. Only
conditions (e.g. S5W35 = brine temperature the noise of operation has to be considered.
5°C, heating circuit flow temperature 35°C). There are various operating concepts for using
Critical for the evaluation of the complete sys- heat pumps for space heating and hot-water
Meaning Statement
tem is the energy efficiency ratio (EER) – the provision. If the heat pump is used as the sole
Coefficient The ratio of the specified Efficiency of
ratio (for a whole year) of the thermal energy heating plant, we speak of monovalent opera-
of per- heat output to the consumed heat pump
released to the total amount of electrical energy tion. This is usually only possible with heat formance electrical drive power at under test
consumed. The fundamental assumption for sources that also provide a sufficiently high (COP) ε a certain time and for certain conditions
heat pumps is: the lower the temperature differ- temperature level even on extremely cold days temperature conditions.
ence between heat source and usage, the (e.g. ground, groundwater). An electric heating Energy The ratio of the heat energy Efficiency
more efficient is the operation of the system. element can be used to assist the heat pump efficiency supplied per year (Q) to of total
The flow temperature of the heating system is operation on very cold days. As electricity is ratio β the energy input required heat pump
(W), for determining opera- heating
therefore just as important as finding a suitable the only energy medium used, this represents a tional fluctuations etc. installation
heat source. Coil heating, e.g. in floors or walls, mono-energy operating mode. And finally, the
is effective here because such installations heat pump can also be used in bivalent opera- Seasonal The inverse of the EER Efficiency
require only low flow temperatures. The essen- tion, in combination with a second heating perform. designates the ratio of of total-
tial criterion for the ecological assessment of installation (e.g. boiler). In this setup, the heat factor the energy iinput to the heat pump
heat pump systems is the magnitude of the pump is used to cover the basic load and the heat energy supplied. installation to
VDI 4650
possible primary energy savings compared to other heating installation handles the peak loads.
B 4.49

123
Building services

Heat storage

Capacity of heat source

Thermal energy Chemical energy
φi
φsource = · ( ß – 1)
ß
Sensible heat Latent heat Reaction heat
φsource = Capacity [ kW ]
φi = Standard heat load [ kW ]
β = Energy efficiency ratio Storage medium Water Concrete Salt hydrates Paraffins Silica gels Zeolites
(examples)
Rough sizing per kW φsource
Energy density
Ground coupling, grid of pipes 30 m2 [kWh/m3] 60 ≤ 30 ≤ 120 ≤ 120 200 – 500 200 – 500
Ground coupling, boreholes 20 m
External air 300 m3/h Operating temp.
Groundwater 0.15 m3/h [°C] < 100 0 – 500 30 – 80 10 – 60 40 – 100 100 – 300
B 4.50 B 4.51
Besides distinguishing between method and Storage principles water is bonded and expelled by adsorption
operating mode when designating heat pumps, We can divide heat storage, in principle, into and desorption, and these reactions enable
we also make a distinction between the types thermal and chemical storage (Fig. B 4.51). heat to be either absorbed or released (Fig.
of heat source and heat output media. For In sensible (= measurable with thermometer) B 4.54). In contrast to sensible or latent heat
example, a heat pump with ground coupling heat storage the incoming energy causes a storage, the time of the reaction can be deter-
and integral hot-water heating circuit is known proportional increase in the temperature of the mined as required. Furthermore, there are no
as a brine/water heat pump, and one driven by storage medium. This is the most common type heat losses when the materials are separate.
external air for warm-air heating is known as an of heat storage (e.g. water tank, solid concrete Such systems therefore offer, in principle,
air/air heat pump. Depending on requirements, walls as thermal mass, etc.). excellent conditions for seasonal heat storage.
it feeds the buffer tank for the heating or hot- In latent (= not measurable with thermometer) The materials used must be checked with
water circuit. Electric pumps are used almost heat storage, in addition to the measurable rise respect to their ecological compatibility.
everywhere in the world because their mainte- in temperature, the state of the aggregate in
nance requirements are very low. The market the storage medium undergoes a change (solid
has been evolving since the 1990s – with high to liquid or liquid to gaseous). During this phase,
growth rates; the total number of heat pump thermal energy is absorbed without a rise in
systems operating in Europe, however, accounts temperature, which leads to a very high stor-
for only a small share of the heating market – age density at a low temperature level and has
except for a few countries (e.g. Switzerland). a favourable influence on storage losses (Fig.
The sizing of the heat source can be estimated B 4.53). Moreover, the temperature range of
via certain parameters (Fig. B 4.50). the phase transition can be influenced during
manufacture. Latent heat storage media are
Heat storage, distribution and output known as phase change materials (PCM)
Providing a means of storage for thermal energy because of the way they function; typical mate-
enables the energy to be used at different rials are paraffins or salt hydrates. Up until now
times to the production of that energy and in they have been primarily used as wall or ceiling
the case of solar thermal installations permits elements for optimising the storage capacity of
their use over the entire year. Storing the heat rooms. In future they will also be employed in
also allows the installed (power plant) output to storage technology for increasing the storage
be reduced because the useful heat can be density (e.g. for solar installations).
gradually “accumulated”. Likewise, storage can Thermochemical heat storage makes use of
also be used to reduce the cycle times (switch- reversible chemical reactions to control the flow
ing on and off at short intervals) of the heating of heat. Silica gel and water are examples of
plant. the media used for this type of storage. The

External air, External air, Solar absorber

compact split unit

HP HP HP HP

Solid absorber

Surface water Waste heat

HP HP HP HP HP

Ground coupling, Ground coupling, Groundwater

grid of pipes boreholes

B 4.52

124
 Building services

Temperature
Heat, Heat,
high Water low
temperature vapour temperature
Desorption Condensation
Latent heat
le
n sib
se

B 4.50 Recommended figures for rough sizing of heat

sources
B 4.51 Systematic presentation of heat storage methods Silica gel, Water,
Storage
showing materials and parameters dry liquid
B 4.52 The use of different heat sources by heat pump
e
systems ibl
Temperature ns
B 4.53 The principle of latent heat storage of phase se
B 4.54 The principle of thermochemical storage transition latent
B 4.55 Long-term heat storage for a solar-powered
e
group heating network ibl Adsorption Evaporation
ns
B 4.56 Different types of long-term heat storage se Heat,
Heat,
B 4.57 Typical short-term heat storage: solar hot-water high Water low
tank and tank-in-tank system Stored heat temperature vapour temperature
B 4.53 B 4.54
Storage typologies into a buffer tank for the heating circuit, which Heat distribution
Besides the quantity of thermal energy and the means that the water for space heating benefits Heating installations for space heating are these
temperature level, the time periods are espe- from heating losses in the heating period. Care days housed almost exclusively in separate
cially important for the practical application of must be taken with hot-water storage to ensure plant rooms. The thermal energy must therefore
heat storage media. We therefore distinguish that no legionella bacteria can thrive. be distributed via a suitable system to the vari-
between short- and long-term heat storage. In order to be able to store solar thermal energy ous interior areas where it is required. A trans-
Short-term heat storage makes use of systems over a period of several months, long-term heat fer medium is required to transport the heat.
with which thermal energy can be stored for storage media must be used, which are also The following systems have proved themselves
periods ranging from a few hours to more than known as seasonal storage systems. Such in practice:
several days. One common method of short- installations exploit the physical property that
term storage is via the building components the ratio of surface area to volume of a body • Heat distribution via pipes with hot water as a
when exploiting passive solar energy gains and improves disproportionately as the volume of medium (hot-water heating) is the method
to help the summertime thermal performance that body increases. This leads to significantly used most frequently for space heating. The
(e.g. thermal activation of thermal masses, lower heat losses and when used together with water heated up by the heating plant is
night-time cooling, etc.). Water is the most fre- good thermal insulation enables the production pumped via pipes to the heat output compo-
quently used type of technical short-term stor- of the heat to take place at a different time of nents (flow), where it cools and then flows
age (Fig. B 4.57) – in a tank with a volume of year to its usage. Long-term heat storage is back to the heating plant (return).
about 0.2–2.0 m3 and normally made from a mainly used for separate buildings with a very • The heating requirement of a room can be
corrosion-resistant material such as stainless high solar coverage (> 50%) and in concepts provided by incoming fresh air. Owing to the
steel or mild steel with a heat-resistant or for solar-powered group heating (Figs. B 4.55 low heat capacity of air, however, favourable
enamel finish, with an insulating jacket and and 4.58; see also “Urban space and infra- constructional conditions must be estab-
internal heat exchangers. They are used as structure”, p. 74). In addition to water tanks lished to minimise the heat losses. Otherwise,
buffer tanks for the heating circuit, e.g. for heat with a volume of up to 12 000 m3, it is possible high temperatures or high flow rates are nec-
pumps or co-generation plants, for storing hot to activate natural, enclosed aquifers to act as essary. Distributing the heat entirely by way
water or as a component in solar thermal sys- heat storage media, or a mixture of gravel and of air can be advisable if some form of air
tems. In the simplest case these are the same water sealed off from the surrounding soil, or conditioning is provided anyway and low
as conventional storage media with an addi- ground strata connected via vertical boreholes heat loads mean that low fresh-air tempera-
tional heat exchanger for the solar circuit. Their (Fig. B 4.56). As the heat losses are very high tures are possible, or fast heating for flexible
efficiency is improved when specific charging with water-based long-term storage, low-losses usage is required, e.g. for industrial work-
and discharging gives rise to a vertical temper- thermochemical storage media will play a shops or sports halls. In these cases the
ature stratification. Another type of storage major role in future developments. incoming air is preheated via an integral
principle frequently used is the tank-in-tank heating battery which is connected via a hot-
principle in which the hot-water tank is integrated water circuit to the heating plant. Alternatively,

Solar hot-water tank Tank-in-tank system

Heating
Hot flow line
water Hot
Water Gravel/water water
Additional Additional
heating heating
Hot-water
tank

Solar Solar
heating heating
Cold
water
Cold Heating
water return line
Boreholes Aquifer
B 4.55 B 4.56 B 4.57

125
Building services

Difference
between flow &
return temperature
Area
B 4.58 Apartment block with integral long-term heat Low-temperature heating High-temperature
storage and 100% solar heating coverage, heating
Oberburg (CH), 2007, Aeschlimann + Willen
B 4.59 Size of heating area in relation to flow tempera-
ture
B 4.60 How the various heat output systems work Temp. 50 °C 90 °C
B 4.61 Room temperature profile depending on heat
output system
B 4.62 Systematic presentation of heat output systems Tm= 40°C Tm= 80°C
B 4.63 The principle of building component activation
throughout the year
B 4.64 Typical arrangements for the thermal activation Temp. 30 °C 70°C
of a suspended reinforced concrete floor slab
B 4.58 B 4.59
gas burners can be integrated into special its flow rate, which is determined by the tem- Heat output systems
wall or ceiling elements with recirculated air perature difference between flow and return. Radiators or coil heating are necessary for
ventilation. The greater this difference, the lower is the flow transferring the heat energy to the interior
• Using steam as the heat transfer medium rate. Modulating control to suit requirements is spaces (Figs. B 4.60 and 4.62). They form the
enables thermal energy to be transported at important in addition to the use of efficient elec- interface between building services and archi-
very high temperatures (> 100°C). This tric pumps. Another option is to cut back the tecture. The type and arrangement of heating
method is usually employed in industry for heating operation automatically during the components influence the thermal comfort of a
production processes (e.g. heating of acid night: a timer switches the room temperature to room. One of the tasks of planning is to ensure
baths). a lower level (just a few kelvins) during the that, in conjunction with the design of the build-
Three aspects are essentially critical for the night to reduce transmission heat losses. ing envelope, the surface temperatures are as
energy-efficiency evaluation of the heat distri- Thirdly, the temperature level of the heat distri- homogeneous as possible (see “Fundamen-
bution: bution is essentially influenced by the configu- tals”, p. 56).
Firstly, the heat distribution pipes must be insu- ration of the total system. Typical values for The heat output always takes place simultane-
lated (lagged) in order to minimise heat losses flow and return are (in °C): 90/70 (old buildings), ously by way of conduction, radiation and con-
during transport. Distribution within the heated 70/40, 50/30 and 35/28. A low temperature vection. Whereas the conduction is negligible,
building envelope should be preferred for all level (low-temperature heating, max. 50/30°C) the proportions of radiation and convection dif-
horizontal and vertical lines in order to benefit often results in a higher efficiency for the heat- fer considerably depending on the type of heat
from the inevitable heat losses. This also ing plant (e.g. condensing boiler, heat pump, output system. We distinguish here between
applies to the distribution of hot water. Addi- solar thermal energy). In addition, the line losses radiators (individual components) and coil
tional circulation lines are often installed in resi- can be reduced. It should be remembered heating (integrated into building components).
dential buildings in order to prevent the hot here, however, that as the flow temperature Radiators are heating components in which a
water cooling during phases where hot water is drops and the temperature difference shrinks, high proportion of the heat output is by way of
not required and also to cut the waiting time so the sizes of the heat output components radiation (> 30%). Water flows through the
once hot water is required. However, the addi- must increase (Fig. B 4.59). metal housing and transfers heat to the room
tional line losses and pumping requirements via its surface. Most radiators are in the form of
also increase the energy requirement. This dis- ribbed components, manufactured in sizes to
advantage must be weighed against the suit the output required. One variation on this is
advantage that the water consumption is gen- the flat radiant panel – two flat metal housings
erally reduced when such circulation lines are joined by thin plates. Radiators exhibit good
installed. heat output values over a wide range of tem-
Secondly, electric pumps are installed to trans- peratures and can be used virtually anywhere.
port the hot water as and when required. The They are normally positioned on outside walls
capacity of a recirculating pump increases with directly below windows, but with a well-insulated

Underfloor heating Wall heating Ceiling heating Activation of concrete core

Radiator Convector Underfloor convector

B 4.60

126
 Building services

Ideal Wall Underfloor Ceiling

temperature radiators heating heating
stratification 2.70 m

Heat output systems

1.70 m

Individual
Heated surfaces
components

Flat radiant Underfloor Therm. active Ceiling Wall

Radiator Convector
panel heating components heating heating

20 24 16 20 24 16 20 24 16 20 24 [°C]
B 4.61 B 4.62
building envelope, other positions are also planning. Underfloor convectors with fans and pleasant and again require only very low flow
possible. a connection to the outside air can also be temperatures. The (very narrow) plastic pipes
The heat output from convectors is almost used for decentralised ventilation (see p. 132 are laid in the plaster or integrated into special
exclusively by way of convection. This is and “Building envelope”, p. 103). wall elements. Restrictions on the use of the
achieved with a multitude of sheet metal lamel- Radiant ceiling panels have a metal plate ele- rooms must be taken into account because the
la that are connected to the heating pipe. ment that is thermally activated by being con- wall surfaces may not be screened off (e.g. by
Owing to the large surface area, the air nected to the heating pipes. This radiates heat cupboards) and drilling holes in the wall is
between the lamella heats up to create a ther- into the room and can be combined with other practically impossible.
mal current. Such systems require a much functions (interior design, sound insulation) in a One variation of wall heating is facade heating.
higher temperature than the interior air, which suspended ceiling. Systems employing post-and-rail construction
means that flow temperatures of at least 50°C The thermal activation of the floor can be can be suitably modified so that hot water can
are necessary. achieved by laying pipes, normally of plastic, in flow through the hollow sections. Advantageous
Various types of convector are available. Like the screed. The screed is heated up and the here is the invisible integration of the heating
radiators, they can be fitted to outside walls, in large surface area means that low flow temper- system into components that are necessary
wall recesses (also concealed) or along the atures (generally 35/28°C) usually suffice for anyway. But with inadequate thermal insulation
base of a wall. Their high proportion of convec- underfloor heating. The heating output can be around the sections, the heat losses to the out-
tion means that they are suitable for tall glazing increased locally (e.g. adjacent to floor-level side can be very high.
that extends down to the floor and, especially glazing) by reducing the pitch of the pipes. The solid components required for structural
in the case of inferior thermal insulation, they However, the large thermal mass has the effect purposes (e.g. reinforced concrete suspended
can prevent a body of cold air descending that the regulation of the heat output is more floors) can be thermally activated by building in
down the glazing. In conjunction with very tall sluggish than with radiators. The very high pro- heating pipes (Figs. B 4.63 and 4.64). In con-
glazing (e.g. atria, indoor swimming pools), portion of radiation and the method of heating junction with the high storage mass, such a
additional convectors can be fitted part-way up the room from the bottom upwards results in a system can achieve a basic temperature dur-
the facade. particularly agreeable temperature profile in the ing the heating period with flow temperatures
One variation of this type of space heating is room (Fig. B 4.61). Care should be taken with only marginally higher than the required tem-
the underfloor convector, which is fitted flush the choice of floor covering because it should perature of the room. The activation of building
with the floor beneath large expanses of glaz- not prevent the heat exchange. Wooden floors components is therefore ideal for exploiting
ing. Very low models are available (min. in particular require an adequate thermal con- ambient heat. The high inertia and the low spe-
approx. 75 mm high). To increase the output, ductivity and resistance to dynamic tempera- cific heat output generally require a supple-
an underfloor convector can be fitted with an ture fluctuations (fissures). mentary heating system that can respond
electrical recirculating air fan. However, the Wall surfaces can also be used for the heat quickly to users’ needs (e.g. convectors). It
noise of operation and the auxiliary energy output in a similar way to underfloor heating. must be remembered here that an undisturbed
requirement must be taken into account in the Warm wall surfaces are regarded as particularly exchange between the surfaces of the compo-
Summer Winter

+26 °C +20 °C Pipes in soffit Heating of Pipes laid in Heating of concrete

concrete core floor screed core + pipes in soffit
Floor covering
Screed

Insulation

+22°C +22°C
Reinforced concrete
floor slab
Cooling Heating Plastered soffit

B 4.63 B 4.64

127
Building services

People nents and the interior air must be able to take cooling requirement even when the external air
place. So suspended ceilings or cavity floors temperature is low. In these cases the external
Lighting 1 have a detrimental effect on the performance of air can be used directly (direct cooling) or via
Internal such systems. The soffit design in particular an air/air heat exchanger (e.g. recooling unit)
Equipment must be coordinated with other requirements, to dissipate the heat loads.
e.g. room acoustics, when considering thermal Secondly, during periods with high external air
Production
activation. temperatures, potential heat sinks are available
Heat load during the night most climate zones which are
useful for the thermal discharging of buildings
Solar radiation 1
Cooling (night-time cooling, Fig. B 4.69), provided there
is sufficient thermal mass that can be thermally
External Transmission 1
Besides the supply of heat, limiting high tem- activated to achieve a phase lag (Fig. B 4.70).
peratures is another important aspect for thermal The transport of energy can take place directly
1
Large potential for influence External air
via the building envelope
comfort in buildings. We distinguish between via an exchange of air (natural or mechanical)
internal and external causes of undesirable or via a water-filled system (e.g. activation of
B 4.65 heat sources, the so-called cooling loads (Fig. building components) with natural recooling.
B 4.65). The most significant internal cooling Purely natural night-time ventilation is very effi-
External air loads are caused by people (high occupancy cient but difficult to control, and is often impos-
density), lighting and electrical equipment (e.g. sible for security reasons. The higher the local
Natural
Ground computers). The external energy sources can difference between maximum daytime temper-
heat sinks
be divided into solar radiation, heat transmis- ature and minimum night-time temperature, the
Water
sion from outside to inside and the heating higher is the cooling capacity that can be
potential that loads the interior via the exchange achieved. To realise effective cooling during
of air. the night, it should be ensured that the room
Direct adiabatic In the majority of cases, buildings, especially in temperature in the night drops below the maxi-
cooling
Building Evaporative the cold and temperate zones of the earth, can mum permissible temperature by at least 5 K
cooling cooling
Indirect adiabatic be operated without active cooling, provided for several hours [3].
cooling the energy efficiency has been optimised in the
planning. Designing the building envelope to Ground
Compression-type minimise external cooling loads is therefore a The temperature level in the ground becomes
refrigeration unit
Refrigeration top priority (see “Building envelope”, p. 195). more constant as we go deeper, and beyond a
unit However, certain work processes require spe- depth of approx. 30 m corresponds to the aver-
Sorption-type
refrigeration unit cific climatic boundary conditions, or especially age annual air temperature. There are essen-
B 4.66 high, usage-related cooling loads may require tially two concepts for using the temperature
Heat output per unit area [W /m 2]

25
People the provision of cooling, more properly expressed level of the ground as a heat sink.
Lighting as the need for a “heat sink”. Like with the heat- Buildings with mechanical ventilation can divert
Equipment
20 ing requirement, the cooling requirement is the incoming fresh air via a ground exchanger
determined for the most unfavourable situation. to achieve a drop in the air temperature
The maximum permissible room temperature amounting to several kelvins. In most cases fur-
15 (e.g. 26°C in office buildings) is a significant ther cooling is then unnecessary (Fig. B 4.71).
factor. A minor compromise, e.g. agreeing a The ground exchanger also helps to preheat
number of hours per year during which the the incoming air when the outside temperatures
10 maximum temperature may be exceeded, will are low, which means that the system can be
lead to considerable savings (Fig. B 4.68). operated economically over the whole year.
Remembering the needs of sustainable develop- The principle of using the temperature of the
5 ment, it should be ensured that this energy ground for ventilating the building is very old. A
service is provided with a high efficiency and “method for cooling and preheating the air with
maximum use of renewable energy sources. the help of geothermal heat” was registered
0 The systems and concepts for cooling require- with the German Imperial Patent Office
6:00 12:00 18:00 24:00 ments are explained below (Fig. B 4.66). as long ago as 1877 [4]! The cooling capacity
B 4.67 depends on the average annual temperature
Cooling capacity required [%]

100
Natural heat sinks and the dimensions of the ground exchanger
In the ideal case, the heat load in a building (Figs. B 4.72 and 4.73). The range of materials
80 can be dissipated via natural cooling potential, and cross-sections is considerable and extends
or rather heat sinks, without the need for active from plastic pipes with a diameter of 150 mm to
cooling. Favourable temperature levels in the accessible concrete ducts and complete base-
60 air, ground and water can be useful here. ments with walls forming an underground laby-
rinth for the air. Plastic pipes approx. 300 mm
External air in diameter laid at a depth of 2–4 m have
40 In most situations the cooling requirement proved to be particularly economic [4]. There
occurs at the same time as high external air are several ways of building such a ground
temperatures. Nevertheless, there are situations exchanger. If the air flow rates are low, e.g.
20
over the course of a day or year in which the detached houses, flexible pipes laid in the
external air can be integrated into the building ground are usually sufficient. For larger build-
0
services concept as a heat sink. ings, correspondingly larger pipe cross-sec-
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 Firstly, because of their high internal heat loads, tions or the use of several parallel lines will be
Permissible room temperature [°C] certain uses (e.g. theatre auditorium) have a necessary. Materials with smooth surfaces are
B 4.68

128
 Building services

B 4.65 Heat loads in a building

Temperature [°C]

Temperature [°C]
35 35
B 4.66 Building cooling options
B 4.67 Typical profile of internal heat loads for an office
30 30 building over the course of the day
B 4.68 Example of relationship between permissible
room temperature and cooling capacity required
25 B 4.69 Qualitative potential for night-time cooling
25
B 4.70 How the thermal mass affects the temperature
amplitude of the interior air with night-time cooling
B 4.71 How a ground exchanger works
20 20 B 4.72 How the average annual temperature affects the
performance of a ground exchanger
B 4.73 Performance of a ground exchanger depending
15 15 on length and diameter
28 July 29 July 30 July 31 July 28 July 29 July 30 July 31 July
Thermal mass 200 kg/m2
Thermal mass 500 kg/m2
Cooling potential of night air Thermal mass 1000 kg/m2
External air temperature ta External air temperature ta
B 4.69 B 4.70
recommended in order to reduce the flow popularity of ground-coupled heat pumps in
resistance and optimise hygiene. Suitable North America is founded on this option.
inspection openings must be included to enable
cleaning if the ground exchanger is not large Water
enough for direct access. As condensation can Groundwater or surface waters also offer a
collect, pipes or ducts should be laid to a suit- great potential for cooling buildings in addition
able fall so that the water can drain to an outlet. to their possible use as a heat source for heat
Considerable experience has been gained with pumps. If sufficient quantities of water with a
ground exchangers and it is clear that the eco- temperature level < 20°C are available, the
nomic efficiency of such systems (taking into water can be integrated directly into the build-
account preheating of the incoming air during ing services concept as a heat sink (Fig. B
the heating period) must be verified for each 4.74). The high heat capacity of water means
project. Combined with night-time cooling (acti- that the energy density is very high for a ther-
vating a bypass around the ground exchanger), mal discharge. If the water is also used as a
high heat loads can be dissipated passively. heat source for heat pumps, economic energy
As an alternative to ground exchangers, bore- supplies can be realised to meet high require-
holes (similar to heating applications) or solid ments.
absorbers in the ground as heat sinks can also
be used for cooling. This multiple usage accel-
erates the regeneration of the ground and
leads to a better economy of the total system.
The prerequisite for this is a liquid heat transfer
medium with corresponding absorption surfaces
and a heat transfer in the interior of the building
that makes cooling by just a few kelvins below
the room temperature necessary (e.g. activa-
tion of building components). An air/water heat
exchanger can be used to integrate the brine
circuit into the ventilation system. The cooling
capacity of boreholes is approx. 20 – 40 W/m
in Central Europe. Where the passive cooling is
insufficient, a heat pump can also be employed
as an active chiller unit (see p. 130). The great
External temperature [°C]

Temperature reduction for ta = 25 ± 5 °C [K]

Summer operation
Cooling capacity [W / m]

14 1200
35 ¤air cooling Samedan ø 30 cm
Extreme ¤air-conditioning 12
temperature, ¤can be omitted 1000
summer:
+35 °C
10 Copenhagen ø 25cm
e.g. +22 °C Target internal
20 800
temperature: Hamburg
+20 °C Zurich
+20 °C 8 London
Paris
600
Heating

ø 20 cm
6
e.g. +5 °C Rome
400 ø 15cm
0 4
Winter operation: Quantity of air: 250 m3 Climate: Zurich
Extreme Diameter of duct: 0.2 m 200 Air velocity: 2m /s
¤air preheating 2
temperature, Length of duct: 30 m Depth of duct: 2.5m
¤temperature rais
winter: Depth of duct: 2.5 m Soil type: naturally moist
¤above 0°C
-15 °C Soil type: moist earth
-15 0 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Ground exchanger Length of duct [m]
Average annual temperature tm [°C]
B 4.71 B 4.72 B 4.73

129
Building services

B 4.74 Cooling a building using groundwater or surface Evaporative cooling Reversible heat pump
water Cooling by the evaporation of water is a very If a heat pump system is used for heating the
B 4.75 Indirect adiabatic cooling via an air-conditioning
system
old principle, and we experience this ourselves building, it can be used simultaneously for pro-
B 4.76 Direct adiabatic cooling via plants in an atrium, through transpiration via the skin. Energy is viding cooling needs because heat pumps and
institute building, Wageningen (NL), 1998, required to accomplish the transition from the electrical chillers use the same technology in
Behnisch, Behnisch & Partner liquid to the gas state and this is obtained from principle. Twin usage as a “reversible heat
B 4.77 Concordance between solar radiation and cool-
the surroundings (adiabatic cooling). It is pos- pump” can represent an economic solution,
ing requirements due to external loads
B 4.78 Schematic diagram of solar thermal cooling sible to reduce the temperature of the fresh-air provided heating and cooling energy are not
using a sorption-type refrigeration unit supply to a building directly or indirectly in a required at the same time.
B 4.79 Simulation for sizing a solar-powered 15 kW similar way. Electrical cooling has been fully developed and
absorption-type refrigeration unit for an office Direct adiabatic cooling involves humidifying can be used for many different capacities;
building in Madrid (E)
B 4.80 Solar cooling with a sorption wheel (DEC)
the incoming air directly, which reduces the parameters can be used to estimate the space
B 4.81 Parameters for the rough calculation of the temperature of the air. Such a cooling effect required for compressor-type refrigeration plant
space requirements for electrical compression- can be achieved via, for example, open bodies (Fig. B 4.81). The electrical energy required has
type refrigeration units of water, plants or a fine spray of water (Fig. an unfavourable effect on the primary energy
B 4.82 Comparison of parameters for distribution of
B 4.76). Generally, it should not be forgotten balance of the building. And to achieve CO2
cooling energy using air or water
that evaporation always increases the humidity, neutrality in the energy supply, it is therefore
and humidity can cause a rise in the perceived necessary when using electrical cooling to
temperature (see “Fundamentals”, p. 57). Direct ensure the use of electricity generated from
adiabatic cooling is therefore particularly advis- renewable sources – just like with the heat
able in dry, hot climate zones. pump. For example, solar-powered cooling can
In order to reduce the temperature without be achieved by combining a reversible heat
increasing the humidity of the air, adiabatic pump with a photovoltaic system. High solar
cooling can be employed indirectly by humidi- yields and the simultaneous increase in cooling
fying the exhaust air (Fig. B 4.75). The prereq- requirements brought about by external loads
uisite for this is mechanical ventilation with heat turn this into a sensible solution (Fig. B 4.77).
recovery. Here, the incoming air transfers a
large part of its heat potential, via a heat Thermal cooling
exchanger, to the cooled (and moist) outgoing Like with heat pumps, thermal methods can be
air without changing the absolute humidity. The used for cooling as well. This is made possible
efficiency is, however, limited and depends, in by a reversible chemical process.
particular, on the moisture content of the exter-
B 4.74 nal or exhaust air. The efficiency can be Sorption-type refrigeration plant
improved by combining direct and indirect Sorption-type refrigeration systems are older
Heat or cooling Humidification of air
adiabatic cooling with dehumidification of the than the electrical systems preferred today.
energy recovery or fine water spray incoming air (Fig. B 4.80). They are used primarily in industry for exploit-
ing waste heat. Sorption-type refrigeration sys-
Water Electrical cooling tems are already widespread in the USA and
Buildings that place a high demands on the Japan, where they make use of the spare
Expelled air
efficiency or controllability of the cooling can capacity in the gas network during the summer.
20 °C 26 °C
30 °C employ refrigeration plant. Depending on the There are sorption chillers available for produc-
technology used, they are integrated either via ing cold water in a closed refrigerant circuit
a water-filled cooling system (activation of which use solid sorption media (e.g. water/sili-
building components, cooling fins, etc.) or via ca gel) and the principle of adsorption, or liquid
a cooling battery in the ventilation system. sorption media (e.g. ammonia/water) and the
Fresh air 22 °C Refrigeration plants can generate very low tem- principle of absorption. These two methods can
32 °C
peratures, and the incoming air can be dehu- be used just like the more popular electric
midified via air-conditioning plant if required. compressor-type refrigeration systems (Fig.
Room B 4.78). The main quality feature of sorption-
B 4.75 Compressor-type refrigeration plant type refrigeration plant is the ratio of the cooling
Electric compressor-type refrigeration plant is capacity generated per unit of driving energy
the most common method of generating a cool- (i.e. heat) (COP = coefficient of performance);
ing effect. They are often simply referred to as typical values lie between 0.7 and 1.3. Ther-
chillers and are used for small capacities (e.g. mally driven cooling processes achieve an
refrigerator, freezer, etc.) as well as for building ecological advantage over electrical systems
cooling or industrial applications. The technol- primarily when heat generated from renewable
ogy corresponds to the principle of a heat pump sources can be used directly as the driving
(see p. 122), but used in reverse, the chiller energy.
extracts heat from the building cooling circuit
via the evaporator. The waste heat that ensues
at the condenser must be allowed to escape.
This process is usually achieved via a recool-
ing unit or a cooling tower, where – provided
they are positioned in an unobstructed airflow –
the heat can be dissipated directly to the out-
side via a further water circuit by way of evapo-
rative cooling.
B 4.76

130
 Building services
Cooling requirement

Solar radiation

Solar coverage [%]

100

90

Collector array 80

70
0:00 4:00 8:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 24:00 Cooling element
Heating
Storage 60
plant
Cooling requirement

Solar radiation
50
Driving
energy
40
Sorption- 40 50 60 70 80
Recooling type Collector area[m 2]
refrigeration Example for 20 MWh cooling energy requirement
J F M A M J J A S O N D unit Room Size of storage: 2 m3 4 m3 8 m3
B 4.77 B 4.78 B 4.79
Use of waste heat One important aspect of solar cooling is how Storage of cooling capacity
One interesting application for sorption-type the remaining heating requirements are cov- Similar to heat energy, potential cooling capac-
refrigeration plant is in the use of waste heat ered. If they are provided by fossil fuels, the ity can be stored, too. Storage can help to opti-
from the decentralised supply of heat and ecological advantage over electrical compres- mise the complete system in situations with
power in co-generation plants, or district heat- sor-type refrigeration plant – depending on the high cooling requirements and severely fluctu-
ing. In the ideal case, renewable energy media primary energy input for the electricity – only ating supplies. One important factor for the
(e.g. vegetable oil) are used as the fuel for the occurs with a very high solar coverage (e.g. for storage density, and hence for the economic
co-generation plant – renewable combined Germany > 70%, Fig. B 4.79). efficiency, is the feasible temperature differ-
heat and power. Combined heat and power Alternative methods with an open refrigerant ence between temperature of usage and tem-
plus additional thermal cooling enables eco- circuit can be used for cooling purposes where perature of storage. Cold-water tanks cannot
nomical operation throughout the year. the incoming air is conditioned directly in com- be cooled down below 0°C, which, for exam-
bination with air-conditioning plant. Up until ple, with a cold-water flow temperature for an
Solar cooling now, most of the systems installed use a solid air-conditioning plant of 6°C means a differ-
If the driving heat is mainly obtained from solar sorption medium (silica gel) – in revolving sorp- ence of just 6 K. Good results have been
thermal systems, we speak of solar cooling. If tion wheels, which operate according to the achieved with ice storage systems, where the
cooling loads and solar gains occur simultane- principle of sorptive dehumidification of the air latent heat of the ice formation is stored in addi-
ously, the cooling requirements can be met plus evaporative cooling (desiccant and evap- tion to the sensible heat and so storage densities
without high storage capacities. Fig. B 4.78 orative cooling, DEC). This therefore represents some 10 times higher are feasible. Like with
shows a typical layout for solar-powered cool- a further development of pure evaporative cool- heat storage, this is incorporated in the system
ing with closed adsorption-type refrigeration ing in which the incoming air is initially dried via via a network of cold-water pipes.
plant. In future, such systems will also enable the sorption medium, which in addition to heat
cooling for small capacities (< 100 kW) and recovery enables the fresh air to be humidified Distribution
with a low driving temperature (< 100°C) in directly. Heat is required to regenerate the The heat already present in a room must be
order to guarantee efficient use of solar radia- sorption medium, and this can be provided by removed in order to lower the room tempera-
tion. All types of collector, apart from the solar radiation (Fig. B 4.80). Solar thermal cool- ture or maintain it, and this can be achieved
unglazed collector, are suitable for solar cool- ing is currently at the stage of advanced tech- with air- or water-filled systems (Fig. B 4.82).
ing (see p. 119). Generalisations regarding the nical development. To date, approx. 100 instal- Regulating the temperature by way of a con-
sizing of solar cooling systems are not possible lations have been built in Europe. Standardised trolled exchange of the interior air requires a
owing to the lack of experience; the solar cov- design methods and control concepts are cur- cooling battery to be integrated into the air-
erage recommended as economic is approx. rently being devised in pilot projects in con- conditioning plant. Introducing cooled fresh air
75% of the thermal driving energy. junction with scientific research. and extracting the heated waste air enables the

Size of cooling ceiling fin [ m2]

Air change rate, fresh-air cooling [ 1/h]

Minimum space rqmts. for... 10 15

Rated Height
cooling piston turbo- of
Heater Water capacity compressor compressor room 8 12
(solar) [kW] [m2] [m2] [m]
+ 20 8 – 2.20
6 9
Expelled air 50 12 – 2.50
20°C 26°C
50°C 100 20 – 3.00
250 30 50 3.50 4 6
40°C
500 45 60 4.00
70°C Water
750 – 70 4.20
1000 – 80 4.50 2 3
1500 – 100 4.80
Fresh air 2000 – 110 5.00
45°C 24°C 17°C
32°C 0 0
Apart from access to all sides for maintenance work, a 10 20 40 60 80 100
Sorption Heat Humi- space about 0.8 times the length of the unit should be Specific cooling capacity [W/m 2 office]
wheel exchanger difier Room reserved adjacent to the unit for extracting the pipe battery.
Boundary conditions:floor area 15 m2
volume 45 m3
temp. differenceΔT 10 K
B 4.80 B 4.81 B 4.82

131
Building services

Cooling output [kW]

70

60
Exhaust air Fresh air
50

Expelled 1 4 40
air 2
1 2 3 30
External
air 20

10

0
1 Filter
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
2 Fan
Time [d]
3 Heat exchanger
4 Heating/cooling battery Total Ventilation Component cooling
B 4.83 B 4.84
interior climate to be controlled. A copious flow cooled fresh air when introducing it into a room. tures (approx. 15–18°C) must always lie above
of air is required, especially in the case of high Two concepts have become established for air the dew point temperature of the interior air in
cooling loads, and this has repercussions for cooling: mixing and displacement ventilation order to avoid condensation. This means that
the sizing of the system (driving energy, costs, (Fig. B 4.93). the achievable cooling capacity is limited. The
space requirements). In mixing ventilation (also known as dilution following cooling output systems are available:
Air cooling is sensible when high air change ventilation), the fresh air is introduced into the
rates are required for hygiene purposes any- room via highly inductive air inlets (e.g. ceiling • Cooling fins
way (e.g. theatre auditorium). In addition, the outlets, long-range nozzles) so that the high • Convector fans
integration of cooling requirements into the air entry velocity causes it to mix thoroughly with • Underfloor heating
supply enables the fresh air to be dehumidified the existing air in the room. The positioning and • Activation of building components
and the use of adiabatic cooling. design of the inlets should be chosen so that all
Alternatively, or in addition, cooling energy can the air in the room is moved by way of gentle Cooling fins are very frequently employed to
be distributed via a network of water-filled turbulence – without any unpleasant draughts. dissipate cooling loads via water-filled pipes.
pipes, just like for heating. These pipes, too, Extraction is usually at floor level. Very high They mostly consist of flat metal plates con-
must be insulated in order to prevent conden- cooling rates of more than 60 W/m2 are possible nected to the network of cold-water pipes. The
sation due to the low temperatures. Water-filled with this system. cool surface undergoes a radiation exchange
systems are common in office buildings. Where the cooling loads to be handled by the with the interior and enables heat to be dissi-
fresh air are low (< 30 W/m2), displacement pated without air circulation. Cooling fins are
Cooling output ventilation represents an alternative. This way normally installed at soffit level and can be inte-
Even though in physical terms the cooling of a of introducing the fresh air enables higher ther- grated into suspended ceiling systems.
building requires the dissipation of heat, we still mal comfort demands to be met. The fresh air Convectors, too, can be used for cooling the
speak of cooling output when describing the is fed in at floor level with a very low velocity interior. When fitted at floor level (e.g. under-
interface in the room. Like with the distribution (low flow rate). It warms up due to the heat floor convectors), a fan is necessary to force
of heat, it is important to make sure that no loads in the room and rises gently upwards, the air cooled in the convector into the room,
noticeable radiation asymmetry or draught where it is extracted. For higher cooling loads, either by way of recirculating air operation or
phenomena occur which could impair the ther- displacement ventilation can be combined with with a connection to the outside air (Fig. B 4.83).
mal comfort. Air or water cooling is possible a water-filled system. Underfloor heating can instead be used to dissi-
depending on the type of distribution. pate heat in the summer. In principle, this has
Water cooling the same effect as the cooling fin, although the
Air cooling In principle, the same requirements apply to capacity is much lower. In addition, cooling the
To avoid cold draughts, great care must be taken heat output surfaces with water cooling as for floor is not so good for thermal comfort as cool-
with the routing, distribution and velocity of heat output. For cooling, the surface tempera- ing the ceiling.

Usage Examples External air flow rate Usage Air change rate [1/h]
per person per m2 Office 4–8
[m3/h] [m3/h] Computer centre > 30
Restaurant - smokers’ area 6 – 12
Reducing the air Working Separate office 40 4 - non-smokers’ area 4–8
treatment Open-plan office 60 6 Indoor - pool area 3–6
swimming pool - showers 10 – 15
Places Concert hall
Minimising the quantity - changing rooms 8 – 10
of assembly Theatre 20 10 – 20
of air Lecture theatre, conference room 6–8
Conference room
Canteen 6–8
Residential Apartment no data no data Cinema, theatre 4–8
Optimising mechanical Optimising the air
Hotel bedroom no data no data Hospital - patients’ rooms 3–5
ventilation management
- operating theatres 5 – 20
Educational Classroom 30 15
Industrial kitchen 15 – 30
Optimising the driving Lecture theatre 30 15
Shop, sales area 4–8
energy Reading room 20 12
Museum 4–6
Spaces Sales area 20 3 – 12 School (classroom) 4–5
Recovery of heating or accessible Restaurant 30 8 Sports hall 2–3
cooling energy to the public Residential 0.5
B 4.85 B 4.86 B 4.87

132
 Building services

B 4.83 The operation of a decentralised underfloor ven-

tilation unit with heat recovery
B 4.84 An example of cooling provided by both compo- Fresh air Exhaust Fresh air
air
nent activation and ventilation
B 4.85 Options for the energy-efficiency optimisation of
mechanical ventilation systems
B 4.86 Minimum external air flow rate related to persons
and area according to DIN 1946-2 (now super-
seded by DIN EN 13779) External
air
B 4.87 Recommended air change rates for various uses
B 4.88 Options for controlled ventilation of living areas
in an apartment block Expelled
B 4.89 Controlled ventilation in a residential building air Air/air heat
B 4.90 Rough calculation of the space requirements for exchanger
central ventilation plant and pipe cross-sections
to VDI 3803 GE GE Ground exchanger
Vent. unit with heat recovery External/fresh air
GE: Ground exchanger Exhaust/expelled air
B 4.88 B 4.89
Activation of building components has become Mechanical ventilation the incoming air is advisable in most cases,
standard in recent years, especially for office cooling, too, if the specification demands this.
buildings. Incorporating grids of pipes in solid Ventilation systems are designed to guarantee Regulating the humidity is especially important
components (mostly reinforced concrete sus- optimum air quality in buildings with minimum from the energy viewpoint because in conven-
pended floors) enables a very high thermal use of technical apparatus and energy. Wher- tional systems electrical evaporation or electri-
mass to be activated for conditioning the interior ever possible, natural ventilation should be cal cooling to below the dew point leads to a
climate (see p. 127). The cooling capacity is, used – coordinated with the needs of users and considerable electricity consumption. Limited
however, limited (< 50 W/m2) and this system occupants (see “Building envelope”, p. 99). humidification of the fresh air – with only mini-
reacts very sluggishly owing to the large ther- The reasons for installing mechanical ventila- mal energy input – is also possible via moisture
mal mass. With an optimised building envelope tion are diverse and range from statutory recovery. If a compromise is therefore made
design and low internal loads, cooling solely requirements to comfort demands and energy with respect to adhering to specified limiting
via activation of building components can, efficiency (heat recovery). There are several values for the air humidity, which is possible in
however, prove adequate, provided night purg- approaches that can be employed for the energy- many cases (and also advantageous from the
ing is possible. In addition, the system can be efficiency optimisation of mechanical ventilation hygiene viewpoint), substantial savings are fea-
supplemented by, for example, local cooling systems (Fig. B 4.85): sible. The key question here concerns the type
fins or cooling of the incoming air in the case of of heating or cooling provision. The aim is to
high loads (Fig. B 4.84). • Reducing the air treatment provide unavoidable energy services as far as
• Minimising the quantity of air possible completely through renewable energy
• Optimising the air management sources.
• Optimising the air feeding
• Recovery of heating or cooling energy Air flow rates
DIN EN 13779 specifies various methods for
Requirements and sizing calculating the flow rate required. Parameters
In principle, there are four types of technical air can be used for the incoming air flow rate in
treatment: heating, cooling, humidifying and order to guarantee good interior air quality (Fig.
dehumidifying. Only when all four types of B 4.86). The hourly air change rate is related to
treatment are available do we speak of air con- the number of persons or the usable floor area,
ditioning. As every air treatment method but an hourly air change rate related to the vol-
involves an energy input, the level of require- ume of the interior space can be specified (Fig.
ments must be discussed in detail with the B 4.87). These are not stipulations, but rather
user, explaining the associated consequences, empirical values that have proved sensible.
when designing an optimum system. Heating Another criterion for determining the flow rate is

Flow Height Supply and extract system1 Extract air Calculation of duct cross-section Max. air velocity at inlet grille
rate of room H2 HC2 HCHu2 w/o3 Positions of Air velocity v [m/s] 4
[m2] [m2] [m3/h] [m] [m2] [m2] air outlets
Vh
10 000 3.00 30 50–60 65–75 20 A= near the floor 0.2 – 0.3
25 000 3.50 35–40 65–80 85–100 25 w · 3600
at head height ≤ 0.15
50 000 4.00 50–60 90–110 120–140 35–40 Ceiling outlets
75 000 4.50 65–80 120–145 155–180 40–55 A = duct cross-section [m2 =10 000 cm2] height of room = 3.0 m ≤ 2.0
100 000 5.00 80–100 150–180 190–220 50–70 w = air velocity in duct [m/s] height of room = 3.5 m ≤ 2.5
150 000 6.30 110–140 210–250 260–300 70–100 Vh = flow rate (quantity of air) [m3/h] height of room = 4.0 m ≤ 3.0
Air velocities in ducts
1
The higher values for space requirements apply when there is only Low-pressure Air velocity w [m/s] 4
d · π
2
system for comfort for industry
one unit in the room; the lower values apply when there are several d A=
units in one room. 4 External air 2– 3 4–6
2
H = heating; C = cooling; Hu = humidifying Main ducts 4– 8 8 –12
3
w/o = without thermodynamic air treatment Branch ducts 3– 5 5–8
4
Designations used for air velocities: h A=b·h Exhaust/recirculating
in room: v [m/s], in duct: w [m/s] air grille 2–3 3–4
b
B 4.90

133
Building services

Wind
the perceived air quality in decipol or the con- up air in the facade can guarantee a good dis-
centration of hazardous substances in the inte- tribution of air for an extract system, but pre-
Partial vacuum rior air (workplace limit values). Careful, detailed heating of the incoming fresh air, e.g. in a
planning of the interior areas and the fitting-out ground exchanger, is not possible. The oppo-
can lead to a reduction in the air flow rate nec- site of this, a supply-only system, is also con-
essary. The CO2 content of the interior air is ceivable. Here, an exchange of air is guaran-
another important parameter for the flow rate. teed by an overpressure, like ventilation in
Ventilation control related to the CO2 value can cars. Concepts employing mechanical fresh-air
be advisable for flexible usage with a high management can include filters, which leads to
occupancy density (e.g. schools) in particular. better air quality but entails regular mainte-
As the capacity of the ventilation system increases, nance and cleaning or replacement of the filters.
so does its space requirements as well. Rough A controlled combination of the two systems is
sizes for the duct cross-sections and the space installed in the majority of instances. In residen-
requirements for the ventilation plant resulting tial buildings, such systems supply air only to
from the air flow rates required can be estimated living rooms, bedrooms, workrooms, etc. (Fig.
Wind ventilation with parameters (Fig. B 4.90). B 4.89). The air flows via door or wall openings
into the sanitary and kitchen areas, from where
Conditioning the exhaust air is extracted. Ventilation units for
An air-conditioning installation can be used to apartments or small detached houses can be
maintain temperature and humidity limit values accommodated in wall cupboards or behind
in addition to a given air change rate. The size suspended ceilings in hallways or corridors.
of the installation required depends on the Various concepts with respect to number and
heating and/or cooling requirements. The air positioning of ventilation units are possible in
flow rate necessary is determined from the multi-occupancy residential buildings (Fig.
thermal requirements taking into account the B 4.88).
specific heat capacity of air. Depending on Numerous air management options are possi-
those requirements, this can lead to a very high ble for non-residential buildings, which range
air flow rate, which has a direct effect on the from central plants to decentralised, facade-
size of the installation and the corresponding mounted units (Fig. B 4.93). Besides user
energy consumption. Therefore, the aim should requirements, conceptual boundary conditions
be to limit the air flow rate to that required for such as building depth, atrium or double-leaf
hygiene purposes. Heating and cooling require- facade play a major role in deciding on a solu-
ments that cannot be covered by this can then tion (see “Building envelope”, p. 101). A decen-
B 4.91 be supplied by supplementary systems (e.g. tralised ventilation concept via the facade mini-
radiators, cooling fins, etc.). mises, for example, the costs for air manage-
ment. Such concepts mean that vertical shafts
Thermal currents Air management and driving energy are usually unnecessary and in high-rise build-
One essential feature of mechanical ventilation ings in particular this leads to much better use
is the predetermined air management, which of the floor space. in some circumstances the
takes place in suitable ducts. In principle, a omission of horizontal ducts can mean that
defined air change rate must be guaranteed by additional floors are possible without increasing
the system, which can be accomplished in vari- the height of the building. On the other hand, a
ous ways by different technical and construc- high number of individual units and the associ-
tional measures. ated servicing costs can be a disadvantage.
An extract-only system is the simplest variation. And decentralised systems cannot be linked to
Here, an exchange of air is guaranteed by a ground exchanger. The positioning of the air
make-up air flowing via inlets into the ensuing intakes must be carefully planned; the outside
partial vacuum in the interior (e.g. bathroom air should be drawn in from areas with perma-
ventilation). Carefully planned inlets for make- nently good air quality which are also shaded
Solar chimney

Mixing ventilation, tangential Mixing ventilation, radial Displacement ventilation,

single inlet/outlet

Facade-mounted ventilation unit Facade-mounted ventilation unit Displacement ventilation,

with central extraction with decentralised extraction multiple inlets/outlets
B 4.92 B 4.93

134
 Building services

Energy
saving
1 1 8 9
Auxiliary energy 2
for ventilation 12

3 4 10 11

Ventilation Ventilation

1 Fan
5 2 Air condenser
3 Evaporator
7 4 Compressor
Transmission Transmission 5 Additional heating
6 Water condenser
7 Coil (heat exchanger)
8 Expelled air
9 Exhaust air
10 External air
Ventilation Mechanical ventilation 6 11 Fresh air
via windows with heat recovery 12 Air/air heat exchanger
B 4.94 B 4.95 B 4.96
in summer to minimise solar cooling loads. Like- exploiting thermal currents. The integration into ble heating potential is lost through ventilation
wise, the exhaust-air outlets must be positioned a system of air ducts calls for a high, constant via the windows or via extract-air systems; in
so that no disturbing noises or odours ensue partial vacuum, which can be achieved with a well-insulated buildings, the ventilation heat
and there is no airflow “short-circuit” between solar chimney, for example (Fig. B 4.92). The losses account for the majority of such losses
outlets and inlets. inclusion of thermal masses enables a phase (Fig. B 4.94). Energy-efficient ventilation there-
lag between solar radiation and thermal cur- fore demands a controlled supply and extract
Actuating the ventilation rents, which thus prolongs the period of use. system with integral heat exchanger (Fig. B
Various methods can be employed to induce a Electric fans are generally used to guarantee 4.96). With degrees of efficiency sometimes
flow of air. They differ considerably with respect constant, fully controllable air circulation. Sev- exceeding 90%, the ventilation heat losses can
to the energy requirements and architectural eral types are available, which differ – some- be almost completely avoided. In non-residen-
repercussions: times considerably – in terms of their efficiency: tial buildings, high air change rates make heat
radial, axial and cross-flow fans. The radial (or recovery especially important. When cooling is
• Wind centrifugal) fan is the most common, offering required, a heat exchanger can “recover the
• Thermal currents high efficiency, high capacity and diverse cold” from the exhaust air. There are various
• Fans installation options. The flow characteristics of methods for the technical implementation of
the duct system have a considerable influence heat recovery (Fig. B 4.97):
High-rise buildings can make use of natural on the fan output required. Large, round or
wind movements to actuate the building venti- rounded cross-sections, smooth surfaces and • In a cross-flow heat exchanger the fresh air
lation. This requires a suitable building form or few changes of direction result in a low resist- and expelled air are fed through special,
elements that create a partial vacuum due to ance to the flow. The energy requirements for adjacent systems of ducts with a large sur-
wind suction. Various principles, e.g. “wind fans can represent a considerable factor in the face area, which results in a heat flow from
towers” or “venturi spoilers”, can be used (Figs. total energy balance because the full-load the cold to the warm airflow without the two
B 3.78 and 4.91). hours of a ventilation system can reach high being mixed.
Exploiting thermal currents is a very old method figures. The use of efficient motors, bypass • The counter-flow heat exchanger has a some-
of inducing air circulation. The pressure differ- circuits and controls that reflect users’ require- what higher degree of efficiency because the
ences between cold and hot air lead to airflows ments are therefore important optimisation use of larger contact surfaces leads to a pro-
that can be used specifically for the building parameters. longed heat exchange.
ventilation. This effect is amplified as the tem- • If fresh air and expelled air do not coincide,
perature gradient and height of the building Recovery of heat, cooling energy and moisture the heat potential of the exhaust air can also
increase. Tall internal spaces, e.g. atria or double- Ventilation heat losses normally represent a be recovered indirectly via an extract-air heat
leaf facades, where high air temperatures can significant item in the energy balance of a pump. Alternatively, the heat transfer can be
be reached in the upper zones, are ideal for building. During the heating period, considera- achieved over long distances by using an

Designation Cross-flow Counter-flow Run-around Rotary heat exchanger

heat exchanger heat exchanger coil with/without
hygroscopic storage
mass B 4.91 Use of wind energy for building ventilation, office
building, Hertfordshire (GB), 1996, Feilden
Arrangement
Clegg Architects
B 4.92 Solar chimney integrated into facade for building
ventilation, Oeste de San Fermin, Madrid (E),
2003, Mario Muelas Jimenez & Agustin Mateo
Ortega
B 4.93 Types of mechanical ventilation for offices
B 4.94 Potential savings through the use of heat
recovery in residential buildings
B 4.95 Compact ventilation unit for a residential build-
ing, with heat recovery, integral air heat pump
Heat up to 60% up to 90% up to 50% up to 80% and water tank
recovery B 4.96 Supply- and extract-air unit with cross-flow heat
exchanger
Moisture no moisture no moisture no moisture up to 70%
B 4.97 The principles for heat recovery in ventilation
recovery exchange exchange exchange
systems
B 4.97

135
Building services

Building Variable Designation Unit Reflection

Symbol Relationship Abbreviation from ceiling
geometry
Luminous flux output of light source lumen
Φ lm
Luminous efficacy luminous flux lumen/watt
Daylight η = Φ/P electrical power lm/W
factor Reflection
Quantity of light luminous flux lumen-hour Luminous flux (Φ) from wall
Q=Φ·t ≈ time lm- h
Illuminance (I) Vertical
Illuminance luminous flux candela Luminance (L)
l = Φ /ω solid angle cd luminous
Installed Operating time/ intensity
capacity occupancy Luminous luminous flux lux
intensity E size of area lx = lm/m2
Lighting energy Luminance illuminance candela/m2
L visible area cd/m2
Control Daylight Horizontal
strategy availability Degree of reflection reflection of light % luminous
Reflection from floor intensity

B 4.98 B 4.99
additional brine circuit, a so-called run-around freedom from glare and good contrast (see • The illuminance (illumination) specifies the
coil; the degree of efficiency is, however, “Fundamentals”, p. 58). In essence, three levels luminous flux incident on a defined surface
much lower than with direct heat recovery of planning are relevant for energy-efficiency (e.g. desktop).
owing to the doubling of the heat exchange optimisation of the lighting concept: lighting • The luminous intensity (candela) is the pro-
mechanism (air/brine and brine/air). technology, lighting concept and lighting auto- portion of luminous flux related to a defined
• The heat transfer in a rotary heat exchanger mation. direction of emission and angle. It therefore
is by way of a revolving thermal mass which depends on the structure of the light source
revolves alternately in the fresh-air and Lighting technology and, if applicable, on influencing layers (e.g.
expelled-air ducts. Employing hygroscopic Human beings perceive their surroundings pri- diffusing etc.). For an assessment, the distri-
materials in this system enables moisture marily via their sense of vision and this is ideal- bution of luminous intensity of a light source
recovery as well. ly assisted by sunlight. The aim of lighting tech- can be projected graphically onto a surface.
nology is therefore to emulate this quality as • The luminance describes an observer’s
closely as possible by converting electrical impression of brightness of a light source or
Optimising the artificial lighting energy into electromagnetic oscillations that an illuminated surface; it is the quotient of
upon striking a material are reflected into the luminous intensity and surface area.
The objective of planning the lighting is to human eye to be perceived as light.
achieve maximum daylight autonomy through Lamps
the conceptual optimisation of the building (see Parameters Artificial light sources are called lamps (also
“Building envelope”, p. 102). Furthermore, it The following parameters are particularly bulbs). The choice of lamp has a decisive influ-
must also be possible to use the building irre- important for describing and evaluating lighting ence on the electricity requirements. The effi-
spective of the amount of daylight available. In systems (Fig. B 4.99): ciency (luminous efficacy) in lumens per watt of
some cases the use of daylight is impossible or connected power can differ considerably (Fig.
even undesirable, and in those situations it is • The luminous flux describes the effectiveness B 4.101). Added to this is the fact that a low
important to guarantee artificial lighting ade- of a light source and specifies the total light- luminous efficacy at the same time means a
quate for the type of usage which at the same ing power emitted in all directions; this value large heat development with a corresponding
time uses as little energy as possible (Fig. B forms the basis for all further parameters. influence on the internal heat load of a building.
4.98). • The luminous efficacy describes the ratio of Furthermore, the technical service life is signifi-
Numerous computer programs, which can sim- the luminous flux to the electrical power used cant for an ecological and economic assess-
ulate the daylighting and artificial lighting con- and hence specifies the efficiency of the light ment.
ditions in the building with considerable accu- source.
racy, are available to assist with the planning. • The quantity of light represents the luminous
Important factors here are colour distortion, flux emitted over a defined period of time.

Use of room, activity Em [lx] Use of room, activity Em [lx]

Filament bulb
Circulation zones and general areas in Retail premises
buildings Sales areas 300 LV halogen
Circulation areas and corridors 100 Public areas
Canteens, tea kitchens 200 Parking zones 75 HV halogen
Sanitary facilities 500 Entrance halls 100
Storage rooms 100 Fluorescent
Kitchens 500
tube, 26 mm
Offices Conference rooms 500
Filing and copying, circulation zones 300 Fluorescent
Educational establishments tube, 16 mm
Writing, reading, data processing 500 Playrooms, nursery rooms 300
Technical drawing 750 Low-energy
Classrooms in primary and 300
lamp (plug-in)
Offices secondary schools Compact
Storage rooms 50 – 200 Lecture theatres, classrooms for evening 500 low-energy
Offices, oriented for daylight 300 classes and adult education lamp
Offices, standard 500 Libraries: bookshelves 200 LED (white)
Open-plan offices 750 – 1000 Libraries: reading areas 500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Luminous efficacy [lm / W] Service life [1000 h]
B 4.100 B 4.101

136
 Building services

Light fittings lighting power is necessary than is the case B 4.98 Factors affecting the energy requirement for
Light fittings are systems designed to accom- with direct lighting, which leads to a corre- artificial light
B 4.99 Parameters for lighting technology
modate lamps. Besides their function as an spondingly higher energy consumption. A sen- B 4.100 Recommended luminous intensity levels for
electrical interface, light fittings influence the sible solution for working places is therefore a different uses to DIN EN 12464-1
lighting technology characteristics of the lamp combination of indirect general lighting and B 4.101 Comparison of the luminous efficacy and
to a considerable extent. As yet there are no local, direct lighting of the working area itself service lives of various lamps
B 4.102 Diagram for the rough calculation of the full-
standardised energy-efficiency classes for (Fig. B 4.104). This also helps to create an
load hours for lighting in offices
complete lighting systems. The light fitting effi- interesting lighting situation and reduce the B 4.103 Examples of measurements to determine
ciency factor is used for the assessment, fatigue phenomena associated with uniform how lighting automation affects the energy
which, similar to the luminous efficacy, speci- illumination. consumption
fies the luminous flux (in lumens) that the total B 4.104 Office situation with indirect amenity lighting
and direct light source for the workplace,
system emits per watt of electrical power. Alter- Interior surfaces office building, Stockholm (S), 1998,
natively, the degree of efficiency for the opera- An interior design with bright and/or reflective Jakob Zeilon Architekten
tion of the light fitting can be used for the surfaces assists the lighting concept. The
assessment, which is an indication of the energy reflection component, or vice versa the loss of
efficiency of a light fitting and takes into account luminance due to absorption by surfaces, varies
lamp, electronics, lampholder, reflectors and greatly depending on material and colour.
Ratio of window to floor area [%] Hours of use per day [h]
housing properties. The meaningfulness of this Appropriate planning can help to achieve the
0 10 20 30 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
is, however, limited because the direction of necessary illuminance with a lower installed
the light beam is ignored. A lamp with a high lighting power, which is particularly important in
degree of efficiency for the operation of the the case of a large amount of indirect lighting.
light fitting can, for example, be inefficient in
terms of energy if it supplies purely indirect Task lighting
lighting. In order to assess this, the quotient of Differentiated artificial lighting with zones hav-
the connected power should be compared with ing different illumination levels is frequently
the illuminance. regarded as adequate for work situations and
less fatiguing. Planning for task lighting also
Lighting concept enables the installed lighting power to be mini-
The lighting in buildings has a great influence mised and hence has a positive influence on
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
on the quality of the interior (Fig. B 4.100). For the energy consumption. However, the high Full-load hours per day [h]
working situations in particular, a good level of specification should be coordinated with
illumination has a positive effect on our power demands for flexible usage. Manual control with occupancy detection: -20 % 750
Daylight control working days per year: 200 h/a
of vision and efficiency. An important parameter
for the energy requirement of artificial lighting is Lighting automation B 4.102
the installed lighting power with respect to the The primary aim of automation is to improve the
Wall switch (reference)
usable floor space (in W/m2). Clear differences convenience for users. But in addition, automa-
are evident in practice. The installed lighting tion can help to achieve good savings in the
power has a huge impact on energy require- electricity consumed by the lighting by reduc- Wall switch with on/off
occupancy detection
ments owing to the, usually, high number of ing the number of full-load hours (Figs. B. 4.102
full-load hours. Minimising this to a compulsory, and 4.103). The degree of automation will
necessary level reduces not only the energy always represent a compromise between ener- On/off occupancy
detection
consumption, but also the building costs. We gy savings and user satisfaction. Optimised
distinguish here between the following types of controls respond sensitively to the needs of
Wall switch with
lighting concept: users and prevent the impression of a control- daylight-level dimming
• Amenity lighting for a homogeneous illumina- ling body. It is advisable to differentiate between
Wall switch with
tion of functional areas without any special zones for general or public use (e.g. circulation daylight-level dimming
demands (e.g. circulation zones, basic areas, sanitary facilities, etc.) and those for and occupancy
lighting for areas with variable usage) individual usage with a need for manual control detection

• Task lighting for specific functions with (e.g. offices for one or two persons). 0 25 50 75 100 125

defined requirements (e.g. working places) Annual lighting energy requirement [%]

• Decorative lighting, which often does not Occupancy-related automation B 4.103

supply any lighting power needed for lighting The lighting can be controlled automatically
purposes, but is required simply to influence depending on the presence of persons, e.g. by
the interior atmosphere or to highlight indivi- movement detectors. This technology offers
dual zones. considerable potential savings for areas used
purely temporarily (e.g. circulation zones, sani-
Direct and indirect lighting tary facilities) in particular.
We distinguish between direct and indirect
lighting plus a combination of the two when
describing the type of lighting. Indirect lighting
has a positive effect on the interior and is fre-
quently perceived as agreeable because it
results in a lighting situation with fewer shadows
and less glare. But in order to achieve the
desired illuminance, a much higher installed

B 4.104

137
Building services

Brightness-related automation able potential for future developments (see

Alternatively, or in addition, the lighting can be p. 144).
controlled automatically depending on daylight
levels. The lighting power can be regulated Photovoltaics
radically (on/off) or gradually (dimming, day- Photovoltaics designates the process of gener-
light supplement lighting). The effects are ating electricity directly from sunlight. The term
severely limited in places of work with a very is derived from the Greek word phos, meaning
high daylight component and in areas without light, and the Italian physicist Alessandro Graf
any daylight, but the opportunities are very von Volta, who gave his name to the unit of
good for those zones with an average amount electrical voltage. The discovery of the “photo-
of daylight. voltaic effect” can be traced back to the 19th
century and the work of the physicist Alexandre
Edmond Becquerel. Nevertheless, it was not
Generating electricity until the middle of the 20th century that work-
able photovoltaic systems were developed,
In physical terms, electricity is the highest form and then initially only for applications in outer
B 4.105 of energy because it can be converted into all space. The first terrestrial pilot installations
B 4.105 Examples of colours for polycrystalline solar cells
B 4.106 Primary energy requirement for residential and
other forms of energy (force, heat, etc.). Its were built in the 1970s. The focus of photo-
office buildings diverse applications have made it indispensable voltaic applications for buildings is their con-
B 4.107 Schematic diagram of electricity generation in virtually all facets of modern life. And this is structional and architectural integration into the
a central particularly true for the operation of buildings building envelope. The aim of these develop-
b decentralised
(Fig. B 4.106). Its rational use is verified in ments is to achieve harmonious overall con-
B 4.108 How a crystalline solar cell works
B 4.109 Structure and possible sequences of layers in Europe by determining the total energy efficiency cepts in which that part of the building services
photovoltaic modules of a building – up until now only in the form of visible externally (photovoltaic module) also
B 4.110 Solar cells available on the market and their auxiliary energy for providing heat in the case provides important building and aesthetic func-
parameters of residential buildings, but for lighting, ventila- tions (see “Building envelope”, p. 108).
tion and cooling as well in non-residential build-
ings (see “Strategies”, p. 184). How the system works
Prim. energy rqmt. [kWh / m2a]

300
250 Throughout the world, electricity generation is Photovoltaic electricity generation is based on
mainly carried out in central power stations the so-called photoelectric effect. This means
200
fired by fossil fuels or nuclear energy. Distribu- the transfer of energy contained in the photons
150 tion is by way of corresponding networks (grids) of sunlight to electrons in physical matter. This
100 with different voltage levels. The electricity sector gives rise to a voltage in specially prepared
50 is undergoing a period of upheaval, especially in semiconductor materials which can be used in
Europe, which is promoting the expansion of an electric circuit. The electrical conductivity of
0
standard optimised standard optimised renewable energy in the sense of sustainable a material is defined by the size of the energy
Residential building Office building energy provision. Besides hydroelectric power, gap between the valence and conduction
Elec., equipment Electricity, Heating wind power has evolved into another pillar of bands, which is a criterion defining which
bldg. services
electricity generation in recent decades, which, external energy effect is required for a flow of
B 4.106
on the whole, has led to a restructuring of the electrons in a body. In conductive materials
energy sector – towards more decentralised (e.g. copper), the conduction band is either
energy production. An electricity industry only partly occupied (electrons can move freely
Electricity generation
Electricity consumption
based on renewable energy therefore has a within the body) or the valence and conduction
large number of small, different energy produc- bands overlap. If the energy gap is more than
ers at its disposal. Through its distribution func- 5 eV (electron volt), the specific electrical
tion, the electricity grid can assume a manage- resistance is so great that we speak of an insu-
ment task and coordinate the balance between lator. The semiconductor materials for solar cells
generation and consumption (Fig. B 4.107). occupy an area between these two extremes.
The planning of buildings plays a decisive role They are potential conductors which, however,
in this context. Besides minimising the electric- develop the ability to allow a flow of electrons
ity requirements, every building must be checked only under certain conditions (Fig. B 4.108).
as to whether and to what extent the building
itself could generate electricity. Instead of Solar cells
being a pure consumer, it can become a pro- Solar cells are divided into various categories
a b ductive element for the energy sector. In the and designated according to their structure
B 4.107 ideal case, the building can generate its entire and the materials used (Fig. B 4.110). Silicon
electricity requirements. And the prime consid- (Si) is a suitable material for solar cells, and the
eration here is not to operate the building inde- majority of those in use today are made from
pendently of the electricity grid, but rather to this. We make a basic distinction between crys-
–
achieve a balanced energy audit for the whole talline cells, which have been produced since
year (Fig. B 4.118). Photovoltaics and combined the 1950s, and the newer thin-film cells. The
Front
heat and power represent fully developed sys- classical way of producing monocrystalline
contact + tems that can be used for decentralised elec- cells is to cut a specially produced silicon rod
p/n n-layer tricity generation in direct connection with the (boule) into thin circular wafers. In order to dis-
junction
planning of the building. There are also other tribute the cells more effectively over an area,
Rear p-layer important technologies that up to now have not they are usually trimmed to form hexagons or
contact been incorporated in buildings but exhibit valu- squares. Other methods of manufacture, in
B 4.108

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 Building services

Glass Glass Glass Solarglas

Cells Cells Cells Cells
PVB sheet/ Laminated Glass/foil composite Glass/foil composite
casting resin safety glass
Air cavity Air cavitiy
Inner pane of Inner pane of
Glass insulating unit insulating unit
PVB sheet/casting resin Laminated safety
Cells – glass
PVB sheet/casting resin
Glass from outside to inside
B 4.109
which the silicon is cast into blocks, produce of the backing material and the desired electri- unused. Therefore, for physical reasons, it is
square formats directly. The cooling process cal properties can be chosen to suit, which not possible to convert the entire incident solar
produces many individual crystals, which is results in huge design freedoms. Owing to the radiation into electricity. Depending on the cell
why these are known as polycrystalline cells. existing manufacturing capacities, crystalline material and the energy gaps, a theoretical
The size of crystalline cells depends on their solar cells will continue to play a dominant role, maximum degree of efficiency of approx. 30%
thickness. With a minimum cell thickness, but the significance of thin-film technology will is possible for silicon, for instance. Using a
dimensions between 100 x 100 mm and 150 x grow owing to the low materials requirements multi-layer structure, higher degrees of efficiency
150 mm have proved practical. Changes to the and the high cost-savings potential (Figs. could be achieved. Conventional solar cells
anti-reflection coating mean that crystalline B 4.114 and 4.116). achieve values between about 8% (amorphous
solar cells can now be produced in colours silicon) and 17% (monocrystalline silicon). The
other than blue and black, which do, however, Parameters degree of efficiency in operation is also depend-
produce the maximum yield (Fig. B 4.105). One essential selection criterion for solar cells ent on the temperature of the solar cell, with a
Solar cells made from amorphous silicon led to is their degree of electrical efficiency, which higher temperature leading to a lower degree of
the development of thin-film technology in the specifies (as a percentage) how much of the efficiency.
1970s. The material is applied directly to a solar radiation incident on the cell is converted As solar cells are always combined to form
backing of glass, metal or plastic, which means into electrical current. The degree of efficiency suitable powerful modules, it is only the degree
that considerable amounts of materials and is heavily dependent on material and cell struc- of efficiency of the module that counts in prac-
energy can be saved during manufacture. ture. As the energy content of the photons in tice. Once again, this depends on the cell tech-
Recently, further semiconductor compounds, the spectrum of sunlight differs considerably nology, but also on the number of cells per unit
e.g. cadmium-telluride (CdTe) or copper-indi- depending on the frequency, some photons do area in particular. The “performance ratio” is
um-selenium (CIS), have been used. Using this not have the energy required to cross the energy used to assess the total system – the ratio of
thin-film technology, the size and form of these gap, whereas other photons have more energy the energy generated to the rated output of the
cells is no longer dependent on the dimensions potential than is necessary, which also remains modules based on the incident radiation.

Solar cells

Crystalline solar cells Thin-film solar cells

Monocrystalline silicon Polycrystalline silicon Amorphous silicon Copper-indium-selenium (CIS) Cadmium-telluride (CdTe)

Degree of 15 –17 % 13 –15 % 6 –10 % 8 –12 % 8–10 %

efficiency

Market approx. 30% approx. 60% approx. 10% <1% <1%

share
B 4.110

139
Building services

+
1 m2 P [Watt] + – No losses due
– to shading

+
2 m2 2 P [Watt]
without bypass diodes
–
+ – approx. 90%
West 85 East losses due
to shading

+
500 Watt P [Watt] with bypass diodes
South
–
+ – approx. 20%
+ losses due
1000 Watt 2 P [Watt] to shading
–
B 4.111 B 4.112 B 4.113
Photovoltaic modules there must be a minimum insulating distance metrical and design specifications (Fig. B 4.115).
The output of a single solar cell is inadequate between them. Thin-film cells are produced In principle, the shapes, sizes and technical
for most applications. In order to achieve sizes together with a backing material and are nor- parameters possible are the same as those for
relevant for practical applications, they are mally arranged to cover a whole area. The cell conventional glasses for the building sector.
connected – like batteries – in series and paral- structure required and the electrical circuitry is The technology used means that the maximum
lel and fitted with so-called bypass diodes to carried out directly during the coating process. size of a photovoltaic module with crystalline
bridge over any (partially) shaded areas. To Most module manufacturers produce standard solar cells is currently limited to approx. 6 m2.
protect against mechanical damage and the modules in sizes from about 0.5 to 1.5 m2, Individual thin-film modules can be made in
vagaries of the weather, solar cells are embed- always with fixed dimensions and output ratings sizes up to about 1 m2 at present and can be
ded between covers front and back (Fig. B 4.109). that are conceived for a maximum energy out- joined together in laminated glass units to form
This glass-glass or glass-plastic composite put per unit area. Their fixed dimensions and larger components.
construction is then called a photovoltaic mod- forms mean, however, that their suitability for Photovoltaic modules in the form of building
ule. Solar cells are handled differently accord- building envelopes is limited. Specialist com- components can take on many different addi-
ing to their method of manufacture: panies can provide modules for demanding tional functions and their appearance opens up
Crystalline cells can be arranged as single architectural integration concepts which can be a whole wealth of design options. Their colour
pieces almost at random in the module, but manufactured according to the architect’s geo- can be changed, too. Maximum-yield standard
crystalline cells are dark blue to black in order
to achieve maximum sunlight absorption. But
the anti-reflection coating can be changed to
produce crystalline cells in other colours (Fig.
B 4.105). Generally speaking, the lighter the
colour, the greater is the (negative) effect on
the output. The range of colours for thin-film
cells is still limited: amorphous silicon is reddish
brown, the CIS cell is black, the CdTe cell
blackish green (Fig. B 4.110).
Flexible modules offer further options for the
architectural integration. Metal foils, plastic
films or transparent synthetic resins serve as
backing materials. Bending radii as tight as
1.5 m are possible with crystalline solar cells
mounted on such materials. Thin-film technology
enables cell material to be applied directly to
B 4.114 B 4.115 metal foils or plastic films, which enables very
flexible modules to be produced (Fig. B 4.114).
A special visual effect can be achieved with
semi-transparent modules. Combining these
with a backing of coloured glass or light-scatter-
ing or light-redirecting glasses enables such
elements to influence the amount of incoming
light and its distribution. Semi-transparent mod-
ules inevitably exhibit a lower output because
of their permeability to light. There are essen-
tially three methods for producing semi-trans-
parent modules:

• Crystalline solar cells can be simply mounted

at a larger spacing on the module so that
light can pass between the cells. The amount
of incoming light can be controlled by vary-
B 4.116 B 4.117

140
 Building services

B 4.111 Solar yield of photovoltaic installations in

relation to incident solar radiation and area
B 4.112 How the orientation affects the yield of a photo-
Photovoltaic installation
voltaic installation in Germany
12 kWp
Balanced solar B 4.113 How shading affects the output of photovoltaic
coverage: 100% installations
B 4.114 Flexible photovoltaic module: amorphous
Fed silicon on metal foil
to grid
Household electr. 4 500 kWhelec / a 9 500 kWhelec/a
B 4.115 Solar cells in an insulating glazing unit
Hot water 4 500 kWht herm / a
B 4.116 Laminated glass module with CIS thin-film cells
Drawn from grid
9 500 kWhelec /a B 4.117 Polycrystalline solar cells in laminated glass
Space heating 13 200 kWht herm /a
B 4.118 Energy concept with solar coverage of the
energy requirement balanced by using photo-
voltaics, private house, Hegenlohe (D), 2005,
Electricity for heat pump 5 000kWhe lec/ a
Tina Volz, Michael Resch
B 4.119 Rough sizing of photovoltaic installations:
a Chain of losses
b Solar electricity yield for horiz. arrangement
2 boreholes each 99 m
12 700 kWhtherm / a
c Correction factors for inclined arrangement

B 4.118
ing the spacing. Such an arrangement means module has its own inverter and so failure of If a public electricity grid is available, interim
that the glazing can be used to provide day- one module has no effect on the output of the storage is unnecessary. Excess electricity gen-
light as well as generate electricity (Fig. other modules. The lengths of DC cabling in erated by solar power is then fed into the grid
B 4.117). The shadows cast in the interior are the building and the space requirements for (for which the building owner is credited) or
structured and rich in contrast – correspond- one or more inverters, including access for electricity is drawn from the grid as usual in the
ing to the shape and layout of the cells. maintenance, depend on the inverter system case of deficits. Almost all the photovoltaic sys-
• A mechanical method can be used to pro- selected. The conversion of energy with an tems installed throughout Europe are of the
duce tiny perforations in the crystalline solar inverter is associated with losses, which in the grid-connected variety. This simplifies the
cells so that the cells themselves become best case are only 5%, at worst up to 15%. The installation to two components: generator array
semi-transparent. The light passing through positions of inverters should be specified at an (= sum of photovoltaic modules) and inverter(s)
the cells is diffuse. early stage in order to guarantee access to for converting the electricity generated into
• Thin-film modules made from amorphous sili- them for maintenance and replacement during alternating current suitable for the grid. If the
con can be produced in a semi-transparent the life of the building. photovoltaic installation generates more elec-
form by introducing fine lines or dots without tricity than is required in the building, the
cell material. The normal degree of light trans- Installation concepts excess electricity is fed into the grid; the build-
mittance is approx. 20%. From a distance of When designing the installation, it is important ing becomes an energy supplier. If more elec-
a few metres, these modules appear like a to know whether the building will be connected tricity is required than can be generated by the
completely uniform surface. to the public electricity grid. We thus distinguish building’s photovoltaic system, the electricity
between stand-alone and grid-connected sys- required to make up the difference is drawn
Inverters tems. Whereas the stand-alone system is in- from the grid in the usual way. So electricity
In a photovoltaic installation connected to the tended to guarantee an autonomous electricity supplies are guaranteed at all times. In the
electricity grid, the function of the inverter is to supply over the whole year, a building with a event of generous financial remuneration for
convert the direct current generated by the grid-connected system is also supplied with electricity produced by solar systems (e.g. in
array of modules into alternating current suit- electricity from the public grid. The technical Germany guaranteed by the Renewable Energy
able for the electricity grid. The geometry and components required and the planning work Sources Act), the entire electricity yield is nor-
arrangement of the photovoltaic modules deter- differ depending on the type of system. In a mally fed into the grid. The size of the photo-
mine the choice of inverter concept. Central stand-alone system, interim storage of electric- voltaic installation in such a situation need not
inverters are only advisable for completely ity is necessary to cope with the fluctuating be matched to the requirements of the building,
unshaded installations with a homogeneous energy yield and consumption. In addition, the but instead could be designed according to
orientation. Common today are modular inverter photovoltaic installation may need to be sup- geometrical, economic or architectural criteria.
systems in which – taken to the limit – each plemented by other energy sources. A comparison between generation and con-
Correction factor with respect
to horizontal orientation [-]

Annual solar radiation incident on horizontal plane Solar electricity generation 1.4
[ kWh/m2module a] Oslo
1.3
Solar cell technology Oslo Berlin Thessaloniki
Berlin
Crystalline 90 - 100 95 - 110 125 - 140 1.2
Solar radiation incident monocrystalline
on module area Thessaloniki
Orientation polycrystalline 1.1
Thin-film 60 - 75 65 - 80 90 - 110
CIS 1.0
Electricity Degree of CdTe
yield, efficiency, 0.9
Thin-film 35 - 55 40 - 60 55 - 80
modules module amorphous
silicon 0.8
Electr.
yield, System Translucent modules: reduction according to light
technology 0.7
system transmittance
0.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Fed to grid Angle of inclination with respect to horizontal [°]
a b c B 4.119

141
Building services

i. c. engine Diesel engine Stirling engine Fuel cell Gas turbine

Electrical output [kW] 1– 5000 5 – 20 000 1 – 40 1 – 250 30 – 250 000 1

100% Co- 62% heat 65°C Total degree of efficiency [%] up to 90 up to 90 up to 85 up to 90 up to 85
energy generation for own use and/or feeding
medium plant into heating network
Elec. degree of efficiency [%] 25 – 42 28 – 44 10 – 30 30 – 47 25 – 30
natural gas
heating oil
Power-to-heat ratio [-] 0.4 – 1,1 0.5 – 1,1 0.4 0.3 – 0.7 0.3 – 0.6
biogas and
sewage gas
vegetable 28% electricity Part-load behaviour good good not so good very good not so good
oil for own use and/or feeding
into electricity grid Status of technology proven proven small series pilot plants proven

Normal fuel biogas, vegetable oil, solar, hydrogen, biogas,

10% losses
natural gas diesel wood gas natural gas
1
Micro gas turbines up to approx. 200 kW

B 4.120 B 4.121
sumption – and hence the solar coverage feas- tions using crystalline cells requiring consider-
ible – is carried out here not physically but ably more than thin-film modules for the same
instead by way of an annual audit (Fig. B 4.118). energy output. Plastics have so far played a
subsidiary role. Owing to the composite form of
Yields construction, the materials used are notoriously
The yield per unit area depends in the first difficult to recycle. In an energy audit, the
place on the incident solar radiation (location cumulative energy requirement for manufacture
and orientation of modules) and the degree of and operation is balanced against the usable
efficiency of the photovoltaic installation as a energy yields of an installation. The energy-
whole. Depending on the type of cell and the related payback times differ depending on type
number of cells per unit area, installations in of cell, installation situation and location, and
Central Europe free from shade and with an range from six months (thin-film technology,
ideal orientation can achieve annual specific high yields) to four years (crystalline technology,
yields of about 40 kWh/m2 with semi-transparent moderate yields). The only emissions associated
thin-film modules. Using a maximum number of with photovoltaic installations are those associ-
monocrystalline cells per unit area, annual ated with their manufacture. When integrating
yields of up to 130 kWh/m2 are possible. Fig. photovoltaic modules into the building enve-
B 4.119 shows the chain of losses in a photo- lope, the production energy of the materials
voltaic system and parameters to enable rough used is considered as an energy “credit”.
estimates of the solar yields. Besides the orien-
tation of the modules, freedom from shading is
another crucial aspect. As solar cells and mod-
ules are wired in series, there is always a dis-
proportionate decrease in yield even if only
part of the array is in the shade (Fig. B 4.113).

Ecological aspects
The manufacture of photovoltaic elements
requires high amounts of energy and so the
energy-related payback time is an important
ecological criterion. The main materials used
when producing modules with cells made from
silicon are glass and quartz sand, with installa-

Insulated enclosure
CHP plant 62 kWh Heat
100 kWh
ηth = 62 %
28 kWh Silencer
ηel = 28 %
Electricity
Exhaust-
10 kWh Losses
gas heat Flow
exchanger Heating
system
73 kWh heat
Boiler Return
ηth = 85 %
62 kWh Heat Fuel Engine Gene- exchanger
rator
153 kWh
11 kWh Losses

80 kWh Power plant Dampers to

28 kWh = prevent sound
ηel = 35 % Electricity ~ transmissions
Public electri- Building
52 kWh Losses city grid electricity
B 4.122 B 4.123 B 4.124

142
 Building services

Air supply Exhaust gas

Thermal performance [%]

100
H2O/CO2

Building
80 control
Control
Fuel cell
Peak load heating plant Peak load
60
burner

Pre-reformer
40
Heat
storage Humidifier Electricity

20
= grid
+
CHP 2 –
Natural gas
Desulpheriser ~
CHP 1
0
Natural gas Air
2000 4000 6000 8000 Cold water Heat
Operating hours [h/ a] Hot water Exhaust gas
B 4.125 a b B 4.126
Combined heat and power exchanger (Fig. B 4.123). Such setups are Electricity from hydrogen
Combined heat and power (CHP) fuses gener- known as co-generation plants. Small plants Besides the engines borrowed from the auto-
ation of electricity and production of heat into (< 50 kWelec), are referred to as mini co-genera- motive industry, in future the fuel cell will become
one process (Figs. B 4.120 and 4.122). This tion plants (Fig. B 4.124). Internal combustion, more significant for CHP setups. The fuel cell
principle grew out of electricity generation, diesel or gas engines can be used as the drive generates electricity by way of an electrochem-
where the conversion process inevitably leads units. Rapeseed and soya oil have become ical process, using hydrogen as the energy
to large quantities of waste heat, which can established as fuels for modified diesel engines medium. With a decentralised application, the
seldom be used in large power stations and in biomass applications. One important para- ensuing heat can be fed into a heating circuit
entails additional cooling requirements with meter for CHP, besides the overall degree of just like in the case of a co-generation plant.
their corresponding negative ecological efficiency, is the power-to-heat ratio. This spec- The fuel cell requires hydrogen for its opera-
impacts such as raising the temperature of ifies the amount of electrical energy generated tion, which in the ideal case is produced using
rivers etc. Only under favourable boundary per kilowatt-hour of heat emitted. A typical renewable energy and must be stored. As no
conditions can the waste heat be fed into a value for a decentralised co-generation plant is suitable infrastructure exists for this, fuel cells
district heating network. 0.5, i.e. 0.5 kWh of electricity is generated per are mainly operated using hydrogen obtained
An alternative popular at the moment is to kilowatt-hour of heat. In principle, a co-genera- from natural gas at the moment (Fig. B 4.126).
arrange for the electricity to be generated tion plant can be integrated for electricity or The hydrogen production/storage/usage chain
decentrally, directly at the consumer. This heating purposes. To improve the overall degree is burdened by very high losses. Heating appli-
approach enables CHP to be incorporated of efficiency, the control is usually based on the ances powered by fuel cells exhibit excellent
directly into the energy concept of a building or heating requirement. As co-generation plants part-load behaviour. However, only prototypes
neighbourhood. Excess electricity is, like with are associated with a high capital outlay, many have been built to date; a market launch is
photovoltaic systems, fed into the public elec- hours of operation per year should be the target. expected in the near future.
tricity grid. Technologies based on various For this reason, they are not usually designed
energy media are available for decentralised to cover peak loads on their own, but rather are Electricity from waste heat/solar energy
CHP (Fig. B 4.121). From the ecological view- designed for the basic heating load. Other Another possibility for decentralised CHP is
point, renewable energy sources should be heating plant is then required which can react the Stirling engine, which can convert a heat
used whenever possible, e.g. biomass, hydro- flexibly to load fluctuations (Fig. B 4.125). Owing potential into electricity. As the provision of
gen, waste heat or solar radiation. to their function as an electricity generator, in heat can be carried out externally, the engine
some cases a co-generation plant can replace can be combined with various heating plants.
Electricity from biomass an emergency generator unit required for safe- Biomass systems are suitable for renewable
An electricity generator driven by a small ty or security reasons, which can improve the CHP; a coupling with a Stirling engine enables
engine is the most popular solution for decen- economic efficiency quite considerably. the waste heat to be used for energy purposes
tralised CHP with biomass. The heat given off is (Fig. B 4.127). Alternatively, solar radiation can
integrated into the heating circuit via a heat be employed to drive the system. As reasonable
degrees of efficiency call for a high tempera-
B 4.120 The principle of combined heat and power (CHP)
B 4.121 Combined heat and power (CHP) systems 1
0.58 kWh 1.3 kWh
available on the market waste heat at waste heat at
B 4.122 Comparison of decentralised combined heat cooling tower recooling unit
and power (CHP) and separate energy production
0.3 kWh
B 4.123 Incorporating decentralised CHP in the building 0.9 kWh PE Power elec. 1 kWh
heating system elec. RU
plant net cooling
B 4.124 Mini co-generation plant for operation with
vegetable oil a
B 4.125 Example of the integration of decentralised
CHP for covering the basic load
B 4.126 Fuel-cell heating plant 0.2 kWh 2.5 kWh
a Diagram of function exhaust-gas waste heat at
losses cooling tower
b Prototype with natural gas reformer
B 4.127 Boiler with integral Stirling engine 3.0 kWh PE (Electricity) 1.6 kWh
B 4.128 Comparison of separate energy production and heat therm. 1 kWh
2.7 kWh PE (Gas) CHP
decentralised combined cooling, heating + power RU net cooling
a Energy flow with electrical cooling PE: Primary energy
b Energy flow with thermal cooling by means of 1 Stirling engine 2 RU: refrigeration unit
CHP plus absorption-type refrigeration unit 2 Burner for wood pellets b CHP: combined heat & power
B 4.127 B 4.128

143
Building services

a Receiver / b Absorber tube

motor Tower

500 –1000 m
Receiver B 4.129 Options for concentrating solar radiation for
Parabolic trough electricity generation:
a Parabolic dish
b Parabolic trough collector
c Central receiver system
B 4.130 How a solar chimney power plant works
B 4.131 Parabolic dish
Electricity generator B 4.132 Solar power plant with parabolic trough collectors
Glass roof
c B 4.133 Jacobi mini hydroelectric power plant,
Heliostats Sarmigstein (A), 2005, Designstudio Juland
B 4.134 Parameters for different types of electricity storage
B 4.129 B 4.130
ture level (> 600°C), however, only concentrat- peratures are needed to achieve reasonable enormous and the relatively low materials
ing thermal systems at locations with high lev- degrees of efficiency. Up until now, concentrat- requirements result in particularly favourable
els of solar radiation are feasible. ing solar systems and solar chimney plants are parameters in comparison to the energy output.
the only forms that have been put into practice.
Combined cooling, heating and power Concentrating solar collectors using lenses or Solar chimney power plant
If the CHP installation is supplemented by a mirrors can achieve very high operating tem- The first solar chimney power plant was built
machine that can generate cooling power from peratures at locations with a very high propor- back in 1989 in southern Spain as a research
the waste heat, we speak of combined cooling, tion of direct radiation. On the whole, three con- project and a plant in Australia is expected to
heating and power. Like with solar cooling, cepts have proved worthwhile (Fig. B 4.129): start generating electricity on a commercial
sorption-type refrigeration units are the norm scale in the near future (see “Fundamentals”, p.
here (see p. 130). Adding a heat consumer to • A parabolic dish can be used to focus the 49, Fig. B 1.35). The concept exploits the effect
the system results in improved utilisation of the sun’s rays exactly onto a receiver (absorber) of thermal currents for driving one or more tur-
co-generation plant outside the heating period, (Fig. B 4.131). Such a system must include bines to generate electricity (Fig. B 4.130). It is
which improves the economics considerably. twin-axis tracking of the sun. necessary to coordinate the heated surface
From the energy viewpoint, combined cooling, • Alternatively, a number of heliostats can be area (glass roof) and the chimney in order to
heating and power has significant advantages focused on to a central receiver in order to generate sufficient thermal currents.
over electrical cooling (Fig. B 4.128). achieve large outputs. The max. 1000-fold
concentration leads to temperatures well in Wind power
Other technologies for generating electricity excess of 1000°C. The enormous developments in the use of wind
Numerous other technologies, in addition to • The parabolic trough collector represents a energy for generating electricity have in the
photovoltaics and decentralised CHP, are simpler construction. The approx. 100-fold meantime resulted in highly developed technol-
available for using renewable energy sources concentration of the sunlight can achieve ogies in virtually all output classes. High-rise
for generating electricity. There is not usually a temperatures up to about 400°C (Fig. B buildings and windy locations in particular can
direct connection between these systems and 4.132), which is adequate for generating offer interesting options for generating electrici-
the planning of the building, or even an archi- solar electricity via a steam power plant. This ty with wind turbines integrated into buildings
tectural integration. Nevertheless, these tech- type of system has already been in use for or infrastructure facilities. To date, only a
nologies offer interesting options for future more than 20 years for commercial electricity scaled-down pilot project has been realised at
developments. generation. the University of Stuttgart. The project has
shown that optimising the form of the building
Solar thermal electricity generation The economics of the individual concepts must can help to increase the wind speeds around
Besides photovoltaic electricity generation, it is be determined separately for each case and the turbine, but the noise of such an installation
also possible to generate electricity via the depend quite decisively on the location. The must be considered.
thermal use of solar radiation. Very high tem- potential for electricity generation worldwide is

B 4.131 B 4.132 B 4.133

144
 Building services

Supercapacitor Superconducting Flywheel Battery Pumped Compressed- Hydrogen

magnetic energy (status quo) storage air storage storage
storage (SMES)
Coefficient of performance (COP)[s] ≤1 1 – 20 10 – 30 > 1000 ≥ 1000 ≥ 1000 ≥ 1000
Energy density [kWs/kg] 5 – 20 <5 15 – 200 100 – 800 – – –
Mechanical storage density [kWh/m3] – – – – 0.22 1.59 1.82
Chemical storage density [kWh/m3] – – – – 0.00 0.00 69.72
Total storage density [kWh/m3] – – – – 0.22 1.59 71.54
Power [kW] ≤ 10 ≤ 7000 ≤ 15 000 ≤ 500 approx. 500 000 approx. 500 000 ≤ 10
Service life [No. of cycles] > 1 000 000 approx. 1 000 000 approx. 1 000 000 ≤ 1000 no data no data no data
Efficiency [%] > 95 approx. 90 85 – 90 70 – 85 approx. 81 approx. 72 27
Standby losses [%] 0.1 – 0.2/h Cooling capacity 3 – 20/h < 0.01/h < 0.01/h < 0.01/h no data
B 4.134
Hydroelectric power electronics applications (e.g. lithium-ion batter-
Water power has been an important factor in ies), supplies for buildings not connected to the
electricity generation for a long time. As a rule, electricity grid mainly use lead-gel batteries,
its use is linked with certain geological bound- which are very reliable and economic. However,
ary conditions (running water, waterfall) or calls from the ecological viewpoint, they are unsatis-
for massive intervention in the landscape (dam, factory owing to their short service life and the
reservoir). On a small scale, however, linking problems of disposal.
architecture or constructional infrastructure with
the use of water for generating electricity is Hydrogen
conceivable at suitable locations. Up until now, As an energy medium, hydrogen has the poten-
hydroelectric power stations have been purely tial to take on a key role in energy storage. The
utility structures built specifically for that pur- electrolysis method enables hydrogen to be
pose. Linking constructional measures that are produced from water using electrical energy.
required anyway with the creation of additional The fuel cell makes the stored electrical energy
utilisation options opens up new perspectives available again. However, hydrogen has to be
(Fig. B 4.133). handled extremely carefully if it is to be used
for storage purposes because of its chemical
Storing electricity and physical properties (highly explosive in
It is not usually necessary to store electricity in contact with the air). The challenge for the
countries with an extensive electricity grid. The future is therefore to develop suitable storage
aim is not to operate more and more buildings options using hydrogen and to realise an inte-
autonomously in the future, but rather to expand grated overall concept (hydrogen life cycle).
the number of suppliers to the grid, which will
result in increased flexibility in electricity gener- Flywheel energy storage
ation and better safeguarding of supplies. Never- Another option for storing electricity is to con-
theless, in certain cases it may be sensible to vert it into kinetic energy. So-called flywheel
store electricity for longer periods, especially energy storage (FES) represents an interesting
when the expansion of renewable energy for option here. The electricity is used to start turn-
generating electricity calls for interim storage ing a flywheel mounted in magnetic bearings.
due to the fluctuations in the energy sources. In The extremely fast rotation (> 50 000 rpm) and
regions without an electricity grid, storage to the virtually frictionless mounting enable the
ensure permanent electricity supplies is indis- kinetic energy to be stored for longer periods.
pensable, especially when generating electricity Slowing down the flywheel via a dynamo enables
from solar radiation or the wind. the electricity to be recovered.
Various methods are available for storing elec-
tricity (Fig. B 4.134). Capacitors are very effi- Compressed-air storage
cient at storing electricity directly. The storage Storing electricity by way of compressed-air
density feasible is low, however. Capacitors are storage is another alternative. To do this, the
principally employed in electronic components. electrical energy is used to compress air in an
The alternative is to store electricity indirectly enclosed volume. The ensuing compressed air
by converting it into another form of energy in can be converted back into electricity by reliev-
order to store larger quantities of energy over ing the pressure. This principle is simple to
References:
longer periods of time. implement, cost-effective and requires little
[1] Usemann, Klaus: Entwicklung von Heizung- und
maintenance. As the heat generated during Lüftungstechnik zur Wissenschaft. Munich, 1993
Batteries compression cannot normally be used, the [2] Mener, Gerhard: Bemühungen um die Sonnen-
This very well-known form of storage employs a degree of efficiency is, however, rather low energie in Frankreich und Deutschland 1860–1924.
chemical conversion process. Batteries are the (approx. 50%). Munich, 1997
[3] Zimmermann, Mark: Handbuch der passiven
most widely used form of electricity storage and Kühlung. Stuttgart, 2003
various materials can be used. Whereas efficient [4] BINE Project Information 2/2000: Raumluft-
materials are now being used in electrical and konditionierung mit Erdwärmetauschern

145
Materials

B 5.1
The built environment is a material environment. known architects have evolved their own views
It ties up a large proportion of both renewable on this; Alvar Aalto, Carlo Scarpa or Peter
and non-renewable resources that are removed Zumthor, to name just a few, use materials in a
from the earth for the well-being of the human way that shapes their architecture.
race. With the forms of construction common
these days, we can assume that one cubic History
metre of enclosed space in a heavyweight Historical, vernacular types of construction –
building consumes about 650 kg of materials, a apart from prestigious structures and those
lightweight building about 450 kg. It is therefore with a cultural importance – were always forced
not surprising to discover that, worldwide, the to use the scarce energy and resources availa-
building sector is the greatest consumer of ble in an efficient way. Besides the responsible
resources (see “Doing things right – on efficiency use of characteristic, locally available materials
and sustainability”, p. 27). (e.g. stone or wood), scarcity was usually the
The decision in favour of certain materials is prerequisite for the careful use of a material.
governed by many aspects (Fig. B 5.5). Objec- The decisive breakthrough came with the
tive, definable aspects, e.g. physical or chemi- Industrial Revolution; energy and raw materials
cal properties, dimensions or costs, play a were now available in seemingly unlimited
large part in the decision-making process. Our abundance. Thereupon, architecture gradually
perception of materials is, however, essentially broke away from natural circumstances and
individual and subjective. A material interacts influences to pursue the ideal of “anything is
with the observer via its surface and is in each feasible”. On the other hand, technological
case experienced and appraised in a totally progress brought innovation with it, e.g. in
individual way (Fig. B 5.1); people and their materials or in the optimisation of forms of con-
well-being are the focus of attention (see struction and building processes. The full
“Fundamentals”, p. 55). capabilities of materials were first exploited in
On the other hand, technical and functional engineering structures, e.g. railway stations,
performance determines whether the use of a bridges. Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace, opti-
material really does satisfy the demands mised technically right down to the smallest
placed on it and the need for safe and durable detail, inaugurated a revolution in building
usage. Building physics places demands on (Fig. B 5.4). An engineering- and materials-
the properties of a building material, e.g. fire related revolution in architecture now took
protection, sound insulation, moisture control, place on a broad front, which was particularly
and for loadbearing components, it is the struc- evident in the fast-growing cities of North
tural calculations that lay down the requirements. America. Here, steel played a key role as a
It is often the case that one material alone can- construction material, uniting high material
not satisfy all the demands placed on a compo- performance with rapid construction.
nent; in this situation, multi-layer constructions In the early days of the modern movement,
are used, with each individual layer responsible impetus in materials research came from the
for one or more defined functions. need to meet the huge demand for new build-
Over the course of a component’s lifetime, fur- ings, but also the desire for transparency, light,
ther requirements – not foreseeable at the time air and sunshine. This gave rise to ideas of
of the planning – can occur. There is growing constructional prefabrication, like Le Corbusier’s
recognition of the fact that the choice of materi- “Dom-Ino” system of 1917. In the 1930s, Le
B 5.1 Experimental House, Muuratsalo (FIN), 1954, als defines the health and hygiene boundary Corbusier’s interest in the vernacular architec-
Alvar Aalto conditions for users and occupants, has a con- ture of North Africa led to other elements being
B 5.2 Le Corbusier’s sketches for his brise-soleil siderable effect on energy requirements and incorporated into construction and architecture.
B 5.3 “Dymaxion House” prototype, 1928, the environment, and can promote or prevent One of these was the brise-soleil, a low-tech sun-
Richard Buckminster Fuller
B 5.4 Crystal Palace, London (GB), 1851,
subsequent usage. For many types of use, the shading and loadbearing element optimised in
Joseph Paxton aim is to ensure flexibility, to keep open the terms of construction and energy efficiency
B 5.5 Aspects of material selection options over the life of the building. Many well- (Fig. B 5.2).

146
 Materials

B 5.2 B 5.3 B 5.4

Martin Wagner approached this theme more of building, but also the operation of buildings could be assembled – promoting the idea of
from the point of view of social and ecological in the sense of a service concept. reuse. The precise definition of requirements
issues: the “growing house” united aspects Engineers such as Pier Luigi Nervi dedicated and their targeted implementation created an
such as self-sufficiency and energy efficiency themselves to optimising construction with con- autonomous, constructional aesthetic.
in one structure. He used large expanses of crete; his structural shells in double curvature Environmental aspects started to play a role as
glass for the passive heating of the building; trimmed the consumption of materials (Fig. development progressed. For Thomas Herzog,
the modular extension options for the building B 5.7). Frei Otto and Günter Behnisch devel- the “development of constructional systems
were based on the idea of the growing family. oped construction techniques even further by with the use of renewable energies” and “prod-
After World War 2, important ongoing technical considering functional requirements such as uct developments” are central issues in his
developments, e.g. modular structural steel- “loadbearing” and “waterproofing” separately. work. His goal is the active promotion of energy
work solutions, took place in many countries. The outcome was even lighter structural sys- efficiency in building and, in particular, to use it
Optimising the performance was the focus of tems that encouraged the use of materials that to help configure the building envelope (see
attention for architects like Jean Prouvé or up to that time were unusual in building: steel “Solar architecture”, p. 28). The experimental
Richard Buckminster Fuller. The first designs cables and plastics, e.g. the roof to the Olympic use of building materials creates the basis for
for Fuller’s “Dymaxion House” (DYnamic MAXi- Stadium in Munich. the industrial manufacture of wood-based
mum tensION) date from 1928 (Fig. B 5.3). He Fritz Haller took modular construction a step products, thermal mass concepts and many
concentrated on properties such as industrial further. He created rigorous, rational systems low-tech material solutions.
fabrication, lightness, low-budget, variability, whose prefabricated modules took account of One interpretation of this movement regarded
reusability, transportability and also use in spatial as well as technical requirements, e.g. as particularly efficient in terms of materials is
extreme climatic conditions. With his notion of by integrating pipes and cables. His structures the “Eden Project” – the minimal use of materi-
“Spaceship Earth”, Fuller created a global view could be dismantled just as easily as they als to construct a lightweight structure with an

Use of materials in architecture

Technical/functional
Perception Materials in the life cycle
performance

Freedom from Usage-related Ecological Economic

Tactile
health risks requirements requirements requirements

Haptic Suitability for use Production orientation Capital outlay

Thermal Fire protection Cleaning Operating costs

Acoustic Sound insulation Life cycle reference Life cycle costs

Material life cycle

Olfactory Thermal insulation
legitimacy

Moisture control
B 5.5

147
Materials

Thermal conductivity ¬ [W/mK]

B 5.6 Thermal conductivity of various building 10 Sedimentary rocks Igneous rocks
materials in relation to their density
Sand, gravel, clay bricks
B 5.7 Palazetto dello Sport, Rome (I), 1958,
Pier Luigi Nervi Ice
B 5.8 “Eden Project”, St. Austell (GB), 2001,
Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners
1
B 5.9 Residential extension, “Symbiont Friedrich”, Loose fill, Water Window
Merzig (D), 2004, FloSundK Architektur + Urbanistik pumice, slag glass
B 5.10 Strategies for reducing the thermal conductivity Lightweight concrete
and suitable materials for each case
Glass fibre-reinforced plastic
a Insulation cork board (ICB)
b Vacuum insulation panel (VIP) Fibrous insulating materials, mineral-bonded wood-wool, wood-wool,
0.1
c IR absorber-modified EPS insulating clay bricks
d Transparent thermal insulation Synthetic resin foams, cork boards, polystyrene foam
B 5.11 Effect of insulating materials in relation to their (Air)
thickness Microporous silicic acid
0.01
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Density ρ [kg/m3]
B 5.6
envelope made from pneumatically stabilised, tion in particular results in a multitude of irre-
multi-layer plastic sheeting. Extremely thin, versible environmental impacts. The rational
lightweight and transparent, nevertheless long- use of materials or the creation of material life
lasting ETFE material has been used for the cycles, for example, can help to reduce
three-layer air-filled cushions. The boundaries these effects.
between engineering and architecture are • Finally, materials can trigger secondary energy
gradually becoming more and more blurred processes during their usage, especially
(Fig. B 5.8). through their care and maintenance. Such
Other, new solutions are appearing in the pre- processes have substantial energy-related,
fabrication of building components. In particu- ecological and economic effects over the
lar, timber construction is undergoing a major entire lifetime of a material. And these effects
upheaval with the advent of frame and panel can only be analysed when considering a
techniques. New, lightweight methods of con- material over the entire life cycle of the build-
struction are opening up new opportunities for ing and not, as has been the case hitherto,
construction, e.g. existing roof landscapes just in relation to the as-built condition.
(Fig. B 5.9).
B 5.7 It is therefore necessary to appraise the effects
Materials and energy of the application of a material differentiated
Energy and sustainability considerations over- according to energy, environment and sustain-
lap when choosing a material. So considering ability. A life cycle analysis looks at material
the energy processes does not mean just look- chains, reveals the energy-related and ecologi-
ing at one area, but rather is always integrated cal effects of materials, and hence creates the
into an overall view of the sustainability theme basis for selecting building materials responsibly.
(Fig. B 5.5). The material, via physical process-
es, has a decisive influence on the energy per-
formance of a building. Basically, three themes Heat flow
are relevant here:
The thermal insulation of a building is of vital
• Building materials minimise the flow of heat. importance in cutting the energy requirements
They therefore enable a clear reduction in the of that building. The better the thermal insula-
energy consumption of the whole building, tion, the lower are the energy losses in the case
save operating energy and contribute to bet- of temperature differences between inside and
ter economy. Energy consumption goes mainly outside, and the smaller is the difference
B 5.8 hand in hand with ecological consequences, between the respective surface and air temper-
e.g. CO2 emissions, acid rain, excessive ferti- atures. Besides reducing the transmission heat
lisation, “summer smog”. A lower consump- losses in winter, the thermal insulation provided
tion reduces these environmental impacts. In by the material also serves to
addition, the material regulates the flow of
heat and transfers or stores energy. It absorbs • improve thermal performance in summer,
energy where it is needed, or dissipates it in • protect the construction against condensa-
the case of a surplus of energy. This means tion and frost,
that economical and ecological advantages, • improve the sound insulation if applicable.
e.g. cost-savings and a reduced environmen-
tal impact, can be achieved and the efficien- Thermal conductivity
cy of the building improved. The thermal conductivity λ [W/mK] is at the
• The production, maintenance and deconstruc- very heart of energy-efficiency material optimi-
tion activities surrounding the material tie up sation measures (Fig. B 5.6). It describes the
energy, which is known as “grey” or “embod- heat flow from a heat surplus to a heat sink that
ied” energy and is quantified in the form of takes place as a movement of atoms or as a
the primary energy input (PEI). The produc- wave. A heat flow can take place in the form of
B 5.9

148
 Materials

transmission, radiation and convection (Fig. B Transmission proofing materials (outside). Materials such as
5.11). In the case of transmission, the atoms The transmission of a material depends on its glass or a number of plastics have an amor-
transfer their energy through collisions with mass and internal structure. Fig. B 5.6 shows phous structure that reduces the thermal con-
each other. In the case of radiation, they emit the thermal conductivities of materials depend- duction within the building material itself.
energy that can be absorbed by the next atom ing on their density: the lower the density of a
without the need for a intervening material. And building material, the lower is its thermal con- Convection
in the case of convection, the internal tempera- ductivity, too. This is because of the higher pro- Air, a mixture of gases, is the energy media in
ture and density differences are converted into portion of air per unit volume of the material. convection processes, irrespective of insulating
motion; this process, only possible in liquid or Lightweight materials with a high proportion of capacity. The thermal insulation effect of a
gaseous media, constitutes the heat transfer pores, e.g. cork (Fig. B 5.10a), are therefore layer of air is not linear, but instead reaches a
mechanism. preferred as insulating materials. Air, with a maximum at about 60 mm (Fig. B 5.11). Both
Heat transfer always involves all three proces- thermal conductivity of 0.024 W/mK, is one of thinner and also thicker layers of air exhibit a
ses, albeit to different extents. Each of these the best-known thermal insulators. However, air lower insulating effect. In order to reduce con-
processes can be optimised in different ways is only effective as insulation when the convec- vection, insulating spaces can be filled with
(Fig. B 5.10). It is generally true that the lower tion remains low. This is guaranteed by the for- noble gases, which are heavier than air and so
the thermal conductivity of a material, the lower mation of small voids, e.g. as in foams. Noble the convection process begins later.
is the energy loss through a component made gases have thermal conductivities even lower There is no convection in a vacuum. A vacuum
from that material. In the past it was usual to than that of air; argon (0.016 W/mK), for in- insulation panel (VIP) exploits this fact by enclos-
assign materials to thermal conductivity groups stance, is used as standard for filling the cavity ing a rigid core, made from fibres, open-cell
(WLG) which defined the thermal conductivity in double glazing made from low E glass. foam or pyrogenic silicic acid, in a gastight foil
to an accuracy of 0.05 W/mK. Moisture in a building component always composite (Fig. B 5.10b). Owing to its very fine,
This method has now been replaced by the so- increases the transmission because the ther- open pores, pyrogenic silicic acid places the
called thermal conductivity design value (e.g. mal conductivity of water is 0.6 W/mK. Normally lowest demands on the tearing strength and
WLG 040 – λ = 0.04 W/mK), which enables a present in the air in the form of water vapour, it imperviousness of the enclosing foil. But
more accurate classification of insulating mate- infiltrates the insulation and owing to the tem- despite this, the gas pressure within a VIP
rials (to 0.001 W/mK). perature difference can condense there, which increases by approx. 2 mbar every year, which
reduces the insulating effect and can lead to means that heat convection processes eventu-
mould growth, corrosion, decomposition of the ally begin again and the thermal conductivity
insulating material or frost damage. Insulating gradually rises:
materials should therefore always be moisture-
repellent or should be protected against mois- • 0.004 W/mK vapour-tight (< 5 mbar gas
ture by a vapour barrier (inside) and water- pressure)
Share in heat flow
processes (qualitative)
Reducing transmission

low thermal conductivity

low density
amorphous material structure Radiation
tion
Conduc
tion
Convec
a
Thermal conductivity reduction in an insulating material

0.7
Thermal resistance 1 / ◊air [m2K / W]

4
Reducing convection
0.6
decreasing the gas volume
increasing the inertia of the gas volume
0.5 1
vacuum

0.4

b 5
0.3
Reducing heat radiation 2
0.2
3
reducing the emissivity
selective reflective material layers (low E) 0.1

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Width of air space [mm]
c
1 Vertical air space between metal and other
Dynamic insulation
material
2 Vertical air space between building materials
high total energy transmittance (horizontal heat flow)
high degree of transmission 3 Horizontal air space between building materials
limiting the convection (upward heat flow)
4 Mineral fibre insulating material
(¬ = 0.04 W/ mK)
5 Clay bricks (¬=0.4 W /mK)
d B 5.10 B 5.11

149
Materials

1 1 1 • 0.01 W/mK with low pressure difference • Direct gain systems:

U= + + (< 100 mbar gas pressure) Windows and transparent thermal insulation
Rsi sn · λn Rse • 0.025 W/mK without pressure difference elements integrated into the facade allow
daylight into the interior, distribute the energy
U Thermal transmittance [W/m2K] However, at the end of this process the thermal into the depth of the room and activate any
Rsi Internal surface resistance [W/m2K] conductivity is still lower than that of conven- thermal masses available.
sn Thickness of material [m] tional insulating materials. According to the • Solid wall systems:
λn Thermal conductivity of material [W/mK] current standard (with aluminium foil or multi- These are a combination of direct gain sys-
Rse External surface resistance [W/m2K] layer, metallised plastic film), we can assume tem and thermal mass, which in order to
B 5.12 that a VIP will last 30–50 years. increase the degree of efficiency is usually a
dark surface that absorbs the incident energy
Heat radiation and transfers this to the interior after a delay.
Building component max. min. insulation
The radiation transmission can be influenced Energy gains of 50–150 W/m2a can be
U-value thickness 1
[W/m²K] [mm] by reducing the passage of infrared radiation, achieved depending on orientation and type
External wall 0.45 82
the so-called emissivity. To do this, selective, of system (Fig. B 5.15)
reflective layers can be applied to a material – • Coupled/switched systems:
Renewed external wall 2 0.35 106
Window 1.70 20
usually invisible, thin metallic coatings applied The disadvantage of direct gain and solid
Pitched roof 0.30 126 by vapour deposition. The effect remains inde- wall systems is that energy can penetrate
Flat roof 0.25 152 pendent of the visible radiation component and them at all times, even when the building
Floors and walls in contact so is particularly suitable for transparent ele- should actually be releasing heat. Coupled or
with unheated area or soil 0.40 94
ments. This technique was first applied in the switchable insulation systems have therefore
1
Assumptions: thermal conductivity of insulating material glass industry and led to improvements in been developed which are intended to regu-
¬ = 0.04 W/mK, thermal insulation solely responsible for U-values of about 25%. As this technology is to late the heat flow between transparent ther-
energy efficiency large extent not dependent on the backing mal insulation elements and storage masses
2
Various exceptions possible according to Energy material, it has also been used in the produc- using water or air as a transfer medium, plus
Conservation Act Annex 3 B 5.13
tion of standard insulating materials, e.g. in the further functional layers if necessary. In the
form of a modified expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulating state, these systems achieve
with a thermal conductivity of 0.032 W/mK (Fig. U-values of 0.2–0.3 W/m2K, but in the “heat-
Building component DIN 4102 building
materials class required 1
B 5.10c) (standard EPS: λ = 0.04 W/mK). release mode”, e.g. for night-time cooling,
can reach U-values as high as 10 W/m2K.
Type of building 1–2 storeys > 2 storeys, > 22m
max. 22 m high high
Solar gain systems
The three reduction options described above Insulating opaque components
Curtain wall B2 B1 A enable the thermal conductivity to be reduced According to DIN 4108, building materials with
Supporting B2 B1 B1
to very low values. If we also consider the solar a thermal conductivity < 0.1 W/mK are regarded
construction
Fixings A A A radiation, then the insulating effect of both as insulating materials. This means that even
Thermal insulation B2 B2 B1 opaque and transparent components can be lightweight solid timber, e.g. spruce, could be
increased to enable even temporary gains. To included in the group of insulating materials.
1
According to German Model Building Code; deviations maximise solar gains, we need transparent On the whole, designers have a multitude of
in federal state building codes plus new standards must
be taken into account; other solutions must be checked
materials with a high total energy transmittance materials at their disposal. Fig. B 5.16 shows a
in each individual case. (g-value [%]), which is the case, for example, selection and their typical parameters. In prac-
B 5.14 with special elements such as quartz glass or tice, these should be compared with the actual
transparent thermal insulation. The g-values of product values.
B 5.12 Calculating the U-value of a construction to plastics and typical float glass are more or less
DIN 4108
equal; a polycarbonate sheet has a g-value of Product designations of insulating materials
B 5.13 Energy Conservation Act requirements for the
U-value of a building component and the result- 87–89%. Translucent plastics (e.g. PMMA, PC), Generally speaking, it is not the energy-related
ing theoretical minimum insulation thickness however, have much lower thermal conductiv- material qualities that govern the choice of an
B 5.14 Building materials classes (fire protection) ities (about 0.18 W/mK), are easier to shape insulating material, but rather the constructional
required for parts of facades according to the and are usually less expensive. Horizontal cap- boundary conditions. The following list contains
German Model Building Code
B 5.15 Schematic wall construction for transparent ther-
illary tubes or honeycomb structures allow the just some of things that may need to be consid-
mal insulation in the form of a solid wall system solar radiation to pass through the insulating ered:
B 5.16 Physical parameters of selected insulating materials material virtually unimpeded. At the same time,
the structure of the sheets or the form of the • General requirements: product dimensions,
0 °C

50 °C

20 °C

cross-section reduces the convection (Fig. product appearance

B 5.10d). A similar performance can be achieved • Strength: compressive stress at 10% defor-
1 with double- and triple-wall panels or card- mation, compressive strength under constant
2 board honeycomb products. The Trombe wall – loading, tensile strength, shear strength
3 a solid storage wall behind a transparent facing • Dimensional stability: in the case of moisture
4 – is also based on this principle. Such walls are and temperature fluctuations
cheap to build, but achieve only a low degree • Moisture control: water vapour diffusion,
of efficiency. water absorption, hydrophobic properties
Common to all dynamic forms of insulation is • Fire protection: building materials class, com-
the fact that their insulating effect is not defined bustibility (Fig. B 5.14)
by a material parameter λ, but rather by the • Sound insulation: dynamic stiffness, sound
thermal transmittance, the U-value (U = unit of impedance
1 Glass Radiant heat
2 TWD Solar radiation
heat transfer), of the entire construction (Fig. • Health issues and environmental protection:
3 Glass B 5.12). There are three systems classified volatile organic compounds (VOC) and syn-
4 Absorber according to their method of function: thetic mineral fibres (Fig. B 5.83)
B 5.15

150
 Materials

• Durability: ageing resistance, UV resistance The following applies here: building component, but as yet no long-term
• Economy experience has been gained with this product.
• when using the standard details to DIN 4108 Energy problems ensue with inhomogeneous
The product designations of insulating materi- supp. 2: +0.05 W/m2K components, e.g. a timber stud wall with insula-
als to DIN 4108-10 are based on the product • in the case of constructions not complying tion between the timber members. The thermal
properties and their applications (Figs. B 5.20 with the state of the art: +0.1 W/m2K conductivity differs within the building compo-
and 5.22). • for internal insulation: +0.2 W/m2K nent because the structural materials result in a
higher energy loss; in addition, there can be a
Requirements placed on insulating components Designing the thermal insulation negative impact on the moisture gradient within
The minimum thermal requirements for Germa- In order to avoid condensation within the con- the material. The calculation of an average
ny are laid down in the Energy Conservation struction (interstitial condensation), a vapour U-value for such a form of construction is car-
Act (EnEV) and DIN 4108-9 (Fig. B 5.13). They diffusion analysis should be carried out and the ried out according to DIN EN ISO 6946 (see
refer to complete building components and not thermal insulation should be attached to the “Building envelope”, Fig. B 3.12). Constructions
to individual layers of insulation. The thermal cold side of the construction. However, it is not made from wood-based products, e.g. an
transmittance [W/m2K], which is the quantity of always possible to install the layer of insulation Ι-section or a box section filled with insulation,
heat passing through a building component on the outside, e.g. in the case of an energy- can reduce the thermal transmittance. At the
with a surface area of 1 m2 for a temperature efficiency upgrade to an existing building. In same time, they enable longer spans when
difference of 1 K, including losses due to the such instances the insulation is placed on the used as floor beams, or rather result in a lower
transfer of energy to the ambient air, is defined inside, which, however, results in a consider- material consumption.
in Fig. B 5.12. A low heat flow through a build- able loss of floor space. The unavoidable ther- The efficiency of the thermal insulation offers
ing component is reflected in a low U-value. mal bridges in the form of floor and wall junc- better comfort and a gain in floor space with
The given U-values can be converted into cor- tions reduce the theoretical U-value by another low material usage. Thermal insulation with bet-
responding minimum layer thicknesses for 30–50% and impair the thermal comfort. The ter thermal conductivity reduces the thickness
each particular insulating material. The Energy increased risk of condensation calls for a care- of the layer required and so increases the avail-
Conservation Act prescribes an insulating ful analysis of the moisture gradient within the able floor space. A U-value ≤ 0.15 W/m2K is
standard for new buildings that would result in construction. This usually results in the need for necessary in order to reach passive house
a layer thickness of 82 mm for a thermal con- an internal vapour barrier, the function of standard, which with standard insulating mate-
ductivity of 0.04 W/mK. which, throughout the life of the building, may rials means a total wall thickness exceeding
The U-value calculation according to the Ener- not be impaired in any way. 500 mm! Compared to this, vacuum insulation
gy Conservation Act also includes surcharges The new calcium silicate insulating boards can panels (VIP) can achieve a similar performance
for thermal bridges, i.e. conductive compo- obviate the need for an internal vapour barrier. with a wall thickness of just 190 mm (Fig. B 5.18).
nents usually required for constructional pur- Their high moisture absorption capacity per- In the private house shown in Fig. B 5.19, the
poses (see “Building envelope”, Fig. B 3.29). mits short-term storage of any moisture in the use of VIPs resulted in a gain in floor space of

Insulating material Density Thermal Vapour diffusion Building materials Product standard Product forms
conductivity resistance index µ class/combustibility
design value λB class1
[kg/m3] [W/mK] [-] [-]
Inorganic
2
Calcium silicate 115 – 290 0.045 – 0.070 2/20 A1 – A2/up to A1 Board
Glass wool/rock wool 12 – 250 0.035 – 0.050 1/2 A1 – B1/up to A1 DIN EN 13162 Board, blanket, caulking material
Cellular glass (CG) 100 – 150 0.040 – 0.060 virtually vapour-tight A1/A1 DIN EN 13167 Board, loose fill
Expanded perlite board (EPB) 60 – 300 0.050 – 0.065 2/5 A1 – B2/up to A1 DIN EN 13169 Board, loose fill
Expanded clay 260 – 500 0.100 – 0.160 2 A1/A1 DIN EN 14063 Loose fill
2
Vermiculite (expanded mica) 60 – 180 0.065 – 0.070 2/3 A1/A1 Loose fill

Organic
2
Polyester fibres 15 – 45 0.035 – 0.045 1 B1–2/up to B Blanket
Polystyrene, expanded (EPS) 15 – 30 0.035 – 0.040 20/100 B1/up to B DIN EN 13163 Board
Polystyrene foam, extruded (XPS) 25 – 45 0.030 – 0.040 80/250 B1/up to B DIN EN 13164 Board
Polyurethane rigid foam (PUR) ≥ 30 0.020 – 0.035 30/100 B1 – 2 /up to B DIN EN 13165 Board, in situ foam
2
Cotton 20 – 60 0.040 – 0.045 1/2 B1/up to B Batt, blanket, caulking/blown material
2
Flax 25 0.040 – 0.045 1/2 B1/up to B Board, batt, blanket, caulking mat.
2
Hemp 20 – 70 0.040 – 0.045 1/2 B2/up to D Board
Wood fibres (WF) 45 – 450 0.040 – 0.070 1/5 B2/up to D DIN EN 13171 Board
Wood-wool board (WW) 360 – 570 0.065 – 0.090 2/5 B1/up to B DIN EN 13168 Board
Coconut fibres 50 – 140 0.045 – 0.050 1/2 B1– B2/up to B DIN 18165-1/-2 Batt, blanket, caulking material
Insulation cork board (ICB) 80 – 500 0.040 – 0.055 5/10 B1– B2/up to B DIN EN 13170 Loose fill, board
2
Sheep’s wool 20 – 80 0.035 – 0.040 1/2 B1– B2/up to B Batt, blanket, caulking material
2
Cellulose fibres 30 – 100 0.035 – 0.040 1/2 B1– B2/up to B Blown material, board

“Innovative” insulating materials

IR absorber-modified EPS 15 – 30 0.032 20/100 B1/ up to B DIN EN 13163 Board
4
Transparent thermal insulation 0.02 – 0.13 virtually vapour-tight 4 2
Panel
Vacuum insulation panel (VIP) 150 – 300 0.004 – 0.008 virtually vapour-tight B2 2 2
Panel

1
The combustibility classes given here represent guidelines; they should be checked against the actual product data.
2
With national technical approval.
3
The insulating material exploits the static insulating effect plus solar gains. The values given here include solar gains averaged over a heating period in Germany.
Distinct differences can occur depending on climate and orientation of insulation.
4
Depends very much on the actual product.
B 5.16

151
Materials

6
Costs [EUR / m2a]

Energy and insulation costs

5 related to wall area
4 B
3
2 A
1
0
100 200 300 400 500 600

1 Solid spruce, 80 mm
Energy [kWh / m2a]

100
Heating energy related 2 Wood fibreboard, 22 mm
75 to wall area 3 Vacuum insulation panel, 40 mm
50 4 Peripheral compressible strip
5 LVL battens, 40 x 45 mm
25 6 Wood fibreboard, 22 mm
0 7 3-ply core plywood, 22 mm
100 200 300 400 500 600 U-value: 0.14 W/m2K
Insulation thickness [mm] Total thickness: 190 mm
B 5.17 B 5.18 B 5.19
about 5% without increasing the volume of the advantageous. Annex D of DIN EN ISO 6946 the lion’s share of the costs, a solution equiva-
building. The use of VIPs can also be sensible specifies the exact calculation of the ensuing lent to the standard of new building work
for existing buildings, e.g. in order to retain a heat loss. should also be considered here.
reasonable floor-to-ceiling height in basements • Continuous fixings: Insulating materials in the
when insulating the underside of the ground form of blankets, batts or boards can be Low E glazing
floor slab. glued over their entire area, e.g. using mortar The use of light-permeable building compo-
or bitumen, to form a structural bond with the nents is coupled with the desire to exploit the
Fixings substrate. incoming daylight and the incoming energy,
Any fixings necessary contribute to heat con- and to create a visual link with the outside
duction and therefore represent a construction- Payback time world. Light-permeable building components
al thermal bridge. We distinguish between Even those insulating materials whose produc- are therefore mainly transparent and made of
three types of fixing depending on the type of tion consumes large amounts of energy, e.g. glass or plastic, less often translucent.
product (Fig. B 5.16): cellular glass, pay back their cost within a few The glass industry has improved its products
years, and organic insulating materials such as enormously in recent decades. Since the
• No fixings: The loose insulating materials are straw and even mineral fibre insulating materials 1970s, the U-values of insulating glasses have
tipped, stuffed or blown in. They require a usually within 12 months. Based on this pay- improved by a factor of 10 from the approx.
firm base or a volume enclosed on both back calculation, demands for insulation up to 3.6 W/m2K customary in the old days.
sides. This type of installation avoids con- 500 mm thick have been made for Germany If we include the solar gains through areas of
structional thermal bridges but can lead to (Fig. B 5.17). For an economic payback, the glass in the calculation, then the insulating
uninsulated voids, e.g. caused by settlement material thickness stipulated in the Energy qualities of low E glazing – when considered as
of the insulation, which must be subsequently Conservation Act for new buildings represents part of an energy-efficiency drive – are equal to
filled (and so must be accessible). the minimum economic insulation thickness. or even better than those of standard insulating
• Point fixings: Insulating materials in the form According to that, the thicknesses of standard materials (Fig. B 5.29). This is due to the so-
of blankets, batts or boards are nailed, insulating materials (thermal conductivity λ = called greenhouse effect: the radiation enters
screwed, anchored or glued at individual 0.04 W/mK) are generally 120–160 mm. If we the room, strikes a surface and is converted
points. Penetrating metal components, e.g. assume that during an energy-efficiency into heat radiation with a longer wavelength;
fixings for an outer leaf, are especially dis- upgrade, the scaffolding and labour make up the permeability of the glass for this wavelength

Product property Abbreviation Description Examples

Compressive strength dk No compressive strength Insulation to cavities and voids, between rafters
dg Low compressive strength Residential and office areas below screed
dm Moderate compressive strength Non-habitable roof space with waterproofing
dh High compressive strength Trafficked roofs and terraces
ds Very high compressive strength Industrial floors, parking decks
dx Extremely high compressive strength Heavily loaded industrial floors, parking decks

Water absorption wk No requirements regarding water absorption Internal insulation to residential and office areas
wf Absorption of water as liquid External insulation to external walls and roofs
wd Absorption of water as liquid and/or through diffusion External basement insulation, upside-down roof

Tensile strength zk No requirements regarding tensile strength Insulation to cavities and voids, between rafters
zg Low tensile strength External insulation to wall behind cladding
zh High tensile strength External insulation to wall behind render, roof with bonded waterproofing

Sound insulation properties sk No requirements regarding sound insulation properties All applications without sound insulation requirements
sg Impact sound insulation, low compressibility Floating screed, party walls
sm moderate compressibility Floating screed, party walls
sh Impact sound insulation, high compressibility Floating screed, party walls

Deformation tk No requirements regarding deformation Internal insulation

tf Dimensionally stable under moisture and thermal loads External insulation to wall behind render, roof with waterproofing
tl Deforms under loads and thermal effects Roof with waterproofing
B 5.20

152
 Materials

Optimising the passage of radiation

B 5.17 Relationship between insulation thickness and Insulating glazing

the costs/energy consumption for a residential Reducing convection Reducing transmission
optimisation
building
B 5.18 Schematic facade construction using vacuum
insulation panels, private house, Munich (D),
Reducing radiation reflection Optimising the cavity width Noble gas filling to cavity
2002, Lichtblau Architekten
B 5.19 Private house, Munich (D), 2002, due to angle of incidence
Lichtblau Architekten High total energy transmittance Noble gas filling to cavity Thermal break at edge seal
B 5.20 Product properties and typical applications for (warm edge)
thermal insulation materials to DIN 4108-10 Frame insulation
Reducing emissivity with Increasing the number of
B 5.21 Strategies for optimising insulating glazing
selective reflective coatings cavities Reducing the proportion of
B 5.22 Applications and examples for thermal insulation
to DIN 4108-10 (low E) Vacuum frame and edge seal
B 5.21
is lower than that of visible light and this forces artificial lighting and hence to a significant edge seal provide a gastight enclosure for a
a build-up of heat in the room. With a favour- energy-saving. filling of gas. Insulating glazing units improve
able orientation, the energy gain of this “heat But an energy gain via transparent components both the thermal and the acoustic properties.
trap” can even exceed the transmission losses is not always desirable. As the thermal insula- • Insulating glazing units can be provided with
through the glass – it becomes a passive energy tion improves, so the solar gains, especially in one or more low E coatings on the glass.
gains system for the building. buildings with high internal loads (e.g. offices), Standard for low E double glazing is a Ug-
Glass manufacturers can exploit a number of have to be reduced, or at least the regulating value of 1.1 W/m2K. Triple glazing products
system advantages within the sequence of lay- and control options have to be improved. Sun- with a noble gas filling and two low E coat-
ers to improve the energy efficiency of their shading and glare protection can be imple- ings currently achieve Ug-values as low as
products. High-quality low E glasses behave mented through the use of certain materials or 0.4 W/m2K. The most important parameters
according to the principles of dynamic insula- by adding special components (see “Building of glazing products currently on the market
tion. Like with insulating materials, the system- envelope”, p. 102). are listed in Fig. B 5.30.
atic reduction of transmission, convection and • Glasses with a Ug-value of 0.8 W/m2K or less
radiation through glazing contributes to the Types of glazing are known in Germany as “warm windows”
energy performance of the building compo- We distinguish the possible applications according to DIN EN 10077. The lower trans-
nents. However, the property of transparency depending on the type of glazing. Parameters mission heat losses result in surface temper-
involves certain special features in the case of for glazing are always stipulated with reference atures close to the desired interior air tem-
the passage of radiation, e.g. reflection and to the defined system or the system parts. They perature. Compared to other types of glaz-
transmission. The goal of optimisation is the can be specified for the entire window (w), the ing, there is a higher heat radiation from the
transmission of light depending on the incom- frame (f) and the glazing (g). surface, which leads to a higher thermal
ing radiation and the heat losses (Figs. B 5.21 comfort.
and 5.23). • Single glazing can have a Ug-value between
Besides energy losses and gains through the 3.6 and 5.2 W/m2K. Such glazing is only suit-
area of glass, the amount of daylight entering able for unheated rooms, as a facade materi-
the building is decisive for the use of glass. al or for internal applications.
Increasing the proportion of daylight in the • Insulating glazing consists of two or more
room leads to a lower energy requirement for panes of glass that together with a hermetic

Application Abbreviation Examples

Floor, roof DAD External insulation to suspended floor or roof, protected from the weather, insulation below roof covering
DAA External insulation to suspended floor or roof, protected from the weather, insulation below waterproofing
DUK External insulation to roof, exposed to the weather (upside-down roof)
DZ Insulation between rafters, double-skin roof, accessible but non-trafficked topmost suspended floor
DI Internal insulation to suspended floor (underside) or roof, insulation below rafters/structure, suspended ceiling, etc.
DEO Internal insulation to suspended or ground floor (top side) below screed, without sound insulation requirements
DES Internal insulation to suspended or ground floor (top side) below screed, with sound insulation requirements

Wall WAB External insulation to wall, behind cladding

WAA External insulation to wall, behind waterproofing
WAP External insulation to wall, behind render
WZ Cavity insulation to double-leaf walls
WH Insulation to timber-frame and timber-panel forms of construction
WI Internal insulation to wall
WTH Insulation between party walls with sound insulation requirements
WTR Insulation to separating walls

External basement insulation PW External thermal insulation to walls in contact with the soil (on outside of waterproofing)
PB External thermal insulation below ground floor slab in contact with the soil (below waterproofing)

B 5.22

153
Materials

Hermetic edge Edge TBC Ψ U-val. for perim.

Convective thermal
transmittance h [W/m2K]
Outside Light permeability Inside 5 ˙ Minimum values seal length of glass
12 3 21 Air [mm] [W/mK] [W/m2K]
a b Argon
4 1.0 m 2.0 m
Krypton
Xenon Aluminium, exposed 0.5 0.115 0.999 0.883
Transmission
Steel 0.5 0.112 0.991 0.879
3
Stainless steel 0.5 0.105 0.973 0.867

g-value Stainless steel 0.2 0.2 0.096 0.950 0.853

Reflection
2 Plastic, exposed 1.0 0.068 0.877 0.808
Radiant heat + ˙ Aluminium PU10 0.5 0.056 0.846 0.789
convection ˙ St. steel 0.2 PU10 0.2 0.049 0.827 0.778
1 ˙ ˙ Aluminium PU30 0.5 0.035 0.791 0.756
Radiant heat +
90 % St. steel 0.2 PU30 0.2 0.031 0.781 0.749
convection
Emissivity Plastic PU30 1.0 0.024 0.762 0.738
1 Glass 2a Low E coat., thermal insulation 0 5 10 15 20 25 The thermal bridge coefficient (TBC) is related to the
3 Gas-filled 2b Low E coat., solar gains Distance between panes ds [mm] length of the thermal bridge.
B 5.23 B 5.24 B 5.25
B 5.23 Schematic presentation of the passage of
radiation through a double glazing unit
Optimising the passage of radiation > 90% represent very good, values > 80%
B 5.24 Thermal transmittance values for various gas Transparency is the outstanding quality of good colour rendering. Nevertheless, colour
fillings in the cavity between the panes of glass glass – and also a number of plastics. Like all distortion can occur due to increased light
B 5.25 Hermetic edge seal systems and their effects on materials, glass absorbs radiation. This absorp- refraction at the edges of the glass even with
the U-values of glazing units
tion, however, takes place in a range beyond values over 90%. The colour rendering value
B 5.26 Ug-value in relation to the g-value of a glazing
unit the spectrum of visible light. The three coeffi- should be higher than 97% for special applica-
B 5.27 Glazing with pyrogenic silicic acid filling, office cients absorption (A), reflection (R) and trans- tions such as daylighting in museums (Fig. B
building, Munich (D), 1994, Herzog + Partner mission (T) occur in a relationship that is spe- 5.28).
B 5.28 Light permeability parameters for various types cific to each material and add up to 100%. The The total energy transmittance g designates
of glazing
B 5.29 Dynamic U-values of various types of glazing
important parameters in this context are (Fig. the sum of direct transmission, solar radiation
according to orientation B 5.23): and heat emissions into the interior due to radi-
B 5.30 Parameters of selected transparent building ation and convection. Float glass single glazing
components • Degree of transmission τ has a degree of transmission of approx. 90%
• Total energy transmittance g and a g-value of 85–87% (Fig. B 5.30). The
• Emissivity ε g-value decreases as the number of panes
U-value [W/m2 K] increases. Triple glazing thus has an energy
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Absorption involves converting the radiation transmittance of only 40–50%. At the same
Single glazing
(float glass) into heat, which is then transported through the time, however, the Ug-value falls (Fig. B 5.26).
U-value
Double glazing structure of the material and emitted from the Besides the energy gains from outside, there is
(air)
Double glazing surface of the material in the form of long-wave also an energy flow in the opposite direction at
(air/IR) daylight radiation. Reflection means bouncing the radia- the glazing. That part of the physical transmis-
Double glazing trans-
mission tion off the surface and back into its surround- sions in the range of infrared radiation (heat) is
(argon/IR)
Double glazing g-value ings. The shallower the angle of incidence of measured in the form of emissivity ε. This value
(krypton/IR) the radiation, the higher is the reflection com- describes the ratio of the thermal radiation pen-
Triple glazing
(krypton/IR) ponent, and in the case of glass this is usually etrating the body to the heat radiation incident
90 80 70 60 50 40 30
TL or g-value [ % ]
significant for angles greater than about 60°. on the body. The emissivity of float glass single
glazing is about 89%. Metallic coatings made
B 5.26
A large proportion of the radiation passes from silver or titanium reduce the emissivity of
through the material without undergoing any glass. These ultra-thin coatings applied by way
physical change. This process corresponds to of vapour deposition reflect most of the infrared
transmission (T), which is specified by the radiation generated in the interior of the build-
degree of transmission τ; the effect of this is to ing back into the building. The selective,
make the glass appear particularly transparent. aligned coatings have only a small influence on
In contrast to our understanding of heat theory, the g-value, but reduce the emissivity substan-
the degree of transmission designates the radi- tially – up to 2% with certain products. Silver-
ation permeability and not the energy transfer coated low E glasses represent the state of the
by means of thermal conduction. art. They can be produced virtually free from
In the case of special glasses (e.g. for solar any colouring. A low E coating reduces the
panels), the degree of transmission can be up U-value of a double glazing unit from 3.0 to
to 98%. But even with normal window glass, the about 1.6 W/m2K. As the position of the coating
aim is to keep absorption and reflection low within the insulating unit is relevant, care
while raising the transmission. However, other should be taken to install such glazing units
factors such as colour rendering play a role according to their labelling. Single glazing with
here. Glass is not equally transparent in every a low E coating is also available, with a U-value
part of the spectrum. Natural lighting and col- of approx. 3.6 W/m2K.
ours, however, determine depth and comfort. So-called hard coatings are characterised by
The colour rendering Ra to DIN EN 410 must their toughness and can therefore be placed
therefore also be specified for glasses in addi- on the inner face of a glazing unit without any
tion to the daylight transmission TL. For this further protection, which increases the energy
variable expressed as a percentage, values efficiency. This is a particularly worthwhile fea-
B 5.27

154
 Materials

Technical values of various Low E glazing Solar-control glazing

insulating glass units Double glazing, Triple glazing, Quadruple glazing, Double glazing,
1 pane coated 2 panes coated 4 coatings 1 pane coated
Dimensions (pane/cavity/pane) [mm] 4 - 15 - 4 4 - 12 - 4 - 12 - 4 6 - 12 - 6 - 12 - 6 - 12 - 6 6 - 16 - 4 6 - 16 - 4 6 - 16 - 4
ε ≤ 0.05 ε ≤ 0.05 ε = 0.02 colourless1 blue1 green1
Cavity filling (gas concentration ≥ 90%) air argon krypton argon krypton krypton argon argon argon
Ug-value to EN ISO 10077-1 Ug [W/m2K] 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.8 0.5 0.31 1.1 1.1 1.1
Total energy transmittance1 g [%] 64 64 64 52 52 381 37 24 28
Light permeability1 TL [%] 81 81 81 72 72 591 67 40 55
Light reflection1 RL [%] 12 12 9 14 14 181 11/122 10/332 9/122
Colour rendering1 Ra [%] 98 98 98 96 96 no data 96/942 95/702 86/882
1
Typical manufacturers’ data
2
Values valid for internal/external
B 5.28
ture for refurbishment work. Existing windows plastic film (Fig. B 5.33). This reduces the thick- in small quantities, which makes their produc-
can be upgraded in this way (secondary glaz- ness of the component to 23 mm; the g-value is tion process very elaborate and costly.
ing, coupled window). 0.43, the U-value 0.45 W/m2K. A vacuum in the cavity reduces the heat con-
duction still further. The insulating effect of the
Convection and low E glasses Transmission and transparent components vacuum is not dependent on the distance
The cavity between the panes is generally Glass has an amorphous structure and hence between the panes, which means that a spac-
between 8 and 20 mm in order to reduce the exhibits lower transmission compared with ing of < 1 mm is technically possible. A partial
convection processes in the gas. The width is building materials of similar weight, e.g. con- vacuum of about 10-3 bar then prevails in the
not dependent on the gas used (Fig. B 5.24). crete. Nevertheless, owing to its density, the cavity. As the vacuum causes the panes of
Dividing the cavity into several layers can value of about 0.8 W/mK is relatively high com- glass to deflect inwards, either allowing them to
reduce the convection still further and improve pared to the approx. 2.1 W/mK of concrete touch or even breaking them completely, spac-
the insulating properties of the glazing unit. In (Fig. B 5.6). ers between the panes of glass are necessary.
triple glazing, the middle pane is at the same In order to reduce the conductivity of the con- These can be discrete points or cover the
time used as a backing for a second low E struction, noble gases such as argon, xenon or whole area, e.g. made from pyrogenic silicic
coating. Ug-values as low as 0.4 W/m2K can be krypton, which have a lower conductivity than acid or an adhesive. A spacer across the whole
achieved by filling the cavity with krypton or dry air, are used in the cavity between the area results in a certain specific optical effect
xenon gas. However, the g-value of the pane panes (Fig. B 5.24). Compared to a filling of air, owing to the ensuing translucency (Fig. B 5.27).
drops to about 0.4. Quadruple glazing units are the U-values of double glazing units improve Vacuum double glazing can achieve Ug-values
now available, but such units are considerably by about 0.3 W/m2K. Owing to its good availa- as low as 0.5 W/m2K, vacuum triple glazing
thicker and heavier. bility and hence easier production, argon is 0.3 W/m2K. Better values have not been achieved
As an alternative, there are forms of construc- used most frequently. Xenon and krypton have so far because the dense, stabilising hermetic
tion in which the middle panes are replaced by better thermal properties but are only available edge seal always constitutes a thermal bridge.
The glued metal hermetic edge seal, the form
Type of glazing Light transmission South Ueq East/West Ueq North Ueq most often encountered in practice, consist of
a double seal, a metallic spacer and an integral
Double glazing, Ug-value = 1.8, g-value = 0.70 0.81 0.12 0.540 0.960
desiccant for absorbing any moisture (Fig.
Double glazing, Ug-value = 1.3, g-value = 0.62 0.77 - 0.188 0.184 0.556
B 5.25). The linear thermal transmittance Ψ
Double glazing, Ug-value = 1.1, g-value = 0.58 0.76 - 0.292 0.056 0.404 of such a construction lies between 0.9 and
Triple glazing, Ug-value = 0.7, g-value = 0.40 0.60 - 0.260 - 0.020 - 0.020 2.2 W/mK. Condensation can therefore collect
Quadruple glazing, Ug-value = 0.3, g-value = 0.38 0.59 - 0.612 - 0.384 - 0.156 around the edges of the pane. The better the
B 5.29 actual insulating effect of the glazing and the
smaller the window, the greater are the nega-
Transparent building component Ug-value Daylight g-value tive effects of the hermetic edge seal. For a
to trans- to 2 x 2 m window with a U-value of 0.4 W/m2K in
DIN EN 673 mission DIN EN 410 the middle of the pane, the Ug-value of a con-
Single glazing Float glass 5.8 0.90 0.85 struction with an aluminium hermetic edge seal
Float glass with low E coating 3.8 0.67 0.62 is only 0.58 W/m2K, i.e. a 45% decrease. A her-
Extra-clear glass 5.8 0.92 0.92
metic edge seal with a thermal break, on the
Laminated glass with sunshading film as interlayer 5.8 0.75 0.52
other hand, leads to a decrease of only approx.
Double glazing Low E glass, air filling 1.4 0.80 0.63
22%, i.e. corresponding to a Ug-value of
Low E glass, argon filling 1.1 0.80 0.63
Neutral solar-control glass, argon filling 1.1 0.70 0.41 0.49 W/m2K (Fig. B 5.36).
Neutral solar-control glass, argon filling 1.1 0.62 0.34 As the surface temperatures of the glazing with
Neutral solar-control glass, argon filling 1.1 0.51 0.28 such a construction do not drop severely at the
Neutral solar-control glass, argon filling 1.1 0.40 0.24 edges and corners, as used to be the case, we
Neutral solar-control glass, argon filling 1.1 0.30 0.19
speak here of a “warm edge”. This prevents
Triple glazing Low E glass with 2 coatings, argon filling 0.7 0.72 0.50 condensation collecting around the edge of the
Low E glass with 2 coatings, krypton filling 0.5 0.72 0.50
glass. The spacers required are made from a
Quadruple glazing Low E glass with 4 coatings, krypton filling 0.3* 0.59* 0.38*
UV-resistant, gastight plastic.
Twin-wall panel Polycarbonate 1.5* 0.70 0.60* The window frame is a significant energy loss
*Manufacturer’s data factor. It normally exhibits a poorer U-value
B 5.30

155
Materials

B 5.31 Parameters of traditional window frame materials

B 5.32 Window frame profiles with thermal break
a Wood
b Wood/plastic
c Plastic
d Plastic/metal
B 5.33 Isometric view of a typical glass/film combination Material Thermal conductivity Uf-value [W/m2K] 1 Uw-value [W/m2K] 1
B 5.34 Calculating the Uw-value to CEN/TC89/W67 [W/mK] typical feasible typical feasible
B 5.35 Calculating the radiation balance of a glazing Wood 0.12 1.5 1.3 2 1.1 0.9 2
unit with and without considering shading 2
Aluminium 220 1.5 1.2 1.1 1.0 2
B 5.36 How the window proportions affect the Uw-value
B 5.37 Roof with light-redirecting holograms, University Plastic 0.16 1.3 1.0 1.0 0.8
of Bremen (D), 2001, Jan Störmer Architekten 1
Based on triple glazing, related to an average frame proportion of 25%.
B 5.38 Printing as sunshading, museum, Stuttgart (D), 2
Lower values can be achieved only with additional layers of insulation in the form of secondary glazing, which means
2004, Hascher Jehle that Uf-values as low as 1.0 W/m2K and Uw-values as low as 0.8 W/m2K are achievable for all materials. Composite
B 5.39 Electrochromic glass in its transparent and dark materials for aluminium are wood, wood-based products or plastic. Composite wood-plastic frames are also possible.
blue states
B 5.31
than the glazing itself and reduces the area duced by Gerd Hauser and Lothar Rouvel is an
available for solar gains. attempt to consider, roughly, the potential of
Window frames can be made of wood, plastic the energy gains via the glazing in the U-value.
or metal (Fig. B 5.31). As a raw material, wood It is therefore specific to the incident radiation
exhibits the best thermal properties, with Uf- and hence the location and is only valid for
values between 1.5 and 2.1 W/m2K. However, Germany. It can be shown by way of this value
the simple production of thermally optimised that for Central European latitudes, triple glaz-
extruded sections means that these days plas- ing compared to double glazing with a higher
tic frames are usually better in terms of their g-value on the south side of a building results
energy performance. Metal window frames are in hardly any extra energy gains. On the east
a disadvantage in thermal terms, but their par- and west sides, and especially on the north
ticularly slender sections and hence smaller side, however, triple glazing exhibits consider-
thermal loss surface areas outweigh their dis- able advantages (Fig. B 5.29). If we add the
advantage to a certain extent. They are espe- DIN 4108-6 shading factors (F) into the equa-
a b cially weather-resistant and therefore very long- tion, the effect of the true building surroundings
lasting. can be taken into account in the assessment
The need for energy-efficiency improvements (Fig. B 5.35).
has led to the appearance of more and more
thermally optimised wood-plastic composite Light-redirecting glasses
frames on the market. The insulating layer is Glare can be prevented by diffusers. One simple
either attached to the outside of the frame, with way of increasing the amount of diffuse light in
the appearance determined by a fascia panel, a room is to use obscured glass. Cellular struc-
or the layer of insulation is in the same plane as tures, like those of transparent thermal insula-
the glass, between the inner and outer parts of tion, generate a similar effect.
the frame. Assemblies insulated with PUR foam A directed lighting effect can also improve the
enable the use of better loadbearing and stiff- illumination in the interior. Perspex prismatic
ening frame materials made from steel or glass panels installed in the cavity of a double glaz-
c d fibre-reinforced polyolefin sections (Fig. B 5.32). ing unit exploit the higher angular selectivity of
B 5.32
The thermal and constructional optimisation of the material. The direct incoming light is reflected
the component can, however, restrict the later depending on the angle of incidence, either
recycling options. outwards or onto the ceiling of the room; but
If the U-value of the frame is poorer than that of the diffuse light passes through unhindered.
the glazing, a larger edge cover dimension will Reducing the size of the prisms enables a bet-
improve the Uw-value. Setting blocks with a ter view of the outside world but that does
1 2 3 1 Space for
insulation
thermal break reduce the Uw-value of a window diminish the protection against glare. Laser cut
2 Opening light yet further. “Warm windows”, like those used in, panels (LCP) are available on the market but
seal for example, passive houses, can thus achieve must be produced specifically for a particular
4 3 Aluminium Uf-values well below 1.0 W/m2K. location and particular angle of incidence.
5 4 Desiccant
6 The creation of larger window areas with a Optical lenses can direct light specifically into
5 Film
6 Glass smaller frame proportion results in further energy- the depths of a room. But as such components
efficiency optimisation potential. are expensive and solar-tracking systems
inside require maintenance, they can be replaced by
Radiation balance for glazing holographic optical elements (HOE) which
The total thermal transmittance Uw for a glazing apart from their light-redirecting properties can
element is calculated according to EU norm also be used as sunshades or four focusing the
CEN/TC89/W67 (Fig. B 5.34). This parameter light onto photovoltaic modules (Fig. B 5.37;
considers, however, only the energy losses see also “Building envelope”, p. 104).
outside
through a window.
The dynamic Ueq-value can be calculated from
the Ug- and g-values. This parameter intro-
B 5.33

156
 Materials

Ueq = Ug - (g · S)
Ag · Ug + U · Ψ + Af · Uf
Uw = Ug U-value of glazing [W/m2K]
for Umid-pane [W /m2K]
A g + Af g g-value of glazing [-]
1.3 0.9 0.4
S Radiation gains in relation to orientation:
2 2
Dimen- Spacer Uw-value incl.
Uw Total thermal transmittance of glazing [W/m K] south 2.4 W/m K sions Material edge seal
east/west 1.8 W/m2K
Ag Area of glazing [m2] 0.6 ≈ 0.6 m Aluminium 1.61 1.27 0.76
north 1.2 W/m2K
Ug U-value of glazing [W/m2K] with thermal break 1.48 1.12 0.58
U Perimeter length of glazing [m] 1.0 ≈ 1.0 m Aluminium 1.56 1.21 0.70
Ueq = Ug - (g · S · Fh· Fo · Ff) with thermal break 1.45 1.08 0.55
Ψ Linear thermal transmittance of edge seal [W/mK]
2.0 ≈ 2.0 m Aluminium 1.46 1.09 0.58
Af Area of frame [m2]
Fh Partial shading coefficient, horizon angle with thermal break 1.39 1.01 0.49
2
Uf U-value of frame [W/m K]
Fo Partial shading coefficient, vertical shade angle 3.0 ≈ 3.0 m Aluminium 1.41 1.03 0.53
with thermal break 1.36 0.98 0.46
Fs Partial shading coefficient, lateral shade angle
B 5.34 B 5.35 B 5.36
Solar-control glasses Electrochromic coatings consist of a polymer Regulating the heat flow
In addition to sunshading systems, solar-con- film about 1 mm thick which regulates the total Overheating effects ensue either as a result of
trol glasses are another way of reducing the energy transmittance of the glass. Upon apply- high energy gains through transmission and
energy gains via areas of glass (see “Building ing an electric current, the glass changes from ventilation, or as a result of high internal heat
envelope”, p. 98, Fig. B 3.61). transparent to a deep blue colour. The energy loads. Basically, the summertime thermal per-
Simple forms make use of enamelled or printed transmittance can be reduced to max. 20% formance is regulated room by room according
glass surfaces to diminish the energy gains. with such a coating. Electrochromic glasses to DIN 4108-2 (see “Building envelope”, p. 95).
Reflective coatings on the outer pane can also are therefore suitable for use as sunshades or Materials present us with three ways of regulat-
help to shade the interior of a building from the glare protection (Fig. B 5.39). ing the heat flow by way of three physical proc-
sun; the transparency effect of the glazing is, Coatings made from microencapsulated liquid esses: absorption, specific heat capacity and
however, lost (Fig. B 5.38). crystals (LC) behave similarly. They vary the phase lag. In this way they contribute to
Selective coatings, e.g. low E coatings facing transmission between 76% in the transparent smoothing out the temperature amplitude,
outwards, enable the energy gains to be limited state and 48% in the diffuse, light-scattering which signifies better thermal comfort in the
without any loss of transparency. As can be state, when they take on a milky appearance. interior (Fig. B 5.41).
seen from Fig. B 5.28, however, the colour ren- Gasochromic glasses change to a blue colour Depending on the type of use, however, it may
dering characteristics of the glasses must be due to the inclusion of catalytically generated also be sensible to reduce the thermal masses.
checked when using solar-control coatings. hydrogen and lose this colour again when air is The corresponding capacity must then be
introduced. The light transmission values of the ensured with technical systems. This strategy
Smart glazing two states vary between 15 and 60%. One may be advisable for places of assembly with
Glasses with changeable properties open up controlled gas supply unit is required for every high, sudden internal loads.
new applications. The most important products 10 m2 of glass area.
in this field are: Phototropic and thermotropic glasses do not Absorption and reflection
require any form of control. The changes in A material soaks up heat energy by way of
• Electrochromic glasses phototropic glasses are based on metallic (e.g. absorption; the rest of the energy is reflected
• Liquid crystal glasses silver) ions and the changes take place depend- back into the room. The darker the colour of the
• Gasochromic glasses ing on the ultraviolet radiation. Thermotropic material, the greater is the absorption and radi-
• Phototropic or thermotropic glasses glasses are based on a two-component layer ant heat. The choice of colour therefore affects
that segregates above a certain temperature. the speed of the energy absorption and emis-
These glasses react to environmental influences The glass then scatters the incoming sunlight sion. The quantity of heat that can be absorbed
– controlled by automatic or manual means – as diffuse light and appears translucent. by and stored in a building material therefore
and change from a light- and radiation-perme- increases over time. It is possible to optimise a
able state to a light-scattering, darkening or surface in energy terms by way of its degree of
reflective state. absorption, by its colouring (Fig. B 5.40). In

B 5.37 B 5.38 B 5.39

157
Materials

Heat flow [W m 2]
Surface Heat absorption degree 12 1 Insulation
1
[%]
i a
Aluminium, polished 0.20 10
2
Asphalt 0.93
Leaves, green 0.71 − 0.79 8 3 2 Render, insulation,
Roofing felt, black 0.82 4 masonry, plaster
Iron, galvanised 0.38 i a
Iron, rough 0.75 6
Gold, polished 0.29
3 Render, masonry,
Copper, polished 0.18 4 insulation, air space,
Copper, oxidised 0.70 i a
masonry, plaster
Marble, white 0.46
Slate 0.88 2
Snow, clean 0.20 − 0.35 4 Render, vertically perforated
Silver, polished 0.13 0 clay bricks, plaster
i a
Clay bricks, red 0.75
Zinc, white 0.22
-2
4 8 12 16 20 24
Time of day [h]
B 5.40 B 5.41
Central European latitudes, the feasible ener- gas – of the material. The material changes its The phase lag is particularly high when a mate-
gy-savings can amount to up to 8% of the heat- internal structure as this happens. The rial has a high effective heat capacity but at the
ing energy requirements. If energy gains are enhanced storage capacity created in this way same time a low thermal conductivity. A low
undesirable, light colours should be chosen for is, however, only available at the phase transi- thermal diffusivity indicates a high phase lag
the surface as far as possible, as are common tion and hence only over a limited temperature for a material (Fig. B 5.48). But insulating and
in the countries bordering the Mediterranean, range. Paraffin, a long-chain hydrocarbon, is storage effects in one material essentially can-
for example. the raw material for the majority of latent storage cel each other out, although one exception is
materials used in building (Fig. B 5.42). It pre- wood fibreboard, which is ideal for insulating
Specific heat capacity vents overheating in summer in particular, but between conditioned and energy-gain zones,
The lower the thermal mass of a building, the can also prevent brief overcooling of a building e.g. atria, conservatories. Furthermore, wood
quicker an unpleasant, hot and stuffy atmos- by presetting the temperature of the phase fibreboard can be used in areas with low stor-
phere builds up inside, with high temperature transition to a certain level. PCMs can be incor- age masses, e.g. roof spaces converted into
and humidity fluctuations. Materials with a high porated into a building as separate volumes, habitable rooms.
specific heat capacity enable overheating but they are mostly used in microencapsulated
effects to be temporarily buffered. The capacity form added to other building materials, e.g. Sorption capacity
of a building component to store heat depends plasterboard or wood fibreboard. Materials have an influence not only on the heat
on its specific heat capacity and density. Pre- flow, but also on the moisture balance. As the
standard DIN V 4108-6 contains a method for Phase lag humidity of the air has an effect on the per-
calculating the effective heat capacity (Fig. Stored heat is emitted from the material after a ceived room temperature for human beings (in
B 5.46). certain time, essentially in the form of radiant the comfort range every 10% increase in
Heavyweight materials such as stone or con- heat. As one component of the perceived tem- humidity raises the perceived room tempera-
crete exhibit good storage characteristics perature, this can achieve a drop in the temper- ture by 0.3°C), sorption also plays a role in
owing to their high densities, but even timber is ature of the interior air in some circumstances. energy terms. Its principal benefit lies, how-
suitable for storing heat. Organic materials The time between energy absorption and emis- ever, in the improved comfort.
have a higher specific heat capacity than solid sion is known as the phase lag or shift. This Every building material has its own equilibrium
mineral building materials, i.e. they can gener- delay can be well exploited by the material, moisture content, which is normally represented
ally absorb more thermal energy per kilogram especially where the energy balance is primar- by way of sorption isotherms in relation to tem-
of material (Fig. B 5.49). ily determined by external factors (e.g. residen- perature and humidity. When a material pos-
A better storage capacity, essentially irrespec- tial buildings). Components such as solid walls sesses a large internal surface area, i.e. a high
tive of the mass, can be achieved by integrat- or suspended floors can absorb solar energy proportion of very fine pores, the sorption of
ing a phase change material (PCM). In a PCM, and release it into the interior later, and this is water vapour from the air is particularly signifi-
heat is converted into chemical energy at the how the concept of night-time cooling works cant (Fig. B 5.44).
phase transition – from solid to liquid, liquid to (Fig. B 5.43).

B 5.40 Heat absorption degrees of various surfaces

B 5.41 Heat flow through various wall constructions
B 5.42 PCM facade, home for senior citizens, Domat/
Ems (CH), 2004, Dietrich Schwarz
B 5.43 Loam storage wall, information centre,
Wangelin (D), 2002, Günter zur Nieden
B 5.44 Moisture absorption of various wall coatings in
the case of a sudden moisture increase from
50 to 80%
B 5.45 Water vapour adsorption potential of various
loam plasters in relation to their thickness
B 5.46 Calculating the effective heat capacity to
pre-standard DIN V 4108-6
B 5.47 “Ecological rucksacks” (embodied materials
flows) of various materials
B 5.48 Calculating the thermal diffusivity
B 5.49 Technical comparison of building materials
with a capacity to store heat
B 5.42 B 5.43

158
 Materials
Water vapour sorption [g / m2]

Water vapour adsorption [g /m2]

70 60
Loam plaster 25mm
Ceff = Σ (ci ρi di Ai)
60
50 50
Ceff Effective heat capacity
40
c Specific heat capacity [J/kgK]
40
30 Loam plaster 15mm
ρ Density [kg/m3]
20 d Thickness [m]
30
10 A Area of component facing the room [m2]
0 Loam plaster 5mm
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 20
i contains all the layers with thickness d up to 100 mm
Time of day [h] total wall thickness over area A that are not separated
Highly sorptive loam plaster,
plaster on loam building board (20 mm) 10 from the room by a layer of insulation (¬ < 0.1 W/mK,
Average value for Calcium silicate board Loam plaster 2mm R ≥ 0.25 m2K/W).
7 loam plasters in study Lime plaster Building components activated from both sides are
Loam plaster with Machine-applied 0 included with only half their values.
low sorption (3 mm) gypsum plaster 2 4 6 8 10 12
Lime-cement plaster Gypsum bonding Time [h]
plaster B 5.44 B 5.45 B 5.46
In the case of loam, wood or gypsum, the proc- material with one of the highest energy con- 1 : 0.65
ess of adsorption can gradually change to cap- tents, besides the high energy consumption, a
illary action, which also activates deeper layers great amount of water is also needed for treat- 10 billion t
Sand and 1 : 1.2 1:6
of the building material for sorption (Fig. B 5.44). ing and enriching the bauxite. And the waste gravel
1 : 0.1 1 : 11
The selection of sorptive materials should take water in turn contains highly toxic heavy metals. Stone Coal
Crude oil
into account climatic (e.g. typical climate fluc- On the other hand, aluminium is very durable
tuations) and use-related factors (e.g. a sudden and can be readily recycled. 1000 million t 1:2 Lignite
rise in moisture content due to a large number There are various ways of reducing the entropy Cement
1 : 14
of people). For example, a 2 mm coat of loam within the production: 1 : 0.3 Iron 1: 10
plaster requires only about two hours to reach Phosphate Clays,
its equilibrium moisture content when the rela- • Local extraction or processing 1: 34 Rock salt loams 100 million t
tive humidity rises from 50 to 80%, but a 15 mm • Reuse of scrap material or production waste Gypsum
Bauxite 1 : 0.9
coat can regulate the internal atmosphere for • Clear separation of process chains, e.g. Sulphur
more than 12 hours (Fig. B 5.45). through the production of recyclable, sorted Manganese ore
Potassium China clay
by-products salts
10 million t 1 : 420 Magnesite
• Minimal packaging Copper
Chromite Talcum,
Embodied energy • Short transport distances Annual production [t] in 1983 Zinc
Bentonite pyrophyllite Baryte
Asbestos Fluorite Feldspar
Titanium dioxide
We need substances to protect the operation of Entropy is also influenced by the way a material Lead 1: 19
the building against excessive energy con- is used, or rather by the form of construction. In 1 million t
sumption or to regulate the flow of heat. Those modern thermal insulation composite systems,
substances are converted into building mate- the layer of insulation is frequently bonded to Raw materials
1 : 7500
rials or building components by using energy. the substrate and then protected by a com- Silver Rucksacks
Gold
The production of building materials and com- plete surface covering bonded to the insula- Platinum 1 : 350 000
ponents and the construction work itself tie up tion. It is therefore no longer possible to sepa- B 5.47
a considerable proportion of the total energy rate the individual material layers.
requirement of a building (see “Strategies”,
p. 187, Fig. B 6.29). Even though the building Grey energy
industry generally produces long-lasting prod- The energy used during manufacture and a = λ/ρ c
ucts, it still remains by far the largest consumer hence tied up in the material is known as “grey
of resources. It is in this context that questions energy” or “embodied energy”. This defines the a Thermal diffusivity
arise as to the choice of a suitable material quantity of energy required for the production, λ Thermal conductivity [W/mK]
when considering energy consumption and transport, storage and disposal of a product. ρ Density [kg]
environmental impacts. This choice should be Looked at in absolute terms, the grey energy of c Specific heat capacity [J/kgK]
linked with a notable reduction in quantities of the existing building stock in Germany is – at a
B 5.48
materials and hence mass flows for the con- rough estimate – equal to 20 times the annual
struction process. energy requirement for operating the buildings.
As the energy efficiency of the building enve-
Entropy lope and the building services improves, so the Building material Density Spec. heat
Entropy represents the interface between con- quantity of grey energy in the materials is ρ capacity c
3
sumption of resources and consumption of increasing only marginally. But its proportion of [kg/m ] [kJ/kgK]
energy. Entropy ensues when raw materials the total energy consumption seen over the Stone 2700 1.0
components and materials flows merge during entire lifetime of a building is rising drastically. Concrete 2300 1.0
the production processes and can only be For a passive house, up to 50% of the total Wood-chip concrete 1100 1.2
Structural timber 500 1.6
separated again with a high energy input (see energy consumption remains embodied in the PCM –
“Fundamentals”, p. 43). The aim is therefore to materials over a 50-year lifetime (see “Strate- micro-encapsulated wax approx. 6001 2.12
generate fewer materials flows and keep them gies”, p. 187, Fig. B 6.29). Efficiency improve- Water, liquid 1000 4.2
separate as far as possible in order to minimise ments in the operation of buildings must there- 1
Bulk density (density approx. 1000 kg/m3)
the entropy. fore always follow efficiency improvements in 2
Plus 110 kJ/kg enthalpy of fusion in the temperature
For example, in the production of aluminium, a the use of materials (Fig. B 5.50). range 3–4°C
B 5.49

159
Materials

Choice of material
Maximising service lives
Minimising quantities of materials
Materials with favourable ecological audits
Homogeneous, untreated

Minimising materials flows

Constructional design
Material declarations
Differentiation according to service life
B 5.50 Themes for planning according to life cycles in Standard dimensions
order to reduce the grey energy Integration of inspection possibilities
Enabling further uses
B 5.51 Primary energy input (PEI) (= embodied energy)
of various forms of transport
B 5.52 Primary energy input (PEI) (= embodied energy) Construction
of structural materials in relation to various load-
Reversible connections
ing cases
Construction joints Maximising deconstruction
B 5.53 Energy parameters of materials typically used in
Prefabrication options
the building industry
B 5.50
Primary energy input for building materials it is employed as a sealant and coating, e.g. as been set up to ensure compatibility between
The primary energy input (PEI) describes the an alternative to bitumen sheeting, which has a products. The following groups have been set
grey energy in a building material (see “Funda- very much lower energy input. However, the up so far for Germany:
mentals”, p. 50). This parameter, which is high energy input must be considered in con-
specified for various reference units (normally junction with the fact that PTFE is used in much • Construction metals
kg or m3), makes a distinction between renew- thinner layers. The functional equivalent eases • Mineral wool insulating materials
able and non-renewable energy consumption. the comparison of different building materials • Wood-based products
The unit of measurement is the megajoule [MJ]; because it specifies the material thickness for • Calcium silicate bricks
100 MJ is equal to a calorific value of 2.8 l of the same performance (see “Appendix”, p. 262). • Aerated concrete
oil, and 3.6 MJ is equal to 1 kWh. One particularly good example for the consid- • Clay bricks
The energy required for the manufacture of a eration of the functional equivalent is the typical • Lightweight concrete
building material can differ by a factor of more structural materials timber, concrete, steel and • Calcium silicate insulating materials
than 2000 – based on the weight of the mate- aluminium. They are sized according to the • Lightweight aggregates
rial. High-energy materials are, for example, forces in the components; the ability to carry • Mineral premixed mortar
metals, glass and plastics; low-energy materi- tension or compression forces plus the elastic • Metal pipes
als are, for example, loam and gypsum. modulus therefore represent the governing
Armed with PEI data, the architect can investi- design criteria (Fig. B 5.52). Renewable raw materials
gate alternative building materials and will pref- A comparison of the parameters in Fig. B 5.53
erably choose those that offer the same per- Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) reveals that renewable raw materials like wood
formance for a lower proportion of grey energy. Data on the primary energy input of a product have a high calorific value compared to all
The transportation of products makes a contri- will in future be specified as part of the type III other building products. A large part of this
bution to the primary energy input which varies Environmental Product Declaration (EPD). This energy is embodied in the tree during its
and should not be underestimated (Fig. B 5.51). information is based on ISO 14025 “Environ- growth. For an assessment, the primary energy
mental labels and declarations” and is drawn input must therefore be expressed in terms of
Functional equivalent up by independent bodies using information renewable and non-renewable energy sources
With respect to the primary energy input, it provided by manufacturers. The standard plus the calorific value. In this case an increase
should always be remembered that building defines the standardised environmental state- in efficiency means using renewable energy
materials exhibit different efficiencies. Polytetra- ments required and therefore guarantees that sources to cover a large proportion of the PEI.
fluoroethylene (PTFE), also known as Teflon, is all the relevant environmental impacts of a By burning the wood after using the building
a synthetic material with one of the highest building material can be presented in an product, this embodied energy can be converted
energy inputs. Owing to its surface properties, understandable manner. Product groups have back into usable energy. But as the combustion

Material PEI PEI/compression PEI/tension PEI/elastic modulus

[MJ/m3] [J/kNm] [%] [J/kNm] [%] [J/kNm] [%]
Concrete
C 35/40 grade concrete 1764 50 83 % 551 100 % 0.05 76 %
Reinforced concrete 4098 60 100 % 551 100 % 0.07 100 %
(2% steel reinforcement)
Type of transport PEI PEI
non- renewable Masonry
renewable Calcium silicate bricks 2030 169 280 % – – – –
[MJ/t km] [MJ/t km] Clay bricks 1663 139 229 % – – – –
HGV, 22 t perm. laden weight, Timber
14.5 t payload, Structural timber, pine 609 72 118 % 87 16 % 0.06 80 %
85% utilisation 1.50 0.00031 Glued laminated timber 3578 358 592 % 421 76 % 0.33 469 %
Canal-going ship, Metals
approx. 1250 dwt, no currents 0.47 0.001 Steel (FE 360 B) 188 400 554 916 % 554 101 % 0.89 1281 %
Goods train 0.40 0.053 Weathering steel (WT St 27-2) 204 100 454 750 % 498 90 % 0.96 1388 %
Stainless steel (V2A) 411 840 824 1362 % 824 149 % 1.96 2827 %
Container ship,
Aluminium (EN AW-7022) 753 380 1838 3038 % 1838 333 % 10.76 15 513 %
approx. 27 500 dwt,
ocean-going 0.17 0.00004 Float glass 35 000 50 83 % 1167 212 % 0.50 721 %
B 5.51 B 5.52

160
 Materials

Material Ref. Calorific PEI PEI GWP

value value non renew. global w.
renew. potential
[MJ] [MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq]
Stone
Granite (long transport distances), polished, ρ = 2750 kg/m3 1 m3 9837 332 626
Marble (moderate transport distances), polished, ρ = 2700 kg/m3 1 m3 6749 249 422
Slate (local), ρ = 2700 kg/m3 1 m3 4608 165 286
Sandstone (local), sawn, ρ = 2500 kg/m3 1 m3 4099 153 253
Loam
Compacted loam, ρ = 2200 kg/m3 1 m3 158 1 9.7
Loam bricks (sun-dried), ρ = 1200 kg/m3 1 m3 1257 4 74.0
Building materials with mineral binders
Mortars and screeds
Anhydrite mortar/screed, comp. strength class 20, 2350 kg/m3 1 m3 655 11.0 43
Magnesia mortar/screed, comp. strength class 20, 2000 kg/m3 1 m3 2439 9.9 348
Cement mortar/screed, comp. strength class 20, 2250 kg/m3 1 m3 2161 27.0 389
Gypsum mortar, class P IVa, ρ = 1300 kg/m3 1 m3 1477 9.6 177
Lime-cement mortar, class P IIa, ρ = 1500 kg/m3 1 m3 2675 28.0 448
Masonry units
process simply releases the carbon dioxide Calcium silicate, ρ = 1800 kg/m3 1 m3 2030 117 247
that was tied up in the wood during its growth, Concrete (paving), ρ = 2500 kg/m3 1 m3 1990 46 310
renewable raw materials are also known as car- Aerated concrete, ρ = 400 kg/m3 1 m3 1484 81 186
bon sinks. From this point of view, the greater Lightweight concrete, ρ = 600 kg/m3 1 m3 787 35 97
use of renewable raw materials should be seen Concrete
as positive. In situ concrete (C 25/30), ρ = 2340 kg/m3 1 m3 1549 17 251
In situ concrete (C 35/45), ρ = 2360 kg/m3 1 m3 1764 23 320
However, these days most timber or wood- Precast concrete element, 2% steel (FE 360 B, C 35/45), ρ = 2500 kg/m3 1 m3 4098 86 455
based products no longer undergo a natural
Boards
drying process, but rather an artificial one mak- Fibre-cement board, ρ = 1750 kg/m3 1 m3 26839 116 2200
ing use of heating plant. This shortens storage Gypsum wallboard (type A), ρ = 850 kg/m3 1 m3 2655 251 150
times and increases the productivity of the Ceramic materials
resource in microeconomic terms, but the CO2 Vertically perforated clay bricks, external wall, ρ = 670 kg/m3 1 m3 1485 638 95
emissions caused by this process can cancel Clay bricks, internal wall, ρ = 750 kg/m3 1 m3 1663 715 107
out the positive effect of the overall balance Solid engineering bricks (KMz), ρ = 1600 kg/m3 1 m3 4776 39 301
(Fig. B 5.54). Product forms similar to the raw Glazed stoneware, ρ = 2000 kg/m3 1 m3 6322 0.060 393
material plus fewer technical processing steps Unglazed stoneware, ρ = 2000 kg/m3 1 m3 7160 0.070 445
increase the energy value of renewable raw Bituminous materials
materials. Pure straight-run bitumen (B 100-B 70) 1 kg 45.6 0.010 0.37
Polymer-modified bitumen (PmB 65 A) 1 kg 35.3 0.020 0.50
The problem of availability and the assessment
of the obtaining of the raw materials still remains, Wood and wood-based products
Sawn timber
however, and is particularly obvious in the case Pine, 12% m.c. (local), oven-dry density 450 kg/m3 1 m3 8775 609 9512 - 7921
of timber, wood-based products or cellulose. Western red cedar, 12% m.c. (North America), o.-dry density 630 kg/m3 1 m3 12285 4485 14359 - 9071
We assume that these renewable raw materials Teak, 12% m.c. (Brazil), oven-dry density 660 kg/m3 1 m3 12870 3217 13435 - 10131
can be permanently regenerated. This premise Wood-based products
is correct in the context of a temperate climate Glued laminated timber, 12% m.c., oven-dry density 465 kg/m3 1 m3 9300 3578 13870 - 6621
like that of Central Europe because such a 3-ply core plywood, 12% m.c., oven-dry density 430 kg/m3 1 m3 8618 2617 9387 - 6481
Veneer plywood (BFU), 5% m.c., oven-dry density 490 kg/m3 1 m3 10175 4729 15041 - 6361
humid climate enables a high biomass produc- Particleboard (P 5, V 100), 8.5% m.c., oven-dry density 690 kg/m3 1 m3 13998 5818 12614 - 8211
tivity per unit area. But even renewable raw Oriented strand board (OSB), 4% m.c., oven-dry density 620 kg/m3 1 m3 12555 4593 16479 - 8391
materials are subject to a maximum production Medium density fibrebd. (MDF), 7.5% m.c., o.-dry density 725 kg/m3 1 m3 15843 9767 12495 - 5151
speed that limits the supply to the market. This Metal
speed is especially relevant in the case of Ferrous metals
scarce resources or slow-growing organic Cast iron, casting (GG 20; secondary), GJL 1 kg 10 0.49 0.97
Structural steel, hot-rolled section (FE 360 B) 1 kg 24 0.54 1.70
resources, as the severely depleted stocks of
Steel mesh as concrete reinforcement (secondary) 1 kg 13 0.24 0.83
red cedar in North America bear witness to, for Weathering steel, cold-rolled strip (WT St 37-2), 2 mm 1 kg 26 0.56 2.00
example. Stainless steel (V 2 A, X 5 CrNi 18-10), 2 mm 1 kg 54 6.30 4.80
Non-ferrous metals
Aluminium alloy (EN AW-7022 [AlZn5Mg3Cu]), sheet, 2 mm 1 kg 271 38 22.0
Lead, sheet, 2 mm 1 kg 34 1.9 2.3
Titanium-zinc (pure zinc Z1, 0.003% titanium), sheet, 2 mm 1 kg 45 3.8 2.6
Copper, sheet, 2 mm 1 kg 37 4.6 2.5
Glass
Float glass, ρ = 2500 kg/m3 1 kg 14 0.08 0.88
Synthetic materials
Polyethylene (PE-HD), film 1 kg 41 75 0.09 1.82
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC-P), compound for waterproof sheeting 1 kg 17 61 2.10 2.28
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA “Perspex”), panel 1 kg 24 87 0.29 3.39
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE “Teflon”), coating 1 kg 8,3 295 2.50 16.20
Polyester resin (UP) 1 kg 32 115 0.45 4.68
Epoxy resin (EP) 1 kg approx. 30 137 0.78 6.47
Chloroprene rubber (CR “Neoprene”), bearing 1 kg approx. 25 96 0.96 3.65
Silicone (SI), sealing compound 1 kg approx. 25 91 30.0 4.07
B 5.53

161
Materials

PEI (non-renewable) [MJ/m2]

Primary energy input [MJ/m2ERA]
Global warming potential [kg CO2 eq]

120 6000 2000

100
80 5000 10% Building services 1600
60 20% Fitting-out
4000
40
1200
20 14% Facade
3000
0
Structure 800
-20
2000
-40 56%
-60 400
1000
-80
-100 0 0

thermal insulation
Mosaic 10 mm Standard Parquet Solid End-

Render, plaster,
Floor coverings
Building services External walls

Roof coverings

Waterproofing
parquet solid wd. wood laminate floor- grain wd.

components
Fitting-out Suspended floors

Transparent
blocks blocks boards blocks

Solid walls
Insulation

Wall/soffit
Internal walls Columns

Coatings
cladding

Screeds
External

linings
Tree growth Renovation Roofs Basement
Production Thermal recycling Windows Excavation
Installation Total balance Glass facades
B 5.54 B 5.55 B 5.56
Embodied energy of building components • Cladding to external walls energy, the facades 14% and the internal fitting-
Building materials must always be considered • Transparent elements out 20% (Fig. B 5.55).
in a functional context. They are joined, con- • Roof coverings Optimising the design is a particularly good
nected, assembled and bonded in many differ- • Floor coverings way of reducing the grey energy. Durable,
ent ways. They thus form functional layers that • Wall and soffit finishes lightweight forms of construction are generally
can be compared with one another. For example, • Plaster and render preferable to heavyweight forms. Every addi-
the cladding to a facade cannot be properly • Coatings tional kilogram of building material employed
assessed without taking into account its fixings increases the usage of resources, the asso-
and the necessary supporting construction. In There is potential for optimisation without plac- ciated environmental impact and the energy
contrast to the building material assessment, ing restrictions on the aesthetics, provided the consumption.
the functional assessment per square metre quantities of materials are reduced. In terms of
results in differences of “only” a factor of max. the as-built condition, it is mostly the functional Embodied energy in the life cycle
100. parts of a layer, e.g. fixings, that offer the great- The weighting of building components with
In principle, we divide functional layers into two est optimisation possibilities. respect to energy requirements shifts over the
groups: invisible components, which are This can be demonstrated using the example life cycle because the components remain in
required to satisfy specific requirements in the of floor coverings, where omitting the adhesive the building for different lengths of time, i.e.
building, and visible components, which normally used to bond the covering to the have different service lives. The necessary
besides functional requirements also have to substrate results in a vital energy-saving (Fig. process of renewal entails further energy
satisfy aesthetics and the perceived value of B 5.60). requirements during the period of use.
the structure. Invisible functional layers can be Fig. B 5.61 shows the embodied energy of a
optimised by comparing their embodied energy. Building component groups typical suspended floor construction. In the as-
Among the non-structural elements, these The various building component groups of a built condition, 37% of the grey energy is found
include: building tie up different amounts of primary in the structure and 40% in the floor covering.
energy (Fig. B 5.56; see also “Appendix”, p. However, if we consider this component over a
• Insulation 262). In virtually all buildings, the largest part of defined period of 100 years, certainly not
• Solid walls the embodied energy is usually that in the load- unusual for a building, then – in contrast to the
• Screeds bearing structure. Other building component loadbearing construction – the floor covering
• Roof waterproofing groups with large amounts of embodied energy will be replaced several times during that peri-
• Waterproofing are the facade and the internal fitting-out. This od. The accumulated cost of the floor covering
statement is demonstrated by the “Chriesbach over 100 years therefore accounts for many
But there is also potential in visible components Forum” (see Example 15, pp. 240–42), where times the cost of the initial floor covering; over
such as facades. Such components include: the structure accounts for 56% of the grey this period, it accounts for about 80% of the

Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative

cost cost cost

r a ycle Difference
ove
la t ive -year c approx.
u 5 over a 30%
Cum, 30-, 1 Cumulative
ea r cycle Difference
100 % 60- 100 % 60-, 40 -, 20 -y 100 %
approx.
Cu
90 % 90 % 95 % 60-, 4 mulative ove 70 %
0
85 % with fe -, 20-year cr a
wer co y
75 % 75 % mpon cle
ents
60 %
50 % 50 %
70 %

15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 Years 20 40 60 80 100 120 Years 20 40 60 80 100

a b c B 5.57

162
 Materials

total embodied energy. The more frequently a embodied energy – demonstrated using the
building component is renewed, the more sig- example of floor coverings (Figs. B 5.60 and
nificant is its contribution to the grey energy of 5.62). The especially durable layers within the
the total building. construction should therefore be arranged
This represents a starting point for low energy accordingly. Modern facade constructions illus-
demands in the life cycle. In terms of optimis- trate the problem of separating the layers. It is
ing the choice of materials, the nature and not always possible to design all the layers in
progress of the life cycle therefore takes on a order of their durability. For example, a layer of
key role alongside the material properties. The insulation is much less durable than a water-
aim is to match the choice of materials and the proofing layer, so the insulation should thus be
constructional assembly to the planned lifetime, readily accessible. No reliable durability values
type of use and anticipated usage processes. are available as yet for certain layers such as
Energy optimisation processes then usually go bonded vapour barriers and airtight membranes.
hand in hand with financial savings. Detachable connections permit inspection and,
if necessary, replacement of such layers.
Durability Secondly, individual building components can
In theory, durability describes the potential for in some circumstances fulfil not only the func- B 5.58

Frequency
of damage [ n ]
a building material to maintain the function(s) tional requirements assigned to them, but also
assigned to it for a certain length of time. some of the requirements of other layers; this is
To determine durability, we compare the another way of reducing the embodied energy
lengths of time for which building components (Fig. B 5.57c). For example, a mastic asphalt
survive undamaged in a defined usage situa- subfloor can be replaced by a terrazzo screed,
tion. This depends, for example, on specific which results in a very hardwearing surface. If 50 %
potential risks or the building context. The out- the number of layers is reduced, this usually 90 %

Value of component [%]

100
come is a normal distribution curve, which results in energy-efficiency and economic bene-
describes the upper and lower limits of a typi- fits. Fig. B 5.66 shows the ESO Hotel in Chile, a 75
cal usage period for probabilities from 50 to building in which the wearing surfaces are –
90%, divided into time periods (Fig. B 5.59). where appropriate – mostly the surfaces of the 50
The durability is therefore specified as a time- loadbearing construction.
span corresponding to usage influences and Thirdly, high-maintenance building compo- 25
the associated risk factors. The lower value nents – building services elements especially – 0
describes the durability for standard planning must be readily accessible (Fig. B 5.88). Leav- 20 40 60 80
and usage, the higher value relates to optimised ing the building services exposed results in Time [a ]
planning and usage contexts. optimum accessibility. Otherwise, ducts and B 5.59
shafts, systematic routing and zoning permits
70 GWP 100 (global warming potential) [kg CO2eq]
Sawtooth model the straightforward installation of new technol-
AP (acidification potential) [g SO2eq]
One way of illustrating the durability of building ogy media and the necessary flexibility. The 60
PEI (non-renewable) [MJ]
materials and building components is the so- lifespans of building services are frequently 50
called sawtooth model, which shows the differ- overestimated, and the fact that upgrading and
ent durabilities of building components. The technological overhauls may be necessary 40
model assumes that building components are within a few years is often overlooked. Outdated 30
used right up to the limit of their durability building services components then frequently
before being replaced. The cumulative cost of lose their benefits, but can be incorporated into 20
this is also shown (Fig. B 5.57a). If building the building services in a new context, like, for 10
components last longer and can therefore remain example, defunct chimneys, which although no
in the building for longer, the cumulative cost is longer used as flues for exhaust gases can 0
(> 30%) adhesive

reduced considerably (Fig. B 5.57b). If we use nevertheless be used as shafts for electric
(< 5%) disper-

Solvent-based
sion adhesive
Low-solvents

Polyurethane
Solvent-free

fewer different building materials, this usually cables or heating pipes.

Steel nails,
dispersion
adhesive

adhesive

results in a better overall balance because the

40 mm
material-related replacement cycles coincide “Disrupting factors” in the sawtooth model
more often. It is not always technical- or material-related
The sawtooth model therefore reveals the energy deficiencies that trigger a process of renewal. It B 5.60
efficiency and the economic potential of mate- is often also building services, safety, security
rial optimisation with respect to the durability. and aesthetic factors or a change of function
Three general statements are relevant for that make replacement necessary.
B 5.54 CO2 balance of various wooden floor coverings
design and planning: Changes to statutory instruments and regula- over their life cycles
tions and also technical progress are not B 5.55 Primary energy input (PEI) (= embodied energy)
• Separation of layers according to durability always wholly foreseeable. And in Europe, EU of the “Chriesbach Forum” according to building
• Material synergy legislation now constitutes the overriding crite- component groups
B 5.56 Primary energy input (PEI) (= embodied energy)
• Maintenance intervention ria. EU legislation formulates the approximate
of various functional layers
direction, which is subsequently implemented B 5.57 Durabilities of various functional layers in the
Firstly, technical, functional building compo- in concrete terms via national legislation. Gain- form of a sawtooth model
nents or fitting-out layers with different service ing an overview of current trends, especially B 5.58 Private house in timber, Bregenzerwald (A),
lives should be joined together in such a way with respect to building services and the energy- 1999, Dietrich Untertrifaller
B 5.59 Calculating durabilities based on the probability
that they can be renewed without impairing or efficiency quality of buildings, is useful when of damage to the material
damaging adjacent components. Such types of planning for future needs. B 5.60 Energy parameters of various floor covering
construction normally decrease the amount of fixing methods

163
Materials

Replacement [ % ]
PEI (non-renewable) [MJ]
100
Global warming potential (GWP) [%]

2500 100
Carpeting Carpeting
90 PVC
Cement screed Ceramic tiles
80 40 % 2000 80
Linoleum
Mineral wool
70 Stone tiles
Concrete
60 80 % 1500 60
Gypsum plaster
50

40 1000 40
Statistical replacement
30 probability
20 37 % 500 20

10 7% Average

0 0 0
As-built After 100 years 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
Time [a] Time [a]
B 5.61 B 5.62 B 5.63
The intensity of usage cannot always be even though replacement for functional rea- tation to suit known and anticipated require-
defined in advance during the planning phase sons would not be necessary until after approx. ments.
and can turn out to be much higher or lower 55–70 years (Fig. B 5.63). A strategy of frequent maintenance can help to
than predicted. Designers are recommended The need to upgrade and modernise results in increase the economic efficiency of a building
to use robust forms of construction and better- the replacement of many building components. over its life cycle. The durability of the materials,
quality building components when designing Modernisation is brought about less by life e.g. for internal fitting-out, can then be kept low
buildings for the general public. cycles and more by refurbishment and develop- so that adaptation can be realised according to
Market demands and trends have always been ment schemes, changes of user, marketing market needs.
and still are the reasons for building activities. problems or other events. In doing so, individu- The usefulness and market value of a building
Planners do not just satisfy a demand, but rather al measures involving certain building compo- are, however, influenced by the maintenance
create needs, set fashions and form styles nents with different service lives are usually strategy and also exhibit a cyclic behaviour. An
through their activities. Appraisals should be combined into larger modernisation packages. investment phase is followed by a slow degra-
seen very much in the light of the time in which The sawtooth model mentioned above illus- dation of the building components, which is
they were made. If the high durability of build- trates, as a theoretical model, the replacement also reflected in the value of the building or the
ing components really is to be exploited, a too processes for building materials and compo- type of occupancy. Comprehensive modernisa-
fashionable, trendy design can easily lead to nents, but supplies only minimal information tion measures secure the long-term usability,
premature renewal of components even before with regard to sensible maintenance and repair possibly also a change of use.
the expiry of their technical service lives owing procedures. In that respect, detachable con- On the other hand, differing replacement cycles
to “visual wear”. On the other hand, lucid, high- nections and clear separation between building coordinated with the needs of small functional
quality but nevertheless contemporary archi- component layers are necessary in order to zones result in savings in grey energy and a
tectural statements retain their aesthetic value guarantee renewal and replacement with mini- reduction in the ecological consequences
over a long period. For example, the Alt-Erlaa mal damage to other components. because such cycles can be better adapted to
residential development in Vienna, built between the respective maintenance needs of each com-
1973 and 1985, is very popular among its Optimisation of maintenance cycles ponent (Fig. B 5.68). The value of a structure
present occupants despite the fact that similar Two opposing strategies can be worked out for therefore remains on a constant level, which also
buildings erected during that same period are optimising maintenance: long cycles with ensures a constant return on investment (ROI).
today viewed highly critically (Fig. B 5.64). extensive, one-off measures, or short cycles The components can be optimised for especially
Even on the level of individual building compo- with many small measures. long service lives and renewed in small packag-
nents, service lives are often subjected to cer- Joint replacement cycles encompassing only a es of measures. However, the ensuing ongoing
tain cycles that reflect certain tastes. An anal- few building components entail a predictable, process of replacement restricts the usage flexi-
ysis of the number of replacement processes high investment and high energy input at bility of the building, and in the case of a com-
for a WC reveals that replacement after 25 years defined times. Such maintenance can also prehensive change of use, many still usable
takes place primarily for reasons of fashion, include conversion measures to enable adap- components will also have to be replaced.

B 5.64 B 5.65 B 5.66

164
 Materials

B 5.61 Global warming potential of a suspended floor

construction for the as-built condition and after
100 years
B 5.62 Primary energy input (PEI) (= embodied energy)
of various floor coverings over a time period of
100 years
B 5.63 Cumulative replacement probability for a sanitary
fitting
B 5.64 Alt-Erlaa residential development, Vienna (A) 1985,
Harry Glück, Requat & Reinthaller & Partner,
Kurt Hlaweniczka
B 5.65 Planning geared to lifetime of building and
materials, Info-Box, Berlin (D), 1995,
Schneider + Schumacher
B 5.66 Lifetime optimisation by reducing the number of
building components, Hotel, Cerro Paranal (RCH),
2002, Auer + Weber
B 5.67 Internal fitting-out for a cosmetics business, New
York (USA), 2000, Architecture Research Institute
B 5.68 IInternal fitting-out for a private house, Vila Nova
de Famalicão (P), 1994, Alvaro Siza Vieira
B 5.67 B 5.68
If the planning remit presumes a defined, short other hand, owing to their low-tech status and elements in viable planning for the needs of the
timespan, like with temporary structures or the high material consumption, building materials future. And it is precisely here that we find the
internal fitting-out for retail premises, the dura- are predestined for considerable improvements potential for innovation provided by the advance
bility of the materials can be chosen to suit the in efficiency. Other sectors, like the automotive planning of the life cycle.
intended lifespan (Fig. B 5.65). or electronics industries, have pledged them-
The longer the expected period of use of a selves to saving resources and increasing effi- Life cycle analysis methods
building, the more important it is to consider ciency, and derive competitive advantages Life cycle analyses are used to evaluate the
the usage phase. If there is a long-term require- from that. Without new impetus from within the complex influences. They balance the entire
ment for a certain type of interior space, as is building sector, new developments or compa- lifespan of a building material, building compo-
usually the case with residential buildings, high rable pledges, political demands for similar nent or whole building. To do this, all the stages
durability in conjunction with smaller packages objectives in the construction industry are cer- – obtaining the raw material, production,
of measures is usually the best solution. The tainly only a matter of time. In order that mate- processing, transport, usage, subsequent
quality of the internal fitting-out and the small- rials remain available permanently, open mate- usage, disposal – are evaluated. In principle,
format usage increase the materials and energy rials chains, especially those for non-renewable there are two different methods: looking at the
requirements (Fig. B 5.68). raw materials, must be closed wherever possible. required material inputs or the resulting environ-
In buildings with variable requirements, grow- mental effects (Fig. B 5.71).
ing usage expectations and correspondingly Life cycle approach
better internal fitting-out mean that long-lasting Materials-flow analysis
components are not fully exploited. In such Considering the life cycles of materials repre- The MIPS (Material Input Per Service unit) con-
cases the planning should take into account sents a new and to a certain extent not yet cept introduced by Friedrich Schmidt-Bleek in
renewal processes and, if applicable, second- comprehensively defined approach which 1994 adds up the material inputs necessary for
ary uses for components and materials (Fig. brings together knowledge from various social producing and using a building product or
B 5.67). and economic sectors. However, the total life component. All natural materials required for
cycle cannot be fully predicted and planned. the production are collated as “material intensi-
So it is therefore often the need to guarantee ties”. They form the material input related to the
Materials in the life cycle options, e.g. adaptation to suit actual usage self-weight of the material, measured in kilo-
requirements that is important. “Flexible fit” gram input per kilogram output. The unit of
Considering the embodied energy in materials strategies are suitable here: increased durabil- measurement used for energy is the kilogram
reveals the importance of the life cycle model. ity to prolong the potential period of use, simpler per megajoule [kg/MJ].
Besides the energy consumption, every use of internal fitting-out to enable changes to the Material intensities are distinguished according
every material triggers environmental impacts internal layout, reversible connections between to sources of resources as follows:
due to the resulting flow of resources. Starting components to ease deconstruction, and recov-
with the need for a building, such flows can ery of materials for the building materials life • abiotic resources [kg]
only be reduced, not eliminated (Fig. B 5.70). cycle. • biotic resources [kg]
Considering the embodied energy alone can • soil [kg]
Consumption of resources force a decrease in the use of materials (Fig. • water [l]
The availability of raw materials was critical for B 5.50). Complying with constructional necessi- • air [m3]
the development of prosperity in the industrial- ties, e.g. through comprehensive exploitation of
ised countries. It was only through the exploita- material capacities, simple assemblies, adapted The total material input, also known as the
tion and processing of those materials that durability, use of renewable materials, leads to “ecological rucksack”, is the sum of the self-
industrial prosperity became possible at all. a much lower consumption of both energy and weight of the product and its material intensi-
According to the rules of the marketplace, resources. ties (Fig. B 5.72).
dwindling resources makes a commodity However, further factors come into play in the This procedure reveals materials flows and
expensive; and permanent availability of other life cycle approach, e.g. secondary emissions identifies the main resources used per unit of
resources is not guaranteed, as the disputes due to cleaning or changes to the interior air mass (Fig. B 5.47).
involving gas, oil and water are already proving. due to emissions from materials. Many of these The MIPS concept takes into account all the
Worldwide, buildings consume about 50% of all factors can only be considered and described conversion steps necessary for the production
resources in their construction and operation. as potential factors. They are not necessarily and offers planners the chance to join up exist-
They represent the critical factor for dwindling triggered by negative aspects and indeed do ing materials flows. The use of just a few recy-
resources and environmental problems. On the not have to be used positively, but they are key clable, flexible materials in the material concept

165
Materials

B 5.69 Process flow chart for drawing up a life cycle

assessment (LCA)
B 5.70 The life cycle of a building and the associated LCA framework Application
planning activities Evaluation
B 5.71 Input/output relationship within the production
chain of a building material Goal and scope
B 5.72 Schematic presentation and calculation of a definition Checking Development and
building material according to the MIPS concept completeness, improvement
Assessment
B 5.73 Apportionment of emissions using the example sensitivity, of products
of the global warming potential consistency
Conclusions
B 5.74 Apportionment of LCA parameters by country to Strategic
form a cumulative single value Inventory analysis planning
Recommendations

Presentation of Public
Determining the decision-making
key statements results
processes
Impact assessment
Marketing

B 5.69
increases the potential for subsequent usage. The “Round Table on Sustainable Construction” individual parameters; an overall interpretation
In global terms, building materials thus accu- initiated by the Federal Ministry of Transport, is difficult. Some European countries have
mulate in the construction industry over time. Building & Urban Affairs, has specified (for developed standards that enable an LCA to
This means that closed life cycles are possible Germany) the following categories for the veri- be expressed as an overall parameter. For this,
to a large extent, which promotes the cradle- fication of environmental effects caused by the modelling and the weighting of the para-
to-grave economy. building materials: meters have been specified in legislation and
However, materials-flow analyses are limited in are consequently not necessarily scientifically
their options for identifying the harmful environ- • Primary Energy Input, renewable/non-renew- precise (Fig. B 5.74).
mental effects of individual processes. The able (= embodied energy), PEI [MJ] In Germany, the Federal Environment Agency
analyses cannot be broken down according to • Global Warming Potential, GWP 100 has devised a method for classifying and prior-
the different effects of climate change, loss of [kg CO2 eq] itising the impact categories. In this method,
biodiversity or human toxicity, for instance. • Ozone Depletion Potential, ODP [kg CCL3F eq] the extent of the impact (global – local; perma-
• Acidification Potential, AP [kg SO2 eq] nent – temporary), the current environmental
Life cycle assessment • Eutrophication (= excessive fertilisation) status for the impact category (harmful – harm-
DIN EN ISO 14040-44, which came into force in Potential, EP [kg PO4 3- eq] less) and the contribution of the impact cate-
2000, defines the life cycle assessment (LCA). • Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential, gory to the total burden in Germany (large –
Taking materials flows as its starting point, the POCP [kg C2H4 eq] small) form part of the evaluation.
LCA converts these into effects (e.g. emissions). The results of the LCA for a building material The results of an LCA and the conclusions that
The LCA can be applied not only to building will in future be given in the type III European can be drawn may change depending on the
products, but also to every process, e.g. a Product Declarations (EPD) to form a useful limits chosen for the audit. The embodied energy
service, a production procedure or an economic design aid (see p. 161). In contrast to the MIPS described above is a central element in an
unit (e.g. a company in general). An LCA gen- concept, however, the effects of the individual LCA. There are three levels to be considered
erally comprises three parts interconnected via categories cannot be added together to form a here: building materials, functional layers and
defined iteration loops (Fig. B 5.69): generally applicable total value. This is why building elements.
there is a problem with the weighting of the
• The inventory analysis determines which
materials and energy conversion processes
are necessary for a product and its produc- Operation Deconstruction Project development
tion. The limits for the audit, the so-called cut-
off criteria, are normally set to at least 1% Energy requirements Recycling Location
Facility management Disposal Usage
material mass and primary energy consump- Existing building fabric
Servicing
tion. The cut-off criteria should be checked in Maintenance/cleaning Financing
the case of materials known to cause environ- Repairs Period of use
mental problems (e.g. plasticisers in synthetic
materials). Modernisation
• The impact assessment compiles the emis-
sions of all materials and energy conversion Upgrading
Adaptation/extension
steps. For this assessment, the various emis- Planning
Conversion
sions are collated in groups with the same Refurbishment
environmental effects (e.g. global warming Preliminary design
potential) and expressed as an equivalent of Detailed design
Commissioning • energy minimisation
a dangerous substance known to be heavily
responsible for that harmful effect (Fig. B 5.73). Acceptance Selection of materials
Documentation • production of materials
• The assessment is divided into steps for deter- • dangerous substances
Energy performance certificate
mining the core statements plus evaluation • durability
and presenting the results. Data relevant to • deconstruction options
Construction
the assessment but not included in the audit, Planning the works
e.g. emissions during use or durability, can Site supervision • minimising materials
also be presented. In addition, recommenda- Recycling of waste Specification
tions for the use of the product can be derived. Quality control Handover
B 5.70

166
 Materials

Input Output
If we summarise the statements of the LCA, we environment, e.g. sludge containing heavy
discover which building components cause the metals in the mining of bauxite and the subse- Material from Emissions
Obtaining raw materials
greatest emissions. The areas in which our quent accumulation in hydrological and food- resources to air
planning activities can unfold their greatest stuffs cycles. So an LCA evaluates not only the
effectiveness are revealed (Fig. B 5.78). Further- raw materials extraction itself, but also the type Natural space Treatment Emissions
more, an LCA helps us to make decisions of extraction. In the case of stone, the ecologi- to water
(Prelim.) products
regarding forms of construction and types of cal rucksack is low according to the MIPS con- Product manufacture
Emissions
material. cept – a ratio of 1:1.2 (Fig. B 5.47). An LCA Auxiliary materials
and sundry items to soil
comes to a similar result, but only when mechan-
Usage
Materials and production ical methods such as sawing to obtain the By-products
Energy media
The energy and resources productivity in Ger- stone (e.g. like with the majority of limestones)
many should have increased to such an extent can be employed. If a stone (e.g. granite) has Electricity Recycling/disposal Waste
by 2020 that our current standard of living will to be blasted, the use of explosives represents
Calculating the Calculating
be safeguarded for the future without the con- a high energy usage whose emissions can
consumption of the emissions
sumption of additional natural resources. Besides hardly be controlled (Fig. B 5.75). From the resources (MIPS) (LCA)
increasing the proportion of renewable raw viewpoint of an LCA, the use of limestone can-
materials in construction, production-oriented not be compared with granite because the B 5.71
Calculating an MIPS
optimisation can choose between two strategies: environmental impact of granite is four times
Firstly, using materials produced locally creates that of limestone (see “Appendix”, p. 262). Σ (Mi · MIMi) = MI= MIPS · S
employment locally, but can sometimes lead to
higher costs. The shortening of transport routes Production processes
and the (usually) better controllability of the Building materials are usually the result of long Materials Material Total Material Service
environmental impacts can contribute to a high process chains. In the sense of a low entropy, employed intensity material input per unit
(e.g. steel, of materials input service unit
resources efficiency and result in less pollution. the production should therefore be as efficient glass) (rucksacks)
Secondly, the main focus when using materials as possible. In the case of glass, for example,
procured on the global building materials mar- the processing of almost 100% of the raw M1 · MIM1 e.g. steel plus rucksack
ket is not the individual construction itself, but materials in the end results in semi-finished + M2 · MIM2 e.g. glass plus rucksack
rather the increased efficiency of the materials products. Defective material is fed back into
+ M3 · MIM3 e.g. PVC plus rucksack
employed. These should then turn out to be the manufacturing cycle, which cuts the pro-
+ ...
particularly optimised, low-resources forms of duction energy required by up to 25%.
construction. The more efficient use of such On the other side of the equation to the reduc-
materials must then outweigh the increased tion in entropy required for ecological reasons, end product (1 unit, e.g. a car)
environmental impact due to, for example, we sometimes find economic aspects such as
transport. large differences in wages between individual B 5.72
Global Length Increase in
countries or different environmental stipulations warming of time concentration
Obtaining raw materials at national level. Labour-intensive fitting-out potential in atmo- since indus-
The quarries and mines supplying mineral and materials are frequently produced in low-wage [kg CO2eq] sphere [a] trialisation
metallic raw materials entail the consumption of countries. Although the price of the product is Carbon 1 50 – 200 28 %
land and/or subsequent settlement, the nega- acceptable to the market, this must be weighed dioxide (CO2)
tive economic and ecological repercussions of against the much higher emissions due to the Methane 21 9 – 15 146 %
which should be minimised. The relationships much longer transport routes (Fig. B 5.51). (CH4)
are readily apparent in open-cast mining, e.g. Efficiency in resources is to a large extent Nitrous oxide 310 120 13 %
the stone quarries of Carrara. But even the dependent on the method of construction, which (N2O)
deepest German open-cast lignite mine (Ham- influences – essentially also determined by the Fluorocarbons 6500 50 000 from 0 ppt 1
bach) reveals the negative ecological effects: quality of the planning and the preparation of (CF4 u. a.) to 72 ppt
the ratio of excavated soil to lignite extracted is the work – the intelligent use of materials, the HFCs 11 700 264 no data
7.2:1. Open-cast mining calls for a lowering of extent, durability and reusability of building (CHF3 etc.)
the water table. For every 1 t of lignite there is materials, but also the careful use of materials Sulphur 23 900 3200 from 0 ppt
4–7 t of water; so on average 11 t of material in the construction process in order to minimise hexafluoride (SF6) to 3 – 4 ppt
1
must be moved to obtain 1 t of lignite. Flora mistakes and wastage. In addition to mass pro- ppt = parts per trillion

and fauna change in the vicinity of the open- duction, current methods also enable custom- B 5.73
cast mine, and the stability of the ground, ised production, i.e. the bespoke production of
embankments in particular, is impaired. building components according to a specifica- Ecoindikator NL Ökopunkte CH
The evaluation of such consequences reveals tion which can respond to particular boundary
both ecological and economic conflicts. For conditions such as the plot, the geometry of
instance, open gravel pits can offer rare ani- existing structures or other requirements. The “Resources” Emissions
mals new habitats, and whole landscapes can spectrum of prefabrication stretches from indi- to air
be given a new appearance through such vidual materials to components and right up to
open-cast mining, e.g. the former industrial system building and complete buildings.
Resources

landscape at IBA Fürst-Pückler-Land near Emissions

“Ecosystems” to surface
Cottbus (D). However, the subsequent use of a waters
quarrying or mining area should always be
guaranteed and, furthermore, restoration and
rehabilitation concepts should be specified in Emissions
advance. “Human Health” to soil
Only the LCA takes account of secondary pol-
lutant emissions and their relevance for the
B 5.74

167
Materials

Forms of construction Construction process and processing

The discussion surrounding lightweight or Efficient processing appropriate to the material
heavyweight forms of construction crops up reduces the amount of waste. Close-tolerance
again and again in residential work in particu- production, e.g. with prefabricated parts,
lar. Both forms of construction have their own adherence to modular dimensions derived from
specific merits and demerits, which do not nor- the materials themselves or materials that
mally permit a decision to be made in advance. adapt to suit the location (e.g. blown-in insulat-
Heavyweight forms of construction require ing materials), reduce the wastage caused by
about 20% more grey energy than lightweight cutting to size.
structures (Fig. B 5.77). However, the shape of In order to reduce the “inert masses”, uncon-
the building plays a role here (see “Urban taminated excavated material can be reused
space and infrastructure”, p. 69). on the plot itself, e.g. for landscaping, although
In order to benefit from the advantages of both the compaction possibilities do determine the
forms of construction, hybrid forms can some- further uses quite considerably. Costs fall when
times be employed, e.g. a timber structure with waste does not have to be deposited in landfill;
a solid, stiffening concrete core. and there are no transport emissions either.
B 5.75 It is true for virtually every building material that Greater care is required if waste is to be turned
the less of it used to achieve a defined per- into new raw materials or used for energy pur-
formance standard, the lower is the embodied poses. Since February 2007 all waste in Ger-
energy over the entire life cycle. The potential many must be recycled according to the Cradle-
for savings can often be found in safety factors to-Grave Economy Act (KrW/AbfG), provided
far higher than those required by legislation. this is economically viable (see p. 174).
Constructional innovation and architectural cre- The “Clean Building Site” campaign in Germany
ativity can help to relieve structures of weight is based on the Industrial Waste Act (GewAbfV).
and hence also visual “corpulence”. In order to guarantee reuse with the highest
The efficient use of resources in a construction possible quality, the producers and owners of
usually increases with the degree of prefabrica- building and/or demolition debris must collect,
tion. The production of building components in store and transport waste streams separately
a factory enables tighter tolerances and more (provided they occur separately) and make
slender dimensions, and results in a better- them available for recycling (Figs. B 5.80 and
quality building with fewer deficiencies. The 5.81).
more careful planning and the better quality
control lead to far fewer production errors and Materials and building usage
B 5.76 rejects (Fig. B 5.79). In this way, it is possible to As a rule, a building is tailored to a specific
avoid, for example, undesirable thermal bridges user, a specific location. This tailoring process
reliably (see “Building envelope”, p. 90). The uses materials to create a particular reference
B 5.75 Blasting in a stone quarry greater precision of the building components to the location and to underscore the identity
B 5.76 Private house, Moledo (P), 2000, Eduardo Souto reduces the care and maintenance processes for the user and the observer. The specific use
de Moura
B 5.77 Comparing the grey energy of compact and non-
required over the life cycle and can lead to a of building materials can help a building to
compact passive houses longer service life. blend into its surroundings (Fig. B 5.76) – or to
B 5.78 Individual and total assessment of the planning The design of simple, functional details comply- highlight it, make it stand out from its surround-
themes relevant over the life cycle plus their pro- ing with building physics requirements results ings. However, the architectural intentions can-
cessing options with respect to the work phases
in lower operating costs and helps to maintain not be fully detached from the aspects of the
of the architect
B 5.79 Typical cases of damage in buildings in Germany value, which is evident in the architecture itself sustainability of the materials used, their dura-
and their causes (Fig. B 5.82). When the requirements regarding bility and ease of maintenance, the energy
B 5.80 Waste codes according to the German Industrial materials and details are clearly defined and input, the environmental impacts and the effects
Waste Act the number of functions to be provided are lim- on the health of the building’s occupants or
B 5.81 Waste streams according to the German Cradle-
to-Grave Economy Act
ited, this has a positive effect on the outcome. users.
B 5.82 Viewing platform, Helsinki (FIN), 2002, Helsinki Reducing the number of materials also often Building materials guarantee the intended
University of Technology, Prof. Jan Söderlund has a positive effect – for the design of the usage in physical terms and in doing so are
building as well as for the ecology. Omitting often subjected to high stresses and strains.
building components and building component Complex performance profiles for building
layers reduces the need for complex, expen- materials are derived from the usage require-
sive maintenance procedures. And users, too, ments, which touch on constructional, functional,
Compact, Non-compact, frequently perceive simply designed minimal physical and architectural dimensions. Mate-
8 units 8 units
solutions as “less stressful”. rials provide technical and functional accom-
+30% Although not common up to now, interdiscipli- plishments in order to create a permanently
Light- nary prefabrication, i.e. involving more than one secure living space for human beings and to
weight 20 kWh /m2ERAa 26kWh /m2ERAa building trade, appears to be sensible. Small- maintain buildings as a valuable object or as a
construc-
format production methods aligned with the cultural commodity. The diverse requirements
tion
+15% +19 % boundaries of the traditional building trades cannot always be satisfied solely by one build-
cause extra transport for various building proc- ing material.
+52% esses that involve an additional consumption of The physical properties of the building material
Heavy-
weight 23kWh/m2ERAa 31 kWh/m2ERAa
resources. determine whether it focuses on satisfying just
construc- one requirement or several requirements such
tion +35% as sound insulation, fire protection and thermal
performance simultaneously. For example, floor
ERA = enery ref. area B 5.77

168
 Materials

Number of cases [n]

Building Processing in the planning process PEI over life cycle Individual assessments for 400
Mat. selection Shrinkage/swelling
component building parts Installation moist. Planning
350
cycle Waterproofing Workmanship

Preliminary design

Working drawings

Internal fitting-out
Non-loadbearing
Detailed design
300

construction
250

Electrical
services

services

services
Sanitary
Heating
Facade
Tender

Roof
Brief

200

150
Production + + + o ++ + + -
100
Construction - o o + - - - -
50
Usage + o ++ - - ++ ++ o
0

Accuracy
Deforma-
++ + + ++ - - -

Moisture
Maintenance o

defects

Cracks
Safety
Visual

Joints

of fit
tion
Subsequent use - ++ + + + - - -
B 5.78 B 5.79
coverings must guarantee an abrasion resist- Of the approx. 20 000 substances that are or all traces of the material should be excluded.
ance to match the anticipated use of the build- used as standard in Germany (i.e. annual pro- In doing so, national directives covering use
ing, must withstand any liquids met with during duction > 1 t), only a few are fully understood and disposal must always be adhered to. An
usage or cleaning, must be light-fast, must have with respect to their effects on human beings! expert should be called in emergencies.
impact-resistant edges, etc. Good durability Negative consequences are suspected for very Three methods can be used to investigate the
means low maintenance in the long-term, pro- many materials, but these have not been veri- hazard potential of a substance:
vided the materials selected show a certain free- fied. Such potential hazards are already classi-
dom from short-term fashions and/or can fied as problematic by public bodies where • Environmental designation and label:
achieve a high architectural quality. This durabil- applicable. In addition, dangerous substances Type I Environmental Product Declarations to
ity should be backed up by a clear separation can interact with each other and multiply their DIN EN ISO 14024 (labels) can be attached
between long-lasting construction, short-lived fit- hazardous effects. to products provided they adhere to defined
ting-out and upgradeable building services. Once dangerous substances have been intro- requirements. Not every label stands for
Like fashions, requirements also change over duced into a building, the follow-up costs for comprehensive quality control or refers to the
the years, e.g. due to changing regulations their later removal usually increase dispropor- entire building products market. Users are
regarding thermal performance and energy tionately. According to one study, by 2002 the therefore recommended to check the certi-
conservation. Far-sighted planning can antici- costs for removing the asbestos from the Palace fied product groups, the scope of tests and
pate occasional stricter requirements, e.g. of the Republic in Berlin had reached 35–40% the procedures of the approval bodies which
regarding energy-savings and climate protec- of the cost of an equivalent new building! analyse products and issue labels (Fig.
tion. Sometimes, though, the changes are not So when applying the sustainability argument B 5.84). The properties of the material thus
foreseeable, and in such cases the easy inter- to the selection of a building material, it is determined can then be declared as a require-
changeability of elements and the clear sepa- important to check to what extent it could trig- ment in tender documents. Type II Environ-
ration of building subsystems with different ger allergic or toxicological effects for human mental Product Declarations (DIN EN ISO
lifespans and functions can help to cope with beings or the environment. 14021) also include data issued by the
unforeseen changes. The most important Dangerous substances cause very different manufacturers themselves. In this case, there
requirements placed on building materials in effects. Some, e.g. heavy metals, are absorbed is neither a prescribed declaration nor a
order to safeguard usage are described below. into the human body through the skin or from defined method of testing.
foodstuffs, even at low levels of contamination. • Determination of hazard potential via con-
Freedom from health risks Others are volatile, but impair the nervous structions (for building materials already
Building materials can emit dangerous sub- system permanently. Yet others are not degrad- installed):
stances during their production, installation, able, may enter the respiratory tract and cause The effects of the majority of dangerous sub-
usage and subsequent usage phases. Free- cancers. The route a substance takes to enter stances found in the existing building stock
dom from health risks is therefore a fundamen- the human body enables us to determine are known. It is useful here to be familiar with
tal requirement. whether local protective measures are possible the state of the art in the respective country
Material groups with examples Waste code Group Definition in Cradle-to-Grave Economy Act
Conc., clay bricks, ceramic tiles/fittings 17 01 Q1 Production or consumption residues not
• concrete 17 01 01 covered by the following definitions
Timber, glass, plastics 17 02 Q2 Products not conforming with the standards
• plastic 17 02 03 Q5 Substances contaminated or polluted as a
Bitumen blends, coal tar and products result of intentional actions
containing tar 17 03 (e.g. cleaning residues, etc.)
• bitumen blends containing coal tar 17 01 01 Q6 Unusable elements (e.g. used batteries,
Metals (incl. alloys) 17 04 catalytic converters, etc.)
• iron, steel 17 04 05 Q7 Substances that have become unusable (e.g. con-
Soil, stone, excavated material 17 05 taminated acids, solvents, carburising agents, etc)
• contaminated soil, stone 17 05 01 Q10 Residues due to mechanical and cutting
Insulating materials and materials operations (e.g. milling swarf, etc.)
containing asbestos 17 06 Q12 Contaminated substances (e.g. oil contaminated
• insulating material containing asbestos 17 06 01 with PCB, etc.)
Building materials based on gypsum 17 08 Q13 Substances or products of all kinds whose use
• contaminated materials based on gypsum 17 08 01 is prohibited by law
Other building materials 17 09 Q15 Contaminated substances or products
• waste containing mercury 17 09 01 occurring during land rehabilitation
B 5.80 B 5.81 B 5.82

169
Materials

Substance Typical Effects Typical Typical sources Recommended Limiting or

absorption route period of use of emissions measures guidance values
for humans
Asbestos Inhalation Fibrogenic (cicatrisation), up to 1980 (D) Building boards, pipes, moulded parts, Replacement Preliminary measures1:
carcinogenic mortar, render, plaster, insulating 1000 F/m3 (EU);
materials, sealing compounds, refurbishment1:
floor coverings, textiles 500 F/m3 (EU)
Synthetic mineral Inhalation Fibrogenic (cicatrisation), up to 1995 (D) Mineral insulating materials (rock or Replacement, no data
fibres carcinogenic, skin irritant glass wool without quality mark) airtight containment
Dichlorodiphenyl- Foodstuffs, Damages organs and up to 1972 (D) Wood preservatives Removal 10 μg/kg (WHO)2
trichloroethane house dust nervous system 1 μg/kg (D)2
(DDT) 0.5 μg/kg (USA)2
Dioxins, Furans Foodstuffs Carcinogenic – Fire residues, slag Removal no data
3
Flame retardants no data no data still in use
Formaldehyde Inhalation Irritates eyes and mucous restricted Wood-based board products, Removal, 0.1 mg/m3 (WHO)1
membranes, causes since 1996 (D) synthetic resins, coatings, chemical airtight containment, 0.12 mg/m3 (D)1
headaches, additives (e.g. in self-levelling screeds) chemical binding Refurbishment target:
carcinogenic 0.06 mg/m3 (D)1
Total volatile organic Inhalation Irritates eyes and mucous still in use Paints, adhesives, paint removers, Airtight containment 0.3 mg/m3 (D)4
compounds membranes, neurotoxic plastic products, wood-based products, of sources, removal
(TVOC) (sick building syndrome) carpeting, textiles
1
Guidance values for interior air.
2
Per kg body weight per day.
3
A differentiated appraisal is necessary (e.g. according to UBA text 25/01): refraining from the use of decabromodiphenyl ether and tetrabromobisphenol A, additive; reduction in
tetrabromobisphenol A, reactive and tris(chloropropyl) phosphate.
4
In new buildings, the TVOC concentration in the first year should not exceed 1–2 mg/m3. Exceptions to this are those substances (e.g. formaldehyde) covered by special regulations.

B 5.83

Label Licence issued by... Licensed products Matters checked Testing period
Blauer Engel Federal Environment Insulating materials, varnishes/glazes, wall Depends on product group, high environmental compatibility unlimited
(blue angel) Agency / RAL Deutsches paint, wallpaper, floor coverings, wood/ (e.g. low dangerous substances content or high recycling proportion),
Institut für Güte- wood-based products, cement/plaster/ serviceability, issued based on stipulations by neutral “Jury Umweltzeichen”
sicherung e.V render/mortar, clay bricks and roof tiles (eco-label jury)
Eco-Certificate for low- eco-Umweltinstitut Insulating materials, varnishes/glazes, Supplement to “Natureplus” label, products tested for constituents and 14 months
emissions products GmbH floor coverings, wood-based products emissions, excluding synthetic materials
EMI Code Gemeinschaft Floor coverings Emissions, classes EC 1–3, from “very low emissions” to “not low unlimited
Emissionskontrollierte emissions”, not issued when toxic constituents present
Verlegewerkstoffe e.V.
EU “Flower” Commission Varnishes/glazes, wall paint, floor Depends on product group, environmental impacts over life cycle unlimited
Community coverings (ceramic tiles) (e.g. energy consumption, water/air pollution, waste, noise/soil loads if
applicable), serviceability
FSC certificate Forest Stewardship Wood/wood-based products, end Certificate for production operations, raw material assessment according to max. 5 years
Council A.C. products must contain min. 70%, paper 10 local, adaptable criteria in the realm of conformity with legislation, manage-
min. 30% from FSC-certified operations ment, protection of resources, environmental impacts, sociological aspects
GuT - mark for Gemeinschaft umwelt- Floor coverings (carpeting) Dangerous substances content, emissions and odours, annual random unlimited
dangerous subst. fr. Teppichboden e.V. tests
IBR test mark Institut für Baubiologie see Blauer Engel Depends on product, primarily health-related, but also environment- 2 years
Rosenheim (IBR) GmbH related criteria, issued upon achieving a minimum number of points
Cork logo Deutscher Cork flooring (plastic wearing course Emissions, compliance with standards, serviceability 1 year
Kork-Verband e.V. max. 0.15 mm)
Natureplus natureplus e.V. Insulating materials, varnishes/glazes, “Natural products” from min. 85% renewable and/or mineral raw materials, 3 years
wall paint, wood/wood-based products, basic criteria (e.g. full declaration of constituents); further criteria:
floor coverings, cement/plaster/render/ depends on product group, “serviceability”, “health compatibility” and
mortar, clay bricks and roof tiles “environmental compatibility” over life cycle, verification of tests
Naturland Verband für natur- Wood/wood-based products, Naturland Certificate for operations, environmentally compatible and sustainable at least
gemäßen Landbau e.V. operations may also use the FSC label treatment of the ecosystems used, minimisation of dangerous substances annual check
content, serviceability of operations
PEFC Deutscher Forst- Wooden floor coverings, wood/wood-based Certificate for operations, strengthening of forestry resources and carbon unlimited
Pan European Forest Zertifizierungsrat products (wood from European forests) life cycles, preservation and promotion of production function, biodiversity
Certification (DFZR) and protective functions of the forest, preservation of other socio-economic
functions
RugMark RUGMARK/ Floor coverings (carpeting) No child labour, guaranteed minimum wages, access to order books, depends on
Transfair e.V. unannounced inspections permitted order
Toxproof TÜV Produkt & Insulating materials, varnishes/glazes, wall Depends on product group, focus on health compatibility, especially limited or
Umwelt GmbH paint, floor coverings, wood-based products, minimising emissions unlimited,
sealants/sheeting, cement/plaster/render/ min. 1 year
mortar
B 5.84

170
 Materials

B 5.83 Substances used in the building industry that

Life cycle costs (LCC) [CHF /m2flra a]

300 Waste
represent health hazards (selection) Operations
B 5.84 A selection of the type 1 Environmental Product 250 Deconstruction
Declarations available in Germany (building
Capital outlay
materials labels)
200 Maintenance,
B 5.85 Typical distribution of costs over the life cycle
building
(CH)
B 5.86 Electricity pylon destroyed by extreme weather 150 Maintenance,
services
conditions (D), 2004
Cleaning
100 Electricity
Heating gas/oil,
50 drainage charges
Water, waste water

0 Administration

Residential
building

building
Nursing
School

Office
home
B 5.85 B 5.86
as it was at the time the building was erected. or snow loads may become more critical Care and maintenance
It is not unusual to find certain dangerous (Fig. B 5.86). Architects are under a general obligation to
substances occurring in certain countries at • Fire protection: plan economically. The architect’s contract
certain times, e.g. phenols or cresols, which The purpose of structural fire protection is to calls for him to determine the performance with
occurred in large quantities as residues from save lives in emergencies and to maintain the client – not only with respect to the imme-
the chemicals industry in the countries of the the fabric of the building as an economic and diate cost of building, but also with respect to
former Eastern Bloc and were processed to cultural commodity. In Germany, fire protec- the follow-up costs. The latter can prove to be
form binders for floor coverings and light- tion rules are incorporated in the Civil Code a multiple of the cost of building an individual
weight screeds. Further examples are asbe- (BGB), the Criminal Code (StGB), statutory building component (Fig. B 5.85). The architect
stos and synthetic mineral fibres, heavy instruments such as the Building Act (BauO) is therefore responsible for including solutions
metals such as lead or arsenic, polychlorina- or Factories Act (GewO), standards such as to reduce the follow-up costs in his overall con-
ted biphenyls (PCB), biocides such as DIN EN 18230 or DIN 4102, and fire insur- cept. The costs during the usage phase are
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) or ance documentation. Preventive fire protec- based on ongoing demands regarding cleanli-
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) tion limits the choice of suitable building ness, hygiene, preservation of value, service-
(Fig. B 5.83). materials and in many cases restricts the ability characteristics (sound attenuation, anti-
• Hazard potential according to application choice from the energy-efficiency and eco- slip features of floor coverings, etc.) and
(for new building materials): logical aspects. The starting point is the DIN appearance, all of which must be satisfied. In
Certain building materials groups are assigned 4102 building materials classification in the this respect, the efficient use of finances for
a higher hazard potential. These include, in form of fire resistance classes (F for load- cleaning methods and organisation are the
particular, coatings, adhesives, paint strip- bearing components, W for non-loadbearing most important aspects. The cost of cleaning is
pers, wood preservatives, carpeting, resilient components) or Euronorm EN 13501. based, however, on aspects such as energy
floor coverings and insulating materials. Pre- • Sound insulation: consumption, environmental protection and the
cise requirements for materials – maximum The purpose of sound insulation is to retain need for a healthy interior climate.
emissions stipulations or labels – can be for- the privacy, health and performance of
mulated in the tender documents. Verification human beings. Rules for sound insulation are Soiling
of possible final measurements for test pur- specified in DIN 4109 and DIN EN 12354 Abrasive particles such as grains of stone or
poses coupled with information regarding plus other documents. It is often assumed sand or splinters of glass have a negative
suitable procedures when exceeding target that effective sound insulation, especially effect on the preservation of wearing surfaces.
values is advisable. against airborne sound, can be achieved The main source of soiling comes from dirt
only through the provision of mass. But insu- adhering to the soles of shoes, followed by
Operational safety lation against airborne sound is also equally particles in the air. Planning that takes account
The choice of building material is also limited possible with lightweight, multi-layer con- of cleaning requirements therefore begins by
by various safety requirements regarding the structions decoupled to prevent the trans- reducing the quantity of particles being trans-
operation of the building. These are to large mission of oscillations. Sound-absorbent ferred from outside to inside through the appro-
extent derived from legislation and regulations. materials and special lightweight, porous priate design of surfaces. Designing for full
Operational safety aspects and user comfort absorbers can help to combat undesirable access by disabled people eases cleaning
must in each case be harmonised with the acoustic effects locally. because cleaning machines and wheelchairs
energy-efficiency and ecological properties of • Moisture control: have similar dimensions.
the materials. The moisture in the air or in building materials Separating surfaces with high and low cleaning
influences the thermal comfort of human requirements is another positive move (Fig.
• Structural stability: beings and hence the perceived quality of a B 5.90). The inclusion of gratings and walk-off
Safeguarding and maintaining the loadbear- building (see “Fundamentals”, p. 55). The zones (internal or external) at entrances help to
ing capacity has been one of the three pillars relative humidity should lie between 40 and reduce the cleaning requirements substantially.
of architecture since the time of Vitruvius 60% throughout the year. Values much higher A distance of roughly 10 paces is sufficient to
(latin: firmitas). The structural calculations than this can cause problems, especially with reduce the amount of incoming dirt by 80%
incorporate safety factors that take into respect to mould growth if moisture can (Fig. B 5.89).
account possible overloads, e.g. due to diffuse through building components and
improper usage. As the climate change takes then condense. Vapour barriers, insulating
hold, climatic factors such as wind loads, materials and sorptive materials contribute
quantities of precipitation due to driving rain to moisture control.

171
Materials

Easy-care surfaces • dry, mechanical Linoleum and natural rubber floor coverings
Care and cleaning are labour-intensive opera- • wet, mechanical have ecological advantages. Carpeting is easy
tions. Besides technical plant, the floor cover- • wet, chemical to clean, but the cost of cleaning is heavily
ings, windows, doors, partitions and linings • vacuuming influenced by accessibility and the stipulations
cause high costs (Fig. B 5.88). In countries with of the building user. In the case of high loads,
high wages (e.g. Germany), the cleaning costs The largest item on the cleaning bill when con- frequent, thorough cleaning and low durability,
during the operation of a building are often sidering the materials flows is water. Wherever carpeting exhibits both economic and ecologi-
higher than the heating costs (see “Planning water is a scarce resource, ecological aspects cal disadvantages.
and building in life cycles”, p. 33, Fig. A 6.3). can also become economically significant. In The care of wooden floors is more costly than
One aspect of economic design means being terms of emissions, cleaning agents have the that for resilient floor coverings. On the other
able to clean surfaces easily and with the help greatest impact on the environment. Biologic- hand, they can be resanded several times
of machines. Smooth, seamless surfaces made ally degradable cleaning agents should there- (depending on the thickness of the wearing
from hardwearing building materials are to be fore be used and their use should not be hin- course) and therefore can be used for many
recommended here (Fig. B 5.87). dered by the wrong choice of material or years.
Durable coatings can be applied to surfaces to details that are difficult to clean (Fig. B 5.90). An easy-care floor covering can reduce the
resist any physical or chemical processes tak- Easy-care floor coverings annual cleaning costs by up to 30% (Fig. B 5.91).
ing place on them and thus reduce the mainte- Care and cleaning matters are easily illustrated The higher capital outlay for such floor cover-
nance requirements. Reasons for their use using the example of floor coverings. When ings is generally due to their better durability,
include ensuring that dirt and water can run off choosing colours and patterns it is important to which enables cost-savings over the life cycle.
easily (e.g. lotus effect, self-cleaning glass), remember that plain, bright-coloured, cold Durable floor coverings are therefore primarily
acting as a catalytic converter (e.g. for improv- materials will easily reveal any dust and dirt, worthwhile for unchanging, defined interior
ing the interior air, for decomposing organic but earthy colours or patterned coverings will zones. In the case of a later change of use, a
substances) or as a backing for chemical sub- tend to hide any soiling. check must be carried out to determine whether
stances (e.g. biocides for protecting facades). Hard, natural or reconstituted stone floor finishes a certain floor covering is also suitable for the
Coatings can, however, seldom be detached are the most economic from the cleaning point new interior function.
from their backings or otherwise recovered at of view. Their longevity makes them advanta-
the end of their useful lives. Lower costs during geous in terms of both economy and ecology. Easy-care facades
operation, maintenance and repairs may need Ceramic and glazed tiles are easy to clean Facade elements that require intensive clean-
to be weighed up against the higher cost of because they absorb hardly any moisture. But ing are the windows and doors. Good access
renewal. Cleaning can be helped by special their surfaces become scratched over time, for cleaners is essential here, and travelling
material properties, e.g. the antibacterial effect particularly when subjected to heavy loads, cradles may be required on large, multi-storey
of stainless steel in kitchens. and so their appearance suffers. facades. Glass can be given a hydrophilic
In ecological terms, easy-care means that the In terms of their capital outlay and running coating in order to reduce the cleaning require-
cleaning can be carried out efficiently and with costs, resilient floor coverings are usually mar- ments. A thin film of water then forms on the
minimal resources. The types of cleaning ginally inferior to hard floor coverings, especially glass so that particles of dust and dirt can
according to cost can be defined as follows in offices. However, their sound-attenuating drain away better and thus minimise the clean-
(from low-cost to high-cost): properties cut down the noise in the workplace. ing cycles necessary. However, such coatings

Facade cladding material 2-storey building 10-storey building Lighting units

Investment costs
1 1 Columns
Cleaning cycle [a] Index [%] Cleaning cycle [a] Index [%]
Building design Life cycle costs
Aluminium
Signs
anodised surface finish (ground) 2 700 1 1600 Building automation
batch-coated surface finish 2 310 2 400 Ext. walls, basement
continuous-coated surface finish 2 310 2 400
Sewerage system
Copper no data no data no data no data Special furniture
Zinc 3 470 no data no data Int. walls (structure)
Enamelled sheet steel 1 310 1 400 Floors, stairs
Kitchens
Stone
Foundations
with open-drained or sealed joints 20 100 20 100
Safety/security systems
Glass Transport systems
enamel finish on rear face 1 440 1 240 Planting/landscaping
enamel/metal oxide finish on rear face 0.25 1750 0.25 960 Soffit linings
Reconstituted stone panels with outer leaf 12 680 12 1280 Ext. walls, grd./upper flr.
Large-format precast concrete elements 12 680 12 1280 Roofs
Built-in items
Facing brickwork outer leaf, double-leaf masonry 20 420 20 620
Heating systems
Wood or wood-based products2 Ventilation systems
solid timber sheathing, opaque coating 5 170 – – Wall linings
solid timber sheathing, heartwood, untreated 10 20 – – Partitions, int. doors
panels made from wood-based products 10 100 – –
High-voltage systems
Fibre-cement sheets Floor coverings
large-format 2 310 2 200 Windows, ext. doors
small-format 10 380 no data no data (Waste) water systems
1
In comparison to stone (= 100%) 0 300 000 600 000 900 000
2
According to information provided by the German Society for Wood Research (DGfH) Costs [CHF / a]
B 5.87 B 5.88

172
 Materials

based on organic compounds are vulnerable to

scratches, and once damaged, they are diffi-
cult to renew according to the current state of
the art. For this reason, special regulations
regarding types of cleaning and cleaning
agents apply, which may increase the costs.
The growth of algae is a problem that can
affect thermal insulation composite systems.
Highly insulated building components reduce
the surface temperature of the facade in the
winter, which then approaches that of the exter-
nal air. In comparison to previous building
standards, the higher humidity of the air and
the slower drying of the surface promotes the
growth of algae. Higher moisture transport, bio-
cides or the photocatalytic effects of specific
surface coatings can diminish this effect. How- B 5.89
ever, as yet, little is known about their durability.

Maintenance of surfaces
There are two contradictory materials strategies
for maintaining surfaces. On the one hand, the
material can have an especially resistant struc-
ture and surface that guarantees high durability
and generally reduces the cost of care and
maintenance. Once damaged, however, the
cost of repairing such surfaces is usually high.
Deficits in building maintenance are revealed in
the form of the visible decay of the entire build-
ing, unless the material is visually robust (e.g.
clay roof tiles, clay bricks) or an attractive
patina forms.
On the other hand, the surface of the material
can be allowed to exhibit a higher wear due to B 5.90
B 5.87 Cleaning costs for different facade claddings
the usage, e.g. wooden floors, which owing to according to the German “Sustainable Building”
their intense texture are not perceived as un- guidelines
attractive and, in addition, can be resanded. If B 5.88 Life cycle and investment costs per year accord-
such maintenance processes are employed ing to building component (CH)
B 5.89 Walkway as walk-off zone, private house, Over-
deliberately, the recurring renewal creates the
ijse (B), 2002, Buelens Vanderlinden Architects
impression of an updated, “fresh” building. B 5.90 Differentiated surfaces design according to
Provided small-format building components cleaning requirements, residential conversion,
and easy-to-repair surfaces are used, local Pavia (I), 1998, Massimo Curzi
damage is easily remedied. The durability of B 5.91 Cleaning requirements for different floor cover-
ings according to the German “Sustainable
building materials is particularly important for Building” guidelines, with granite as reference
maintenance aspects (see p. 163). material

Floor covering material Daily Intensive

cleaning cleaning
[%] [%]
Polished granite (reference material) 100 100
Reconstituted stone 102 105
Synthetic resin-bonded stone 102 100
Stone tiles, polished 102 100
Ceramic tiles, glazed 110 125
Ceramic tiles, unglazed 120 135
Natural stone, rough 120 125
Linoleum 105 130
PVC 105 130
Smooth rubber 120 115
Textured rubber 150 150
Sealed wooden floor 120 –1
2
Carpeting 90 – 140 200
1
Sanding and resealing
2
Average value 110
B 5.91

173
Materials

Bldg. site waste 11.8 Used/directly

14.4% recycled recycled, filling 1.9
1.7
material
Recycled
22.3 11.9 Mio.t Enclosing walls Loadbearing structure
Road materials
85.7% recycled Total
19.1 2.0
5.1 Mio.t

Building debris 54.5

74.5% recycled 40.6
42.5 Mio.t

Excavated mat. 163.6

6.8% recycled 11.2 126.5
Other purposes
0 40 80 120 160 Non-loadbearing carcass Fitting-out, building services
Earthworks
Quantity [million t] Concrete aggregates
Roadbuilding
B 5.92 B 5.93 B 5.94
Subsequent usage mechanical cleaning – are hardly changed, if at Composting is another form of recycling. In this
Every use of a material should result in a all. As the damaged components have already case, organic building materials decompose to
closed material life cycle, i.e. waste should be been replaced in the previous period of use form humus and thus become a raw material in
recycled. But the building industry is still far and the product has thus been optimised, the the production chain for organic natural products.
from this ideal. A start has been made in the average quality of the materials in building Further use means isolating the raw materials
metalworking industry, for example, but this is components destined for reuse is raised. In the from the products and using them for the pro-
limited to just a few metals and metal alloys. first application cycle, repaired components, duction of new products – provided the constit-
e.g. clay tile coverings to pitched roofs, may uents are known, the waste has been sorted
Waste treatment well exhibit a higher durability than new prod- beforehand and is free from any dangerous
Since February 2007 the Cradle-to-Grave ucts. Good durability and simple deconstruc- substances. Such materials recovery is ideal
Economy Act (KrW/AbfG) has specified that all tion encourages reuse, e.g. stone pavings. The for standardised material compositions, large-
waste must be recycled if economically justifi- starting point for the subsequent usage option scale industrial production and the economic
able (Fig. B 5.81). Economy is defined by the for complete building components is the further use of the building material, e.g. plastics and
type of use and the resulting product plus the need for such components. Standardised prod- metals, whose manufacture entails a high energy
waste management, e.g. necessary for the ucts improve the capacity for planning the use input and the use of scarce raw materials (Fig.
transport processes. of integrating any elements that may be avail- B 5.96).
By choosing a particular material, the architect able. Economic subsequent usage should Organic building materials can be incinerated
specifies the raw materials that are later avail- therefore be feasible with components already and their energy content extracted in the form
able to the waste management. He can there- produced industrially. One example of this is of the calorific value [MJ]. Carbon dioxide is
fore have an effect on the formation of material the buildings in panel construction dating from one of the main emissions and this process
life cycles in the medium-term, or reinforce GDR times. Panels no longer required can be cancels out the positive carbon-sink effect of
existing life cycles through the deliberate use used to construct new buildings at low cost renewable materials. We speak of “thermal
of recyclable products (see “Urban space and and with energy-efficiency consequences (Fig. recycling”, but this is not really a recycling
infrastructure”, Fig. B 2.61). Not every life cycle B 5.99). A component can, however, be reused process because the material life cycle does
is equivalent, and therefore the terms “down- only if it has not been too specifically optimised not continue beyond this point. Owing to the
cycling”, “recycling” and “upcycling” describe for its first life cycle, i.e. possesses a certain limited volume of landfill available in Germany,
the way in which materials are fed back into a technical and functional neutrality. Semi-finished current legislation prescribes thermal recycling
material life cycle. In contrast to downcycling, products, but also standardised building mate- at least for all building materials made from
recycling means that, theoretically, a perma- rials such as clay bricks or building boards, organic substances.
nent life cycle is rendered possible through the can also be used again. As the costs for proper One further typical form of reuse is the wide-
complete reuse of the material. Upcycling deconstruction can clearly exceed the value of spread treatment of mineral building debris:
means that the material is optimised in the sub- the product, deconstruction is frequently car- about 75% of this is downcycled to form road-
sequent cycle, e.g. is freed from other “con- ried out according to tight schedules and sec- building or filling materials (Fig. B 5.93).
taminating” materials. ond-hand products can cause warranty prob-
lems, reuse is not often employed – except in Landfilling
Types of subsequent usage the case of components with a high or histori- The generally positive influences of subsequent
The procedure for the subsequent usage is cal value, where this approach is more com- usage can be illustrated by a materials flow
critical for the ecological value, the preserva- mon (Fig. B 5.98). analysis. Only if subsequent usage is impos-
tion of the raw material and the energy stored Recycling is the recovery of chemical raw sible should landfilling be considered.
in the material. Irrespective of the aforemen- materials for the new production of the same Like in almost all industrialised countries, the
tioned recycling options, we distinguish between materials, which also enables upcycling. Low- areas available for landfill in Germany are
the following types of subsequent usage (Fig. value products are reworked to form high-value severely limited. This form of waste treatment
B 5.93): items. The ensuing “new materials” have their therefore involves high costs and a high land
very own aesthetic – clearly revealed by their consumption; furthermore, it has a negative
• reuse production – and thus reveal the realisation of a impact on the landscape and the use of the
• recycling contemporary task (Fig. B 5.97), e.g. in the land. And in the case of improper landfilling,
• further use form of concrete reinforced with scrap glass. pollutants can seep out uncontrolled into the
New building materials are always covered by environment, causing contamination of air,
Reuse designates the subsequent usage of a manufacturer’s warranty, which eases the use water and soil, eventually reaching the food-
complete building products which – after of such recycled products (Fig. B 5.95). stuffs chain. In addition, there is the risk of the

174
 Materials

B 5.92 Volumes (by weight) and recycling of building

residues in Germany
B 5.93 Applications for building residues in Germany
B 5.94 Schematic presentation of the separation of
individual fitting-out layers
B 5.95 Cellulose insulation made from scrap paper
B 5.96 “Montana” shelving system made from recycled
plastics
B 5.97 “Farben des Konsum” illuminated wall installa-
tion, Berlin (D), 2003, Bär & Knell
B 5.98 Historical window integrated into new building
B 5.99 Residential building made from reused precast
elements from former panel construction build-
ings, Chemnitz (D), 2002, Zimmermann + Partner

B 5.95 B 5.96
fly-tipping of waste, especially where super- Forms of construction for a material life cycle building components in many instances and in
vision is inadequate. Once all the possibilities for the further use of some circumstances planning activities can
Since 2005 landfill waste in Germany – for a building have been exhausted, demolition render possible a further cycle of usage where
safety reasons – may no longer be reactive, becomes necessary. The material life cycles in this is not already ensured by way of a neutral
i.e. may not undergo any further changes to its the building can then be separated again. To underlying structure. The preservation and the
structure. The intention behind this is to prevent do this, it should be possible to separate every creative use of the building stock will always
uncontrolled chemical processes taking place functional layer and every building element secure the long-term, careful use of grey energy
within landfill sites. However, in most cases this (Fig. B 5.94). A minimum requirement is the and create enhanced environmental compati-
calls for thermal pretreatment of the waste, separation of material layers that are intended bility for the building industry.
which involves an additional consumption of to be fed into different forms of subsequent
resources. The unsorted waste with a high usage. Recycling technologies are, however,
energy and resources content is melted in this undergoing an upheaval. Optimisation based
process, which means that later recovery of the on current technologies therefore appears to
resources is impossible, or at least extremely be more costly and less advisable than maxi-
difficult (see “Urban space and infrastructure”, mum separability and layers sorted according
p. 77). to type of material. In addition, the material
composition should be known and recorded in
Take-back obligation the documentation. If – like in concrete con-
EU legislation for a general and comprehensive struction – building components have been
take-back obligation for building products is in bonded together, they can only be separated
preparation. Such an obligation will initially be at the end of their useful lives by destructive
restricted to the manufacturers of products or means. Although raw materials can be sorted
buildings. The quality of the planning and the for recovery, the energy-intensive shaping
consideration of alternative replacement and process of the building components is, how-
demolition processes will, however, determine ever, irretrievably lost.
or at least affect the costs of such a take-back The possibilities for subsequent usage should
obligation. The resulting legal consequences therefore be especially considered for load-
for architects and clients are currently unclear. bearing constructions with a high energy con-
Far-sighted planning is therefore already taking tent. This is where the consideration of industrial
into account expected changes to our handling prefabrication techniques interfaces directly
of building materials and building components, with the design of demountable constructions.
e.g. through a reversible building components (Partial) disassembly and subsequent transfor-
structure. mation can preserve valuable building fabric or

B 5.97 B 5.98 B 5.99

175
Strategies

B 6.1
Architects and planners have a special obliga- be guaranteed by the virtually unlimited con-
tion towards the quality of our environment. sumption of energy and resources – regardless
Hardly any other profession intervenes so of external conditions and internal requirements
intensively in the sensory and everyday world – occasionally spawned forms of architecture
of the human being and at the same time the with enormous energy consumption, totally
global energy and materials flows. Architects detached from the diverse interactive relation-
therefore have a special responsibility towards ships. In the light of this, Reyner Banham was
the development of sustainable management. in 1967 already proclaiming the need for a new
The need for better efficiency in the use of attitude in architecture because the conven-
energy and resources plus the holistic mind-set tional approaches were not able to solve the
surrounding sustainable development will prob- growing environmental problems. He illustrated
ably generate impulses with a similar effect to the conflicting design concepts by comparing
those of the socio-politically motivated changes a motor boat and a sailing boat: “A motor allows
of the modern movement. The result could be practically any floating object to be turned into
new definitions of architecture and construction, a steerable ship. A small, concentrated machin-
so that this branch of industry can supply the ery package converts an undistinguished con-
contributions necessary for sustainable, viable figuration into an object with function and pur-
development. pose” [1]. According to Banham, architects
should no longer regard a building as a struc-
Questioning existing models ture equipped with technical apparatus, but
Urban planning and architecture have devel- rather should go on to develop a “climate
oped out of the context of local climatic condi- device” which, like a sailing boat, reacts
tions and the availability of materials and energy dynamically to environmental influences and
resources. Only a few generations have passed gains its energy through exploiting the energy
since the possibility of using fossil fuels enabled available locally (Fig. B 6.1).
construction to distance itself from these bound-
ary conditions (Fig. B 6.6). As a result, our fore- The vision of the “2000 Watt Society”
fathers considered high energy consumption to Whereas just a few decades ago the discus-
be the epitome of a superior culture. Statistics sion was about replacing materials and archi-
point to the ability of developed countries to tecture by energy in many instances (e.g.
generate and use more energy than others. warm-air curtains, pneumatic structures), the
The modern movement’s belief that the provi- limits of the unbridled use of energy are now
sion of a comfortable standard of living could obvious to us. Limited availability and damag-

Boundary conditions Energy-optimised building concepts Evaluation

Ecology
(CO2 pollution)
Climate Minimisation of
energy requirements
Economy
Usage (life cycle costs)

Legislation Society
(acceptance)

Architecture Optimisation of
energy supplies Architecture
(quality of design)

B 6.2

176
 Strategies

Mobility 100 Today Primary energy Primary energy

6000 Watt / person consumption consumption
(pub. trans.) 140
New-build Conversion work
Mobility 180
(aeroplane) 230 [MJ/m2a] [kWh/m2a] [MJ/m2a] [kWh/m2a]
Target
Mobility 140
2000 Bldg. materials 100 27.8 60 16.7
(car) 480
Watt /person SIA Efficiency Path Interior climate
Electricity 210 Offices
consumption 570 • PEh 45 12.5 85 23.6
Schools
Infra- 340 • PEhil,lü 25 7.,0 25 7.0
Other
structure 900
Residential sectors Hot water 40 11.1 40 11.1
Commodities 500 Lights/equip. 130 36.1 130 36.1
& foodstuffs 1140
Building Interior climate Mobility 100 27.8 100 27.8
Living & 450
materials
working 1500 Target value A
Hot water
Energy requirement [W] residential 440 122 440 122
Mobility
in the “2000 Watt Society”
4-person household in Switzerland today Lights & equipment
B 6.3 B 6.4 B 6.5
ing environmental impacts call for new, positive continuous output of just 500 W, are “environ- Energy concepts
sets of targets. According to a study carried mentally compatible” in the long-term. The short-
out by the Wuppertal Institute for Climate, fall of about 1500 W must therefore be met by The early development of an energy concept is
Environment & Energy, societies will only really renewable energy sources. The aim of the a key element in the design of buildings com-
be fit for the future “when their methods, sys- “2000 Watt Society” model is to specify corre- patible with future demands. As Fig. B 6.2
tems, rhythms and ordering principles are sponding guideline values (in W) for the differ- shows, the procedure can be broken down into
embedded in natural ordering principles” and ent sectors, e.g. living and working, commodi- an analytical part (boundary conditions), a
hence human beings are therefore no longer ties and foodstuffs, or mobility, in order to cut process-oriented part (concept development)
the focus, the purpose of existence, and every- the average consumption in Switzerland and and a quantitative part (evaluation). In a similar
thing else only the subservient periphery [2]. elsewhere drastically over the coming decades way to architectural form-finding, drawing up
In order to enable research findings to be (Fig. B 6.3). such a concept is a creative process that can-
implemented on the practical side of sustain- As about half of the current energy consump- not be standardised. This skill represents one
able social and urban development, the Swiss tion can be attributed to the construction, oper- of the key qualifications for planners.
Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich devel- ation and maintenance of buildings, the Asso-
oped the concept of the “2000 Watt Society” ciation of Swiss Engineers & Architects (SIA) Analysis of boundary conditions
back in 1998 within the framework of the devised the “SIA Energy Efficiency Path” [3], The starting point for the development of an
“Novatlantis” project. This model project is with strategies and reference variables specially energy concept is determining the boundary
based on the notion that the energy consump- tailored to the construction industry (Fig. B 6.4). conditions, which can be divided into four
tion per person represents the crucial indicator Specific target values for the path to the “2000 groups (Fig. B 6.9).
for assessing sustainability and assumes that Watt Society” have been defined for housing,
2000 W are necessary to guarantee economic offices and schools for the areas of building Climatic boundary conditions
prosperity. Owing to the fossil fuels-based materials (grey energy), interior climate, hot Our attention here focuses on the local temper-
energy supplies, every person, taken as a glo- water, lighting and equipment, plus mobility ature and weather conditions plus the energy
bal average, currently adds more than 4 t of (Fig. B 6.5). potential. The course of the temperature over
CO2 to the greenhouse effect every year, which The primary energy forms the common refer- the year together with the respective extreme
corresponds to a continuous output of 2000 W, ence variable for all target values, which is values form the framework for defining the ther-
or 17 000 kWh, annually (see “Fundamentals”, specified in units of MJ/m2a or W/person. The mal quality of the building envelope. The differ-
p. 42). The average continuous consumption in “Energy Efficiency Path” has already been ence between the daytime and night-time air
Western Europe, on the other hand, is currently used as a tool for energy-efficient construction temperatures is an indicator of the potential for
approx. 6000 W and in Switzerland about 5000 W. in a “2000 Watt Society” in initial pilot projects passive, natural cooling by way of the night air.
According to the World Climate Council, CO2 such as the “Chriesbach Forum” (see Example The average annual temperature has an influ-
emissions of about 1 t per person, or rather a 15, pp. 240–42.). ence on the temperature level of the ground

B 6.1 The sailing boat as a “climate device”: the yachts

Alinghi and Oracle
B 6.2 Factors that affect the development of energy-
optimised building concepts
B 6.3 Average energy requirement according to sector
– now and in the “2000 Watt Society”
B 6.4 Boundary conditions according to the “SIA Energy
Efficiency Path”
B 6.5 Target values for 2000 Watt-compatible construc-
tion for new-build and conversion work (residential
sector)
B 6.6 A floating island housed in a pneumatic structure,
sketch by Frei Otto, 1967/68
B 6.6

177
Strategies

Comfort
Sun Air

People
needs/require-
Usag Minimising
e ate

Questioning
Utilis Clim
ation requirements tion
Loca

demand
rgy

ments/
f ene
Build
il a bility o s
in Ava source
rqmt g re
s. and
Syne

non-renewable
on ces rgies

requirements,
and sour

Coverage of
Water Flora/fauna Dem y and re

renewable/
g
ener
Acce
cycle p
Life ncy Optimising coverage Imag tance
ie e
Effic of requirements
Heat

Environ-
Cold

impact
mental
Elec-
Ground Groundwater tricity
B 6.7 B 6.8
near the surface and hence the possible use of Technical and legal boundary conditions and hence the diverse interactions between the
a shallow ground coupling. The humidity of the The legislation covering construction work (e.g. building and its direct environs – represents a
air forms the basis for defining humidification local development plans, design guidelines, crucial architectural boundary condition (Fig.
and dehumidification measures, and indicates etc.) and energy conservation are gradually B 6.7). The respective solar radiation available
the possibilities for direct adiabatic cooling. being woven into an ever tighter set of rules. from different compass directions leads to, for
The prevailing wind speeds and directions over The legislation stipulates such things as density example, specific requirements regarding
the seasons indicate the opportunities for natu- of development, volume, roof forms, materials, transparent elements in the external walls, or
ral ventilation or generating electricity from etc. Information on the technical infrastructure sunshades. In addition, geometrical aspects
wind power. Precipitation quantities and their (e.g. district heating, gas supplies, compulsory (e.g. ratio of plot size to building volume, ratio
distribution represent the potential for evapora- connection, etc.) plus legal requirements cou- of usable floor space to potential solar area),
tive cooling via ventilation systems. Accurate pled with the type of use (e.g. ventilation in shadows cast by neighbouring structures or
knowledge of the geological boundary condi- concert halls) represent further important factors. the special requirements of the client represent
tions is necessary when considering using the further important design parameters. Moreover,
soil or groundwater for heating or cooling the Architectural boundary conditions all these aspects should be questioned critical-
building. The quantity of solar radiation incident When developing an energy concept, the envi- ly from the point of view of energy and sustain-
on the building envelope and an analysis of the ronmental energy potential available locally – ability.
sun’s trajectory form the basis for passive solar
use, summertime thermal performance and the
calculation of the efficiency of solar thermal
systems and photovoltaic installations. Boundary condition Information Area for action
Climate Temperature, extreme values Thermal quality of building envelope
Use-related boundary conditions Temperature difference, day/night Potential for natural cooling by night air
The energy services necessary result from an Average annual temperature Output potential for ground exchanger
analysis of the use-related boundary condi- Relative humidity, summer/winter Possibility of direct adiabatic cooling
tions, which in many cases are due to the par- Average wind speeds Electricity generation with wind power
Distribution of wind directions Wind-controlled natural ventilation
ticular use of the building. These boundary Quantity and distribution of precipitation Technical use of evaporative cooling
conditions are, however, also influenced by the Geological strata Tapping the heat in the ground via boreholes
individual ideas of the owner or the user of the Groundwater and surface waters Use as heat source and for passive cooling
building. For example, requirements regarding Quantity of energy, solar radiation Passive and active solar thermal usage and electricity
generation
room temperatures (e.g. living room, bedroom,
Sun’s trajectory Optimisation of summertime thermal performance
office), summertime thermal performance (e.g.
maximum temperatures in offices) or the quality Usage Requirements for heated areas Minimum and maximum temperatures
Targets for summertime thermal Room temperature and temperature range
of the air (e.g. air change rate in classrooms) performance (e.g. 22°C ± 2°C; 21–28°C)
are important boundary conditions for the Air quality requirements Max. workplace concentrations, max. CO2 values
development of an energy concept. Air humidity requirements Relative humidity and range (e.g. 50% ± 10%)
Lighting requirements – lux values Sunshades and glare protection
Legislation Development plan Optimisation of land use up to maximum permissible
development density
Energy Conservation Act Maximum primary energy consumption
DIN 18599 Heat sources and sinks
Compulsory connection Infrastructure usage and increasing the utilisation
B 6.7 Schematic presentation of local energy potential Water legislation stipulations Use of ground and groundwater as energy sources
B 6.8 Schematic diagram of the process for developing Legal stipulations due to usage e.g. heat recovery if mechanical ventilation required
energy concepts Preservation of historic monuments Preservation of identity, e.g. with internal insulation
B 6.9 Boundary conditions and areas for action in the
development of energy concepts Architecture Neighbouring buildings and Architectural design in conjunction with use of
B 6.10 Options for coordinating energy availability and microclimatic boundary conditions environmental energy
Ratio of plot size to building volume Use of primary and secondary solar energy
requirements
Ratio of usable floor area to potential Proportion of transparent wall surfaces according to
B 6.11 Building components and their usefulness for
solar area compass direction
energy purposes

B 6.9

178
 Strategies

Availability Building services Requirements

Energy collection Energy conversion Energy storage Energy distribution Energy output

Crude oil Natural gas supply Gas-fired cond. boiler Drinking water tank Air-conditioning system Radiators Space heating
Natural gas Crude oil tank Oil-fired boiler Buffer tank Hot-water circuit Underfloor heating Space cooling
Mains electricity District heating- Electric heater Solar storage tank Cold-water circuit Wall heating Hot water
District heating intake points Heat pump Combination tank Warm-air ducts Facade heating Humidification
Group heating Wood pellets bunker Solar thermal system Long-term heat Cold-air ducts Activation of building Dehumidification
District cooling Wood chippings bunker Photovoltaic system storage Electric cables components External air
Solar radiation Vegetable oil tank Pellets burner Boreholes Gas pipes Displacement ventilati- Lighting
Wood pellets Boreholes Chippings burner Latent heat storage Heating circuit on outlets Electricity
Wood chippings Groundwater Co-generation plant Sorption storage Cooling water circuit Long-range nozzles Process heat
Vegetable oil Heat exchanger Compression-type Batteries Take-off points Process cooling
Geothermal heat Heat recovery refrigeration unit Compressed-air storage
Groundwater Sorption-type Flywheel energy storage
Surface waters refrigeration unit Hydrogen
External air Evaporative cooling
Wind Fuel cell
B 6.10
Concept development the aim of gaining additional energy-efficiency omitted without users suffering any loss in qual-
The development of an energy concept should benefits (Fig. B 6.11). Exploiting synergy ity. The systematic treatment of this “zero
embrace two complementary objectives (Fig. effects and finding creative solutions for con- option” can lead to the discovery of simple
B 6.8): flicting aims are the challenges here (Fig. B 6.31). technical solutions and new internal space
Firstly, it is important to make sure that the A sustainable design for the technical energy experiences.
energy requirements are kept low by employ- supplies services forms the second conceptual
ing suitable constructional measures. The focus. For this, the chain from the energy Clarification of design brief
building, individual constructions and materials sources to the desired energy service must be The basis of the energy concept is defined in
should be harmonised at the start of the plan- traced and checked for maximum efficiency the course of clarifying the design brief (Fig.
ning in such a way that the building provides a and future viability (Fig. B 6.10). Areas required B 6.13). In doing so, the conflict of aims between
comfortable internal climate for as long as pos- for collecting energy must also be considered low investment costs and low operating costs
sible without the need for extensive technical at an early stage, just like the provision of tech- must be resolved. A one-sided view of keeping
installations. To do this, the components and nical installations. the initial costs as low as possible can lead to
parts of a building should not only be designed The deliberations regarding an energy concept high operating costs, which have a negative
to comply with their constructional, functional should begin with the question of whether and effect on the overall economy of the building
and architectural specifications, but also with to what extent specific energy services can be and can impair its long-term usability. Further-

Area, component Primary function Further functions

External area Functional circulation/access, Ground as heat exchanger, microclimatic improvement due to specific planting and water features, sunshading,
parking, recreation protection from wind, minimal ground sealing, use of rainwater

Foundations Supporting the building Thermal mass as ventilated construction for conditioning incoming fresh air, pile foundations for exploiting geo-
thermal heat

Ground slab Waterproofing, structural requirements, High thermal quality due to multifunctional insulating materials capable of withstanding heavy loads, integration of
lower termination of structure, foundations heat transfer media (air/water)

External walls Protection against weather, sound, heat High thermal insulation quality and airtightness for reducing technical systems for heating and cooling, integration of
and cold air inlets, integration of solar energy systems for electricity and heat

Windows Daylighting, natural ventilation, view of High thermal insulation quality and airtightness for reducing technical systems for heating, daylight and energy
outside world optimisation due to arrangement, size and selectivity of glazing, solar control with sunshading and glare protection
for minimal cooling loads, integration of air inlets, photovoltaic systems integrated into glazing

Roof Protection against weather, rainwater High thermal insulation quality and airtightness for reducing technical systems for heating and cooling, micro-
drainage, upper termination of structure climatic effect with green roofs, temperature amplitude damping, daylighting, integration of solar energy systems

Atrium Usable space protected from the weather, Heat source or sink within the scope of passive heating/cooling strategies for adjoining rooms, climate buffer,
internal circulation daylighting in the case of appropriate optimisation, component in ventilation concepts as air distributor or collector
(natural currents), synergy between exhaust-air and smoke/heat vents

Staircase Internal vertical circulation, escape route Ventilation of building by way of natural currents

Internal walls Organisation of internal layout, separation Increasing the thermal storage capacity for temperature amplitude damping, choice of material (transparent/opaque)
of rooms, fire protection, structural and surface characteristics (absorptive/reflective) in conjunction with daylight optimisation and acoustics,
requirements integration of leakage-air openings for ventilation and night-time heating of thermal masses

Suspended floors Imposed loads, impact sound insulation, Use of thermal buffer effect for temperature amplitude damping by omitting soffit finishes, surface characteristics
acoustics, space for building services in conjunction with daylight optimisation (light reflection) and acoustics, thermal activation of building components
for heating and cooling via pipes integrated into components

Floor finishes Usable surfaces with appropriate Heating and cooling in the low-temperature range, optimisation of thermal and acoustic requirements
coverings, voids for building services

B 6.11

179
Strategies

more, setting benchmarks forms the basis for Final design, building permission application
the energy design strategy plus the building During this phase, the energy-efficiency char-
envelope and building services standards to acteristics of the building design are refined on
be aimed for. It is generally advisable to exhaust the basis of the draft design and harmonised
the chances on offer systematically before in- with the building services.
vesting in elaborate, expensive building services.
• Building services:
a b Preliminary planning Solar technology, boiler room, fuel storage,
The foundations for an energy-efficient, sustain- energy storage, chimney and heating output
able building are laid during the preliminary elements have a decisive influence on the
planning phase. Simple simulation methods appearance of the interior and exterior of a
used during this phase can help to check and building, depending on the energy concept.
optimise the design with respect to its energy • Thermal quality of building envelope:
efficiency. The following targets should be con- Specifying in detail the sequence of layers in
sidered: the envelope construction taking into account
the minimisation of transmission heat losses.
c d B 6.12 • A/V ratio: In addition, calculation of the U-values of the
Even though building with an optimised enve- various forms of construction.
B 6.12 Studies of energy requirements, competition lope surface area is not compulsory, the • Thermal bridges:
entry for HafenCity, Hamburg (D), 2003,
effects on the energy requirements during A look at the thermal bridges reveals that
Hegger Hegger Schleiff
a Variant 1: 100% usage should not be underestimated. In they embody a large building physics, tech-
b Development plan: 102% smaller construction projects, some 15–20% nical and energy-efficiency optimisation
c Variant 2: 105% of the heating energy can be saved, in larger potential. The goal should be to eliminate all
d Variant 3: 109% projects up to 10% (Fig. B 6.12). Good day- thermal bridges, or to minimise them when
B 6.13 Themes and processing stages for the develop-
ment of energy concepts according to the work
lighting and natural ventilation do, however, modernising existing buildings.
phases of the HOAI (scale of fees for architects place limits on compactness.
and engineers) • Orientation of building and solar gains: The conclusion of this stage of the design work
B 6.14 Established energy standards for buildings and Windows, “as energy collectors”, play an enables verification of the energy-efficiency
their definitions (EnEV = Energy Conservation
important role in energy-efficiency optimisa- quality to be included as an essential part of
Act; KfW = Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau)
B 6.15 Gallery for the 21st century, design sketch, tion. Shadows cast by other buildings or other the application for building permission. For the
Future Systems, 1993 parts of the same building must be analysed users of computing programs based on the
B 6.16 Green Building, design sketch, Future Systems, and evaluated, and every window assigned Energy Conservation Act, the preprinted forms
1990 1990 its own shading factor. “Active energy” areas required at the same time form the basis for
can thus be calculated exactly and positioned optimising the design for energy efficiency.
Phase 1: Clarification of design brief optimally. Shading factors enable the energy
• Define energy standard/benchmark gains to be quantified with respect to the Working drawings, tender, award of contract,
• Weigh up efficient building envelope and/or building arrangement of the windows. For example, construction management
services if necessary, a building without an optimum The energy-efficiency characteristics of the
Energy-efficiency design strategy A/V ratio can nevertheless achieve higher final design should be conscientiously incorpo-
Phase 2: Preliminary planning energy gains because it allows solar radiation rated in the working drawings and all details
• Optimise A/V ratio
to enter the building at the critical places. worked out. This applies to qualities, layer
• Building envelope: thicknesses and the design of details to ensure
• Optimise orientation
The thermal performance required and the airtightness and the absence of thermal bridges.
• Optimise solar gains building physics properties of individual wall During the tendering procedure and upon
• Finalise building envelope constructions should be determined at an awarding the contract, special attention should
• Check thermal bridges early stage – and can be quickly investigated be paid to ensuring durable, replaceable mate-
• Select energy media/heating plant with the help of energy software. Comparing rials. Changes during the construction period
First estimate of energy requirement to Energy the energy-efficiency and economic proper- should not endanger the energy-efficiency
Conservation Act ties of various types of construction can help aspects and the results of the Energy Conser-
Phases 3–4: Final design and building permission to target an optimum solution during the draft vation Act analysis.
application design stage. Construction on the building site exactly as
• Integrate building equipment and services into design • Heating plant: specified on the drawings is critical, e.g. when
• Detailed design of envelope
Different heating methods and fuels should it comes to precise, complete installation of
be analysed at an early stage and their differ- thermal insulation and the avoidance of thermal
• Determine U-values of all external components
ent efficiencies compared. Renewable ener- bridges. Experience has shown that the quality
• Reduce thermal bridges gy sources and efficient installations should of junctions at roofs, windows, doors and glaz-
Prepare Energy Conservation Act verification form the basis of sustainable energy supplies. ing is especially significant. It is precisely at
Phases 5–8: Working drawings, tender, award of these places that deficiencies in the airtight-
contract, construction management Only after the preliminary planning has been ness can cause high ventilation heat losses.
• Optimise A/V ratio concluded is it possible to estimate whether the The quality of workmanship in the various build-
• Check eligibility of contractors chosen approach will be able to meet the ing trades can be checked using suitable
• Monitor insulating quality of building materials installed benchmarks stipulated or the values given in measurements, e.g. blower-door test, thermo-
the Energy Conservation Act. In order to avoid graphy, as work proceeds.
• Monitor imperviousness
having to change the concept fundamentally at Upon conclusion of the construction work, the
• Check energy-efficiency quality
a later date, an appropriate safety margin of architect issues an energy performance certifi-
Continue Energy Conservation Act verification,- 20–30% should be allowed for at this stage. cate based on the values actually achieved
issue energy performance certificate
with the structure as built.
B 6.13

180
 Strategies

Standard Auditing level Limiting values Remarks

Evaluation
Energy concepts enable an objective evalu- EnEV D Primary energy requirement for Depends on Minimum legal requirement in
residential heating, ventilation, hot water compactness Germany
ation even during early stages of the planning.
EnEV D Primary energy requirement for heating, Depends on Minimum legal requirement in
Energy requirements, comfort and emissions
non-residential ventilation, hot water, cooling, lighting reference buildings Germany
can be determined and evaluated quite pre-
KfW-60 house D Primary energy parameter to EnEV max. 60 kWh/m2a Proof for financial assistance
cisely with reasonable effort by way of para-
meters and descriptions of measures. In the KfW-40 house D Primary energy parameter to EnEV max. 40 kWh/m2a Proof for financial assistance
sense of an overall appraisal, four dimensions – Minergie house CH Weighted energy parameter (final max. 42 kWh/m2a Further requirements:
ecological, economic, social and architectural energy): heating, ventilation, hot water, e.g. building envelope, mechanical
air-conditioning ventilation, costs
– are important:
Minergie-Plus- CH Weighted energy parameter (final 25 – 30 kWh/m2a Further requirements: airtightness,
house energy): heating, ventilation, hot water, installed heating capacity, heating
Ecological evaluation air-conditioning requirement, electricity requirement
This considers how energy supplies and energy
Climate house I Heating requirement max. 50 kWh/m2a Climate house A: max. 30 kWh/m2a
use may have negative consequences for the Climate house Gold: max. 10 kWh/m2a
environment. The primary evaluation factor is
Passive house D Heating requirement max. 15 kWh/m2a Additional requirement:
the emission of carbon dioxide or equivalent max. 120 kWh/m2a primary energy
substances. Generally accepted methods are requirement for heating, hot water
available for performing the audit, the bounda- and household electricity
ries of which must be determined beforehand max. 120 kWh/m2a
(Fig. B 6.19). B 6.14

Economic evaluation calculation and methods of verification (Fig. • Energy generation and consumption are car-
This is a check of the overall economy of meas- B 6.14). Such definitions can be used as the ried out completely decentrally, i.e. the build-
ures for optimising energy efficiency, for using foundations for more adventurous targets. For ing is self-sufficient in terms of energy. This
renewable energy sources and for the eco-effi- example, the target of a “zero-carbon building” generally leads to high storage costs and is
ciency of projects. In this context, considering can be realised by ensuring that the entire only advisable for isolated sites without con-
just the capital outlay alone and how to mini- energy requirements during operation or over nections to the existing technical infrastruc-
mise this – an approach that is still widespread the entire life cycle are provided by renewable ture.
– misses the point. Only in conjunction with an energy sources. • Energy generation is decentral, but energy
analysis of the day-to-day running costs, develop- consumption is safeguarded by connection
ment measures and, if applicable, any revenues Assessment level to public networks. For example, the electric-
to be gained from the use of renewable energy The boundaries to the energy audit are critical ity grid is used as a low-losses storage medi-
is it possible to achieve an overall picture of the for the relevance of an energy concept. Clarifi- um in order to soak up surpluses of energy
economics of a particular measure. The aim is cation is required as to whether it is only the and to supply energy generated elsewhere
to consider the costs over the entire life cycle energy requirements for heating and hot water as required. In the ideal case, taken over a
of a building. in a building during its period of use are the year, every building would generate exactly
focus of attention, or all energy services for the amount of electricity it needs.
Social evaluation operation, or indeed all energy requirements – • Energy generation and consumption for a
When assessing energy concepts, it is impor- production, construction, operation and decon- building are combined in a public network.
tant to consider the effects on users because struction (Fig. B 6.19). In the course of drawing The energy generation specific to the build-
their acceptance by users is, in the end, the up EU directives and revising the German ing is completely separated from the con-
decisive factor for the well-being of users and Energy Conservation Act, energy services for sumption, the energy requirements are cov-
the proper operation of the building. Besides lighting, cooling and ventilation have now been ered by suitable external energy sources (e.g.
thermal comfort, it is primarily the visual, acous- included for non-residential buildings in addi- “green electricity”). A total audit is carried out
tic and olfactory comfort (e.g. perceived tem- tion to the provision of heat (see p. 185). In for a defined region (e.g. town, city, county,
perature, humidity of interior air, air movements) terms of the assessment level, there are three country). The energy balance of a building is
that influence the perceived comfort of users. approaches in principle: provided by formal means (e.g. certificates)
In addition, options for influencing the interior and enables, for example, direct charging of
climate (e.g. opening windows, individually wind energy revenues against the energy
controlled sunblinds, etc.) represent further im- consumption of a remote building.
portant factors affecting the satisfaction of users.

Architectural evaluation
Energy concepts can affect the interior and
exterior appearance of a building quite crucially.
The concepts should characterise the architec-
ture positively and hence lend a visible expres-
sion to a building culture that faces up to the
serious socio-political challenges of our times.

Agreement on targets
A clearly formulated agreement regarding the
energy-efficiency goals for a building is a prac-
tical starting point when developing an energy
concept. Energy standards can provide guide-
lines through their unambiguous definitions of
energy-efficiency requirements, methods of B 6.15 B 6.16

181
Strategies

ECA 2007
residential

ECA 2007
non-residential

Passive house

“LCA house”1
Obtaining raw materials •
Prodn. of bldg. materials •
Construction of building •
Space heating • • • •
Hot water • • • •
Ventilation • • • •
Cooling • •
Lighting • •
Household electricity • •
Electrical appliances •
Deconstruction •
Disposal •
1
Possible scope of audit
B 6.17 B 6.18 B 6.19
Planning aids prognoses for technical systems. In principle, behaviour of a building, dynamic simulations
Simulation programs can help to achieve the we distinguish between static and dynamic can also simulate the lighting conditions and
aim of optimising the efficiency of a building methods of calculation. interior air movements.
and hence achieving maximum comfort with Static simulations implement simple computa- When employing such planning aids, the use-
minimum energy consumption. Helpful software tional algorithms. They are used for the calcula- fulness of the results increase with the degree
suites are available for the entire energy con- tion of isolated, extreme values (e.g. heating of detail in the boundary conditions, which calls
cept development procedure. Comprehensive and cooling loads), or for the simplified deter- for a corresponding level of information in the
thermodynamic processes within a building are mination of annual energy totals (e.g. heating planning process. Static simulations use gener-
illustrated in conjunction with the dynamic envi- requirements according to passive-house stip- alised data to supply quick results and a rough
ronmental conditions as a virtual model, which ulations or annual primary energy requirements estimate of the energy-related behaviour.
enables both the specific energy requirements according to the Energy Conservation Act). Dynamic simulations can then be used for spe-
of buildings and the energy-efficiency effects of Dynamic simulations, on the other hand, emu- cific matters, e.g. an analysis of the shading due
alternative planning decisions to be determined late the energy flows in buildings realistically by to neighbouring buildings, how the sizes of open-
quantitatively in the architectural design (Figs. taking into account varying internal and exter- ings affect the incoming daylight, how sunshad-
B 6.17 and 6.18). nal loads. They determine the energy flow at ing affects the cooling load, how the cooling out-
The majority of computer programs available defined intervals under the influence of variable put influences the summertime room tempera-
offer specialised applications for all issues parameters and consider, for example, the ture, temperature stratification in an atrium, etc.
relevant to energy (Fig. B 6.20), e.g. analysis storage capacity of components, changing Depending on the issues involved and the
of energy requirements, comfort considerations user profiles, the daily or annual solar radiation methods of calculation, simulation programs
for the interior, flow calculations or revenue curve, etc. Besides analyses of the thermal can be employed for analysing individual com-

Design
Evaluation
Proof
CAD link
Output
as images
as films
Calculation/simulation Application Results

Static planning aids

Heating load Determination of maximum heating output in most unfavourable Standard heating load [W] • •
case for sizing output elements and heating plant
Cooling load Determination of maximum cooling load in most unfavourable Cooling load [W] • •
case for sizing output elements and refrigeration plant
Annual energy requirement Determination of annual energy quantities for various energy Heating requirement [kWh/m2 a] • • •
services according to defined methods of calculation Primary energy requirement [kWh/m2 a] for heating,
hot water, ventilation, lighting, cooling
Dynamic planning aids
Thermal simulation Determination of thermodynamic behaviour of components Heating load [W], cooling load [W] • • • •
and buildings for assessing comfort conditions, annual Air temperatures [°C]
energy quantities and energy services Surface temperatures [°C]
Daylighting simulation Determination of lighting situation in rooms and buildings Duration of shading/sunshine exposure • • • •
for optimising daylighting and artificial lighting Luminance distribution
Luminous intensity
Flow simulation Determination of flows through rooms and building for Local air velocities • • • •
assessing comfort conditions, i.e. pollutant concentrations Dynamic air change rates
and air velocities
Plant simulation Determination of energy yield of building services for Yield from photovoltaic systems • •
energy-efficiency assessment and design of components, Yield from solar thermal systems
also for optimising control systems Efficiency of heat pumps
Efficiency of combined heat & power
Shading simulation Determination of shade caused by other parts of building and other Lighting and shading effects over the • • •
buildings in urban settings for individual buildings and rooms course of a day/year
B 6.20

182
 Strategies

1 Combination storage tank

2 Heat pump
3 Ventilation unit with UD= 0.15 W / m2 K Natural
heat recovery taic system ventilation
Photovol Fresh air

Solar thermal system

External sunshades
2
UF= 1.0 W/ m K
2
UEW= 0.2 W /m K
B 6.17 Flow simulation in the wind tunnel, training
academy, Herne (D), 1999, Jourda et Perraudin,
Hegger Hegger Schleiff Expelled External
2 Underfloor
B 6.18 Thermal and flow simulations, competition Heating requirement QH= 40 kWh / m a (8000 kWh / a)
heating
air air
2
design (section), training academy, Herne (D), Hot-water requirement QTWW= 12.5 kWh / m a ( 2500 kWh /a )
1999, Jourda et Perraudin, Hegger Hegger Schleiff Household electricity = 2800 kWh elec
B 6.19 Scope of audits for various building energy
Ground coupling
standards 2
UBW= 0.3 W / m K 1
B 6.20 Overview of planning aids
U = 0.3 W / m2 K
B 6.21 A typical building energy concept BF 2 3 Ground
B 6.22 A typical energy flow diagram exchanger
B 6.21
ponents, whole buildings or alternative solu- in forestry management, where it means felling In Germany, many of these requirements, e.g.
tions. Furthermore, the results can be used for no more trees than have been replanted. national energy standards for new and existing
designing or sizing building services compo- Aspects of the sustainability model have now buildings, the holistic assessment of the build-
nents or for preparing proofs. been integrated into certain normative regula- ing envelope and building services plus decom-
The ease of use of simulation programs is tions at both European and national level. Exist- missioning of outdated heating systems, have
essentially determined by their user interfaces ing legislation and statutory instruments are at been implemented in the Energy Conservation
and data input options. In particular, the inte- the moment still concentrating primarily on the Act (EnEV). The requirement regarding regular
gration into CAD systems offers potential for environmental dimensions (Fig. B 6.23). inspection of boilers is satisfied by the 1st
synergy effects. The data output can be in the Federal Immissions Protection Act (BImSchG).
form of different parameters (e.g. heating load, EU directive on the energy performance of buildings As, however, the EPBD requirements exceeded
cooling load, annual primary energy require- In the course of the European harmonisation of the previous requirements in Germany in a
ment, etc.), graphic displays of the results (e.g. standards, the EU member states have pledged number of areas, the Energy Conservation Act
room temperature over the day, annual solar to adopt the requirements of European Parlia- was revised in 2005, and the following changes
energy generation, etc.) and pictorial results ment directive 2002/91/EC “Energy Perform- came into force:
(e.g. luminance distribution over surfaces, tem- ance of Buildings” and accommodate this in
perature stratification in a room, isotherms in their national legislation by January 2006. This • Inclusion of the energy requirements for the
building components, local air velocities in the EU directive – frequently referred to simply as lighting, ventilation and air-conditioning for
interior, etc.). the EPBD – pursues the following aims in par- non-residential buildings
ticular: • Introduction of energy performance certifi-
Documentation cates when letting and selling existing build-
Meaningful documentation forms the basis for • The holistic assessment of the energy ings, houses or apartments
communication among the members of the efficiency of buildings • The display of energy performance certifi-
design team and provides information for others. • Encouraging energy-efficiency upgrade cates in public and heavily frequented build-
Instead of simplified system sketches, abstract measures for the existing building stock ings
calculations and tables, self-explanatory graphic • The provision of transparent information for • Regular inspections of air-conditioning plant
documentation is increasingly becoming the consumers with respect to the energy
norm, for clarifying the package of measures efficiency of buildings Whereas the revised Energy Conservation Act
and illustrating in an understandable way the • Improving the energy efficiency of building entails few changes for residential buildings
path from energy services to energy sources services compared to the previous Act, the new DIN
(Figs. B 6.21 and 6.22). In addition, the docu-
mentation can create the conditions for the
ongoing acquisition and evaluation of energy
flows in the building.
Source Energy technology Distribution Energy service
and output
Politics, legislation, statutory instruments Mains 2800 kWhelec. Household elec.
elec. 2800 kWhelec.
Reports and documents on the whole range of
themes covering energy and materials are
Sunshine Photovoltaic Space heating
increasingly referring to the buzzword “sustain- 50 m2
Underfloor heating
8000 kWhelec.
ability”, also at international level. It was in 1987
that the Brundtland Commission published a
Solar thermal Combination storage Hot water
comprehensive definition of this word in con- 10 m2 1000 l 2500 kWhelec.
nection with the new model of “sustainable
development” in its concluding report. The
Commission therefore designated sustainable Ground Ground coupling Heat pump
210 m2 7 kW
development as that designed “to ensure that it
meets the needs of the present without com-
promising the ability of future generations to External Ground exchanger Ventilation unit
Air ducts
External air
air 30 m with heat recovery supply 250 m3/h
meet their own needs” [4]. This term originated
B 6.22

183
Strategies

18599 “Energy efficiency of buildings” has • Losses in heating plant • New buildings with normal internal tempera-
been drawn up for non-residential buildings in • Electrical auxiliary energy requirements for tures ≥ 19°C must not exceed maximum
order to reflect the substantially more extensive installations (e.g. pumps, burners, controllers) values for Qp and H'T according to the monthly
calculation and auditing methods. • Energy requirements for mechanical ventila- balance method.
tion systems • New buildings with normal internal tempera-
Energy Conservation Act • The use of renewable energy (e.g. solar tures ≥ 19°C and a proportion of windows
The introduction of the Energy Conservation collectors) ≤ 30% can be calculated according to the
Act in Germany combined the stipulations of so-called simplified method for residential
the older Thermal Insulation Act and Heating With the choice of an energy medium (e.g. buildings.
Systems Act in order to cover the more strin- natural gas, biomass, etc.), the annual primary • New buildings with low internal temperatures
gent requirements regarding thermal insulation energy requirement of a building takes into ≤ 19°C or small building volumes ≤ 100 m3
and building services with a common method account its environmental impacts and the only have to guarantee compliance with the
of analysis and common parameter for the upstream process chains by means of the so- maximum value for H'T, and requirements
analysis. This holistic assessment gives plan- called primary energy factors. In the countries here are lower.
ners more design freedom for achieving the of the European Union, these primary energy • Existing buildings in which refurbishment
stipulated efficiency targets. In addition, the factors have different values depending on the measures affect at least 20% of the area of
Energy Conservation Act provides users with requirements for extracting, converting and building components facing in the same
greater transparency with respect to the pre- transporting the energy media. In Germany, for direction must comply with minimum U-values
dicted energy costs. example, the primary energy factor fp for elec- according to the building component analysis.
The Energy Conservation Act limits the maxi- tricity is 3.0 (this factor will, however, fall in the • Existing buildings subjected to more exten-
mum permissible annual primary energy coming years owing to the growing contribution sive refurbishment measures are calculated
requirement Qp in relation to the A/Ve ratio for of renewable energy in electricity generation), according to the monthly balance method,
all new buildings with normal interior tempera- 1.1 for oil and gas, and 0.2 for wood pellets. and the limits for new buildings may not be
tures. It expands the previous auditing frame- Furthermore, the Energy Conservation Act exceeded by more than 40%.
work by adding the following influencing fac- defines a “minimum standard of thermal insula- • For existing buildings in which the heated
tors (Fig. B 6.26): tion”, i.e. the specific transmission heat loss H'T volume of the building is extended by more
related to the heat-transferring enclosing surface. than 30 m3, the same methods of analysis
• Losses in the upstream energy provision This value represents the average U-value of all and the same requirements apply to the
chain – the extraction, conversion and trans- envelope components taking into account losses extension as for a new building.
port of energy media via thermal bridges. Different methods of calcu- Irrespective of the requirements relating to
• Heating requirements for hot-water provision lation and different requirements apply to new refurbishment measures, the Energy Conserva-
(flat rate) and existing buildings: tion Act calls for the upgrading of all non-owner-

World Europe Germany

1970 1972 1974

UNO “Environment” Federal Immissions Protection
1975 conference, Stockholm Act (BImSchG))

1980 1976 1977

Energy-Savings Act Thermal Insulation Act
1985 1988 (EnEG) (WSVO)
1987
EU Construction Products
1990 Brundtland Report
Directive (CPD) 1990 revised 1984
1992 Electricity Grid Feeding Act
1992 1992 5th Environmental 1994
UNO conference, Action Programme of the FRG Basic Law, article 20a
1994 Rio de Janeiro European Commission 1992 1994
Construction Products Act Heating Plant Act
1996 1994 Concluding report of (BauPG) (HeizAnlV)
1997
German Enquête Commission
1998 Kyoto Protocol revised 1995
“Protection of man and the
environment” 2000 2001
2000 Renewable Energy Act Energy Conservation Act
(EEG) (EnEV)
2001
2002 2002 2002
2002 UNO conference, EU Energy Performance of Biomass Act
Johannesburg Buildings Directive (EPBD) (BiomasseV)
2003

2004 2004
Administrative rule for cl. 13
2005

2006 2007
Energy Conservation Act
2007 (EnEV)

2008
2008/2009
2009 Energy performance
certifcates
2010

B 6.23

184
 Strategies

220

Heating requirement [kWh / m2a]

Part 10
occupied buildings by a certain date. Those 1st WSVO WSVO = Thermal Insulation Act Boundary conditions
200
upgrading measures refer to insulation to the EnEV = Energy Conservation Act Part 1
Total balance
topmost suspended floor, the replacement of 180
oil- or gas-fired boilers installed prior to 160 Part 7 Part 6
1 October 1978 and the insulation of space- 2nd WSVO AC & cooling Ventilation (housing)
140
heating and hot-water pipes in unheated
rooms. 120 Part 3 Air
3rd WSVO conditioning
100
DIN 18 599
In Germany, DIN 18599 implements the require- 80
EnEV EnEV Part 2 Part 4
ments of the EPBD for non-residential build- 60 Zone balance Lighting
ings. It is equivalent to DIN 4108 and forms the 40
basis for calculations for new building work and
20 Part 5 Part 9 Part 8
refurbishment measures in the non-residential Heating CHP Hot water
sector. The principal obligation remains the 0
annual primary energy requirement. The calcu- 1977 1984 1995 2002 2007
lation of this adheres to the tried-and-tested B 6.24 B 6.25
route from net energy via final energy to prim- ing a particular theme (Fig. B 6.27). This struc- Energy performance certificates
ary energy. The latter is, however, no longer ture guarantees that relevant partial results are Up until now, the main tools of the policies for
assessed depending on area and volume, but available to the design process at all times. To increasing efficiency in the buildings sector
instead primarily on the use of the building and do this, the standard takes into account inter- have been legislative measures (in Germany
the boundary conditions (Fig. B 6.25). actions between the various parts, various the Federal Immissions Protection Act, the
DIN 18599 is a well-formulated method of themes, such that in the end accurate state- Energy Conservation Act) plus development
assessment with which the energy consump- ments can be made regarding the overall effi- programmes. In order to meet the reduction
tion for the operation of a building can be esti- ciency. obligations of the Kyoto Protocol, the member
mated at an early stage of the work and used The introduction of a multi-zone model here is a states of the European Union have resolved to
as an aid in the rest of the planning. In order to decisive new approach compared to previous develop additional measures for controlling
satisfy this far-reaching claim, DIN 18599 has methods of calculation. The building is divided energy demands.
extended the auditing limits within the building. into zones according to type and degree of use, Consequently, the EPBD adds a market-oriented
In future, the entire installations for conditioning building services installed and type of enclos- strategy to the traditional policy tools. It creates
and cooling the interior will be included in the ing envelope. Each zone is treated separately an obligation to introduce energy performance
energy calculations, also the artificial lighting. in the calculations and the heat flows between certificates for the construction, sale or re-letting
The energy requirement and the auxiliary energy zones are considered and adjusted iteratively. of buildings, apartments, etc. For buildings
are balanced together with the heat flows via The separate zones are added together to give used by public authorities or to which the pub-
the building envelope and the energy require- the energy requirement of the building as a whole. lic has access, these certificates must be dis-
ments for the systems necessary for space In order to achieve neutral boundary conditions played in a prominent place if the building has
heating, hot-water provision and ventilation. for the diversity of uses in the non-residential a total usable floor space > 1000 m2.
Instead of heat gains and losses, we now cal- sector, the final part of the standard includes Energy performance certificates are intended
culate with heat sources and sinks. The direc- standard usage profiles. Typical buildings and to enhance the market transparency and the
tion of the heat flow is therefore no longer anti- uses are listed here and analysed with respect awareness of consumers with respect to the
cipated in global terms and limited to an audit to their occupancy densities, occupancy peri- energy consumption of buildings and hence
of the energy requirement during the heating ods, internal heat sources/sinks, net energy stimulate innovation and investment in new and
period. Consequently, a heat source can repre- requirements and air change rates. existing buildings. The following rules must be
sent a gain or a load depending on usage and The calculations supply the total primary energy adhered to:
time. This change takes account of the fact that requirement for the building. In the so-called
cooling represents a considerable energy reference building method, this actual value is • The energy performance certificate must
requirement in the non-residential sector. compared with a target value, which may not specify a parameter that represents the over-
DIN 18599 is made up of 10 parts, each cover- be exceeded in the building being assessed. all energy efficiency of the building. Compar-

HT
Primary energy factor for energy form
Qi HV Electricity: 3.0 / 2.7 1
Qs Group/district heating from CHP:
Qw Qh renewable/non-renewable: 0.0 /0.7
Grp./dist heat. from heating plant:
renewable/non-renewable: 0.1 /1.3
Primary energy

Primary energy factor for fossil energy media

Final energy

Crude oil, natural gas,

liquid gas: 1.1
Qp = (Qh + Qw) · ep = (HT + HV - Qi - Qs + Qw) · ep Coal: 1.1
Lignite: 1.2

Qp = Primary energy requirement

Qh = Energy requirement for space heating Primary energy factor for renewable energy media
B 6.23 Chronological development of demands regard- Qi = Internal heat gains Wood: 0.2
Qs = Solar heat gains Wind: 0
ing sustainability and energy efficiency in build-
Qw = Energy requirement for hot water Water: 0
ings Sunshine: 0
B 6.24 Average values for heating requirements ep = Ratio of primary energy to energy requirement
B 6.25 Scope of DIN 18599 audit HT = Transmission heat losses
B 6.26 Scope of Energy Conservation Act audit HV = Ventilation heat losses 1
to Energy Conservation Act 2007
B 6.26

185
Strategies

ative parameters may also be specified here • non-residential buildings: 1 July 2009 encourage about 30% of private property owners
for better transparency. In principle, owners may choose between con- to initiate refurbishment measures [5]. The cre-
• Recommendations for the cost-effective sumption- or requirements-based certificates. ation of incentives for innovation and invest-
improvement of the energy efficiency should Only residential buildings with up to four resi- ment in increasing the energy efficiency of new
also be included. dential units built before the 1st Thermal Insula- and existing buildings could therefore make an
• The period of validity may not exceed 10 years. tion Act came into force in 1977 needs require- important contribution to securing jobs in the
• An energy performance certificate is only an ments-based energy performance certificates. building industry and the associated planning
informative document; it is not enforceable disciplines.
and does not constitute an obligation to carry New tasks for architects
out refurbishment measures. The EPBD and its tools not only result in new Planning process
• The EU member states may choose whether tasks for architects, but also new responsibili-
certificates are based on calculations of ties. As key players in the planning process, Buildings are having to satisfy ever more com-
requirements or measurements of consumption. they must design every building according to plex requirements. Besides increasing demands
the new energy-efficiency rules. Owing to the regarding comfort, convenience, energy effi-
The contents and the relevance of require- holistic auditing method and the balancing ciency and environmental compatibility, safety
ments- or consumption-based energy perform- options between optimised building form, ther- and security requirements and the general
ance certificates are not identical. The require- mal insulation measures and the energy-effi- improvement in technical standards present
ments calculation concerns standardised ciency quality of the building services, the new challenges, which demand the involve-
assumptions for a standard climate and the architectural configuration of a building must ment of specialists right from the start of a
usage conditions (e.g. room temperature 19°C, be seen in the context of energy efficiency. project. Users and occupants expect an unpol-
length of heating period, average air change If architects take on these tasks, the means of luted interior climate, good lighting and ventila-
rate) and is therefore regarded as a “theoretical planning at their disposal can cut the energy tion concepts, a reasonable view of the outside
consumption”. Consumption-based energy requirements plus the costs of constructing world plus adaptable, flexible interior layouts
performance certificates, on the other hand, and operating buildings quite substantially. In and, at the same time, low running costs.
take the heating costs as their starting point smaller projects, architects can carry out the Clients and investors expect dependable
and therefore reflect not only the energy-effi- work themselves using suitable computer pro- schedules of costs for the construction and
ciency quality of a building but, above all, the grams, and thus expand their field of activities. operation of their buildings, and even in the
individual user behaviour and, if applicable, In more complex construction projects, they will planning phase strive to guarantee trouble-free
extreme climatic influences. As these influences solve the new tasks mostly in conjunction with use of their buildings. Public authorities have a
can easily mask the true energy-efficiency a building services engineer or an energy con- right to demand that their buildings are safe
quality (in the extreme case an empty house sultant. They should, however, have adequate and do not cause unnecessary environmental
would have the highest energy efficiency!), the knowledge of these aspects in order to be able impacts. All these requirements should be
requirements calculation is a more meaningful to exploit fully the skills of the specialists plus implemented with a high architectural and con-
way of assessing and comparing the energy the technical and architectural possibilities. structional quality, within the shortest possible
efficiency of buildings. The German Energy Agency (dena) assumes time, while not exceeding the budget and often
The revised Energy Conservation Act (2007) that with the consequential exploitation of all having to accept incomplete or changing
implements the EPBD in Germany. The obliga- economic savings potential in the residential framework conditions within the planning proc-
tory energy performance certificates will be sector, the politically motivated market incen- ess. To do this, it is necessary to plan not only
introduced according to the following timetable: tive programmes (e.g. energy performance the building or structure itself, but to an
certificate) will result in a three-fold increase in increasing extent the process as well.
• residential buildings built before 1965: the annual level of investment in the energy- Furthermore, clients and users are becoming
1 July 2008 efficiency upgrading of buildings by 2020. more and more aware of the fact that the costs
• newer residential buildings: 1 January 2009 Issuing energy performance certificates could of a building’s operation and maintenance play

Audit step DIN 18599

Zoning of building according to usage, building services and building envelope Part 1
Determination of usage-related boundary conditions and the input data necessary for the audit Parts 1 & 10
Determination of heat sources and sinks for individual zones and rough audit of net energy Part 2
requirement for heating and cooling
Determination of heating and cooling input to be supplied by plant based on rough estimate of Part 2
requirements in each zone
Determination of net energy requirement for energy-efficient air conditioning Part 3
Final audit of net energy requirement for heating and cooling plus allocation to various output systems Parts 2–8
Determination of losses in output, distribution and storage for
• heating plant Part 5
• air-management system Part 6
• cooling Part 7
• hot-water provision Part 8
Breakdown of heating and cooling outputs required according to the various supply systems, Parts 5–8
and determination of absolute losses
Determination of the net and final energy requirements for lighting Part 4
Determination of the auxiliary energy required, compilation of final energy according to energy source Parts 5–9
and calculation of primary energy requirement
Application of credit method for electricity yields from CHP Part 9
Target-actual comparison of total primary energy requirements using reference building method Part 10
B 6.27

186
 Strategies

Total costs [%]

B 6.27 The steps in a DIN 18599 audit

Degree of influence on initial

and follow-up costs [%]
500 100 100

Life cycle costs [%]

s

ls
pitals

ts
ce

poo
ffi

lan
B 6.28 Linear, iterative and integrative planning
O

np
sequences

Hos
80 80

ing

tio
B 6.29 Life cycle costs for different types of use 400 Influence

mm

uc
B 6.30 Course of and factors affecting total costs on costs

od
swi
60 60

Pr
oor
300

Ind
40 40
Course
of costs
Linear 200 use)
sive ho 20 20
ntial (pas
Reside
Operation 0 0
Iterative 100

requirements

Construction
Planning for

Demolition
Provision

planning
Construction

Detailed
Integrative 0

Tender
10 20 30 40 50 60

Use
Years
B 6.28 B 6.29 B 6.30
a significant part in the overall economy of that • Complexity: sustainable building aspects are specific specialist knowledge, but also ingrained
building and, depending on the type of use, assessed comprehensively. perceptual images. Resolving these in the
can even exceed the capital outlay within just a • Iteration: design options remain open until sense of a learning system and combining
few years (Fig. B 6.29). This can only be influ- the optimum solution has been found through them to form a common whole is the great
enced effectively in the early phases of project interdisciplinary development and the evalu- chance of integrated planning.
development (Fig. B 6.30). It is therefore crucial ation of alternatives.
to guarantee the cooperation of a competent, • Options: clients make decisions not only Project structure
complete planning team, fully aware of its primarily on the basis of proposals presented The nature of the relationships determined
responsibilities, right from the very start of a in visual form. through the contracts with the client character-
project. • Teamwork: architects are responsible for ises the structure of a project. The traditional
leading the planning team, but are not the individual appointment of planners and con-
The principles of integrated planning sole source of impetus during the planning tractors has proved worthwhile for different
The aim of integrated planning is to achieve a work. sizes of project, but calls for a high organisa-
holistic assessment of individual, separate • Learning system: specialist planners are tional effort and increased commitment on the
planning aspects (Fig. B 6.28). According to given an insight into the complexity of the part of the client. Appointing one architect and
the architect Niklaus Kohler, integrated plan- architectural design and architects gain addi- one contractor can reduce the client’s coordi-
ning permits “both horizontal (interdisciplinary) tional incentives for the design of the building nation and management input, but it does lead
and vertical (life cycle-related) integration. It is from their growing skills in technical planning to the planning being frozen at an early stage:
therefore possible to introduce new findings disciplines. changes at a later date are only possible through
and requirements into the planning process • Conflicts: transparency of decisions and the accepting an increase in the costs. The prim-
from the beginning and implement efficient inclusion of the players in good time minimise arily economic interests of general contractors
optimisation techniques (feedback, simulation tension and conflicts. can lead to the ecological and social dimensions
of variants, etc.)” [6]. of sustainable building being given insufficient
In order to identify synergies between individual The growing degree of complexity and the spe- consideration.
requirements and planning aspects at an early cialisation in all technical areas of construction
stage and to harmonise these, in future it will no calls for the experts from various disciplines to Integrated building and operation
longer be sufficient to consider interior climate, be integrated into the design process these In order to improve the organisation of public-
energy and mass as purely physical variables. days; this specialisation offers potential for ever sector construction projects in terms of the eco-
Instead, they will have to be seen as dimen- more efficient buildings. Overriding objectives, nomics, project structures in which public sec-
sions that have to be formed in conjunction with cooperation and communication are necessary tor and private sector cooperate in the financ-
the traditional means of architecture (e.g. form, for bringing the knowledge together and devis- ing, planning, erection, operation and/or recy-
texture, transparency, etc.), and the skilled use ing new solutions. Conflicts of aims are inevit- cling of buildings have become established in
of precisely these means will achieve a saving able. For the success of the project, it is there- recent years. In such so-called public private
in technical services. Quantifiable variables fore crucial to recognise hindrances early on partnerships (PPP), the state provision of premis-
such as energy requirement, temperature level and to solve them for the sake of achieving a es (e.g. schools, hospitals, etc.) has hitherto
or investment costs can be defined unambigu- high-quality, sustainability-oriented overall con- been carried out by private clients or operators
ously. However, they are often closely linked cept. Fig. B 6.31 lists the typical conflicts of and operated for a defined period of time at the
with qualitative aspects such as design, well- aims that can arise. Consequential analysis start of their life cycle, usually 15–30 years. The
being or image. An integrated planning process helps to minimise the interfacing problems and client, as the user, pays rent over this period for
should attempt to guarantee that both quantita- to concretise the planning targets [8]. the total expenditure (planning, construction,
tive and qualitative aspects, the contributions Integrated planning demands that the players operating and maintenance costs). This means
of various disciplines and the consideration of necessary are bound by contracts from an that a holistic consideration of all cost factors
the building and its characteristics continue to early stage (Fig. B. 6.32) because the holistic over the period of the contract is absolutely
be included over the entire lifespan. Summing solution of sustainability requirements is only essential and inevitably leads to different require-
up, integrated planning is based on the follow- effective during the initial planning phases. ments being placed on the planning, which
ing potential benefits [7]: This is a social process involving a division of focus on the running costs and hence low energy
labour. The project participants work and make consumption as well. The predicted cost bene-
• Integration: the knowledge of engineers and decisions not in isolation, but rather within a fits of 10–25% therefore result from the all-
the experience of specialists are incorporated framework of social interaction. They are affected embracing investigation of all phases and pro-
in the project right from the start of the planning. by various interests and motivating factors plus cesses, but especially the operating phase.

187
Strategies

Irrespective of the PPP model, the overall sluggishly in many countries. value-creation of sustainability-oriented proper-
approach of the life cycle analysis will become The growing awareness of the need to achieve ty also means a better economic performance
a tool that promotes sustainable building and defined protective aims and the positive eco- for those buildings.
reduces the economic risks markedly. It will nomic effects of sustainable management are
also contribute to minimising the ecological changing the activities of this group of players. Clients, operators
risks of building and raising the overall quality The client in the form of an individual person is
of a structure. The solving of the ubiquitous Urban and regional planners replaced by institutions or the client’s agents
investor-user dilemma – the separation of the The plans of this group of players have a con- on larger projects. As the “customer”, it is he
worlds of erecting and operating the building – siderable influence on the use of land for build- who initiates the process of building activities,
is a prerequisite for this. Principles that fit into a ings and infrastructure. Urban and regional and can request a planning and building proc-
life cycle approach presume integrated plan- planners also determine density, the mix of ess geared to sustainability needs. If the client
ning approaches and intensive cooperation uses, integration and mobility plus the technical is not solely responsible for the task of erecting
among all players. and social infrastructure of spaces and hence and reselling a property, he will be directly
have a decisive influence on energy consump- interested in sustainable building development.
Players tion and sustainability. More and more, urban Criteria such as longevity, adaptability and low
The disciplines combined in the planning team planners are stipulating energy and sustainabil- running costs are the key issues for operators.
and many other players are responsible, as a ity standards within the scope of their develop- Many clients are aware of the fact that a sus-
group, for the construction process and hence ment plans. The further stipulations of develop- tainable building, considered over its lifetime,
for the success of an energy-efficient, sustain- ment plans, e.g. roof pitches, undeveloped exhibits not only environmental and social ben-
able building industry. These players and their areas or orientation, define the possibilities for efits, but also distinct economic advantages
tasks are described below. architects to exploit local environmental energy (Fig. B. 6.33).
sources (e.g. solar radiation) for buildings, and
Politicians through good access to sunshine and daylight Architects
Both the legislative and executive bodies have at the same time create pleasant living condi- Owing to growing demands and the rising
shown a growing awareness for the problems tions. demand for holistic building concepts, the pro-
caused by the high environmental impacts of file of the architect is changing from that of a
buildings, also with regard to overriding sus- Financial backers and banks universal planner to that of a coordinating team
tainability targets. However, despite the Kyoto Banks are purely interested in the economic leader. As the architect is directly involved in
Protocol, there is a lack of binding global goals. side of project developments. Project evalua- the majority of aspects relevant to planning, he
The objectives of the European Union should tions are, however, increasingly taking into can help the client to make the right decisions
be assessed as positive here, but their legal account sustainability arguments because it is at the right times. Many planners are aware, in
implementation is proceeding exceedingly recognised that the long-term, secure, higher general, of the need for integrated and sustain-

Conflicting aims Explanation Players

Client
User
Architect
Energy consultant
Services engineer
Lighting engineer
Structural engineer
Acoustics engineer
Fire protection expert
Facility manager
Compactness v. daylight usage The form of the building should be developed weighing up the compactness, which has an effect mainly on the • • • •
and natural ventilation heating requirements and the capital outlay, plus a good level of incoming daylight and natural ventilation.
Usage dynamic v. energy Areas of the building with changing or unpredictable usage (e.g. atria) can trigger a much higher energy • • •
concept consumption due to changes of use and hence comfort requirements (e.g. heating or cooling) deviating from
the energy concept.
Passive cooling v. standard Omitting active cooling reduces the energy consumption substantially during the operating phase, but calls for • • •
comfort requirements a temporarily lower standard of comfort in the summer because room temperatures occasionally exceed 26°C.
Natural ventilation and passive Natural ventilation during the day and passive cooling through night-time ventilation often calls for a corresponding • • • •
cooling v. internal layout zoning layout. In order to avoid the need for a technical upgrade in the case of changing usage requirements,
flexibility flexible internal layouts should be considered during the planning.
Daylight usage and view out Choosing a system to match the requirements and combining sunshades and glare protection can rule out improper • • •
v. sunshades and glare functioning and guarantee a (partial) view of the outside world.
protection
Natural ventilation v. sound Leakage-air openings between different usage zones must be developed for natural ventilation concepts taking • • • • • •
insulation and fire protection into account sound insulation and fire protection requirements.
Use of thermal masses v. The use of thermal storage masses to attenuate temperature peaks calls for a close coordination with sound • • • • •
room acoustics attenuation or acoustic measures.
Highly insulated building Building envelopes with a high degree of thermal insulation reduce the usable floor area owing to the thicker wall • • •
envelope v. transparency and constructions and limit the proportion of transparent areas. Quality of use, a link with the outside world, efficient areas
efficiency of areas and energy consumption must be harmonised in a balanced relationship through the design and energy concept.
Building automation v. Highly automated building control systems, individual room or zone controls or manually controlled systems should • • • • • •
individuality and user be developed weighing up the costs of investment, maintenance and operation plus user acceptance.
acceptance
Innovative planning team Experienced project participants should be included in the workflows and requirements of an integrated planning • • • • • • • •
v. routine implementation approach. The aims of a sustainability-oriented construction project (e.g. comfort, energy efficiency) should be
described in the preamble to the tender for each building trade. Special information such as material declarations,
testing or inspection methods must be worded unambiguously and requested.
B 6.31

188
 Strategies

Clarification Preliminary Final Building Working Tender, Construction Usage, Modernisation, B 6.31 Typical conflicts of aims in energy-optimised
of design planning planning permission drawings award of management maintenance, conversion, planning
brief application contract operation operation B 6.32 Players in the planning and usage processes,
today and in the future
Architect

Engineers (structural, services, electrical, etc.)

Users

Client

Facility management

Energy concept

today future
B 6.32
ability-oriented construction, but they often lack and the interfaces to neighbouring trades is Participation can make a serious contribution to
relevant detailed knowledge and sometimes also necessary. increasing the legitimisation and acceptance of
also the ability to assert themselves. A design planning projects, tackling resistance and rais-
preference occasionally hinders the open Facility management ing the quality of decisions.
embracing of the theme of “sustainability”, the As energy prices continue to rise and the aim Nevertheless, users, through their comfort
architectural innovation potential of which is of sustainable building operation spreads, so demands and behaviour with respect to interior
currently only beginning to reveal itself. facility management, the controlling tool, is temperature, hot-water usage, ventilation and
becoming popular. Owing to the close relation- internal or solar gains, exert a considerable
Landscape architects and ecologists ship with the users of the building and their influence on the energy requirements of build-
Sustainable management has its origins in for- requirements and needs, a comprehensive ings. Here, the average consumption, depend-
estry. It should therefore be correspondingly assessment of all operating procedures can ing on user profile, can lie about 15% below
anchored in the related disciplines of ecology reduce the cost of usage permanently and (“extreme saver”) or about 60% above (“extreme
and landscape architecture. But there are still maintain the value of the property in the long- waster”) the guidelines contained in the Energy
considerable developmental reserves with term. Conservation Act (Fig. B 6.34).
respect to sustainable, energy-efficient land-
scaping in many areas (e.g. clearance of lega- Users, occupants and others affected
cy pollution, rainwater management, design of In the case of urban and landscape planning,
external areas). Moreover, new topics such as also large projects, the involvement of the local
the local bioenergy economy and gaining energy citizens in the relevant planning and decision-
from the wind and the sun still have to be tack- making processes has been part of everyday
led. On the level of building planning, land- planning practice for a number of decades.
scape architects can make a major contribution Demands for broader forms of participation
to improving the microclimate (e.g. water fea- have appeared over the past 10 years in vari-
tures, rainwater, shading, reflection and tem- ous documents concerning sustainable devel-
peratures of surfaces). opment (e.g. Agenda 21, Habitat II). Consider-
ing the specific needs of different groups of the
Engineers population and, in particular, taking account of
Engineers are professionals with a high level of the interests of disadvantaged social groups
specialist knowledge concerning certain indi- represent the ideal of the responsible participa-
vidual themes of sustainable building. Integrat- tion of citizens in the local community. Such
ed properly, this expert knowledge can help to participation is one of the central prerequisites
discover solutions and encourage creativity for the implementation of sustainability [9].
with respect to the efficient use of materials Whereas the traditional involvement of local citi-
and energy. Close networking between the zens is mainly limited to information and dis-
individual disciplines is best achieved through cussion events, the intention behind broader
intensive discussions among all participants participation is to promote the self-regulation of
right at the start of the planning process. processes through a diverse range of methods,
e.g. round tables, mediation, future workshops
Building contractors, building trades or planning cells. Owing to the number of forms
Awarding contracts according to the traditional of participation, the first thing to clarify is which
building trades mean that the companies and topics, which targets and which methods of
subcontractors are only responsible for certain participation should be used – and when. The
parts of the building project. The construction relevant phases of discussion-type projects are
process is resolved into various individual similar for municipal planning and building con-
tasks; some players, depending on the particu- struction projects:
lar trade, have very detailed knowledge of the
problems. With proper development and imple- • Project-planning and concept-finding phases
mentation, this knowledge can have a positive • Negotiation phase for discourse offers
effect on the sustainability of buildings. At the • Discourse phase
same time, however, considering the whole • Transfer phase

189
Strategies

Building characteristics (examples) Economic/financial advantages

Energy efficiency Low management costs

Marketing and image benefits, lower risk of

standing vacant, more stable cash flow
Low environmental impacts/risks
Higher potential for increasing rents
Improved functionality, operability,
lifetime, flexibility Lower risk of the failure of technical
building systems
B 6.33 Building characteristics and the resulting
economic advantages Straightforward maintenance Increased productivity of building users
B 6.34 How user behaviour affects the energy require- and servicing activities
ments of residential buildings
B 6.35 Sustainable building criteria according to Avoidance of sick building syndrome, redu-
“Recommendation SIA 112/1, sustainable Improved well-being for building users ced process, cost and compensation risks
construction – buildings”
B 6.33
Sustainable architecture and socio-cultural targets, in its concluding ings and everything else that forms part of the
report on the “Protection of man and the envi- built environment are so effective and omni-
Sustainable building is often equated with the ronment” (1998). Based on the preliminary potent that they influence our standard of living
terms “ecological building”, “energy-efficient work of the Commission, the year 2001 saw the in diverse ways. However, the corresponding
building” or “bioclimatic architecture”; but Federal Ministry of Transport, Building & Urban criteria are often not quantifiable; they can be
these are only parts of a development fit for the Affairs publish its “Sustainable Building Guide- assessed only in qualitative or descriptive
future. The sustainable building approach is lines” – recommendations for public buildings terms. But it is precisely the intangible social
more complex. The entirety of the architectural in order to concretise the protection aims for values such as integration, identification, par-
production is up for discussion, i.e. economic, planning, constructing and operating buildings ticipation or health that represent the essential,
ecological and social aspects must be consid- and to provide guidelines for planners [11]. key factors for the sustainable, peaceful and
ered in their mutual dependencies. The individ- Like the three-pillars model, the Guidelines pro- environmentally compatible development of
ual dimensions are known and have character- vide an initial, valuable aid for illustrating sus- society.
ised architecture from its very beginnings. tainability criteria for architecture and the con-
As can be seen in Fig. B 6.33, sustainable struction industry. Industry
building brings with it numerous economic “Recommendation SIA 112/1, sustainable con- The capital costs are often the focus of atten-
advantages in the development of the value of struction – buildings” [12] published in 2004 by tion when making planning decisions. Primarily
property [10]. Nevertheless, everyday practice the Association of Swiss Engineers & Architects economy-centred activities frequently result in
is currently lagging way behind the possibilities (SIA) takes a similar line. The target dimensions one-dimensional project developments that
on offer. Sustainable building opens up the of the three-pillar model correspond to the conflict with long-term thinking. The costs for
chance to enrich the design repertoire of archi- three areas of society, industry and environ- the operation and maintenance of buildings
tects and create a stronger link with the key ment, which in this publication are subdivided can exceed the cost of investment after just a
issues of society. In order to illustrate under- into several topics to which several criteria are few years. Future planning practice should,
standable facts, also measurable for many assigned (Fig. B 6.35). The SIA Recommenda- however, consider the cost of building over the
areas, the key criteria and tools of sustainable tion helps clients and planners to select the cri- entire life cycle (construction, operation,
building are explained below. teria specific to their projects in the sense of an deconstruction). Planning decisions must also
agreement on targets at the start of a project weigh higher investment costs against lower
Key criteria and indicate measures for their implementation. operating and maintenance costs. High design
With the intention of putting into practice the quality has its price, but in the long-term
model of “sustainability” for the building and Society increases the value of a property.
housing sector in Germany, the German The quality of the built environment reflects
Enquête Commission drew up the so-called human notions of value and gives general
three-pillars model, with economic, ecological ideas of culture a means of expression. Build-

User behaviour Internal Energy Air change rate Deviations from Household electricity Chargeable heat
temperature requirement Energy Conservation requirement energy for elect-
for hot water Act 1 (incl. lighting) rical equipment

Extreme saver 17.0 °C 5.0 kW/m2a 0.4 / h -14.5 % 10 kWh/m2a 2.3 kWh/m2a
10% quantile

Saver 18.5 °C 10.1 kW/m2a 0.6 / h -2.5 % 15 kWh/m2a 3.4 kWh/m2a

30% quantile

Average 19.5 °C 15.1 kW/m2a 1.1 / h 14.2 % 20 kWh/m2a 4.5 kWh/m2a

50% quantile

Waster 21.0 °C 25.2 kW/m2a 1.5 / h 34.7 % 30 kWh/m2a 6.8 kWh/m2a

70% quantile

Extreme waster 23.0 °C 35.3 kW/m2a 2.0 / h 59.4 % 40 kWh/m2a 9.0 kWh/m2a
90%- quantile
1
Deviations for a low-energy building (An = 363.52 m2) with an annual primary energy requirement of 63.1 kWh/m2a.
B 6.34

190
 Strategies

Area Topic Criteria

Environment
When constructing buildings and replacing Society Community Integration
Social contact
components, it is primarily the materials flows Solidarity/justice
of the building materials that define the ecolo- Participation
gical effects; by contrast, during operation it is
Design Identification/recognition
the energy requirements, especially those for Individual design/personalisation
heating, cooling, lighting and equipment, also
Usage, accessibility Basic provisions/mixed uses
cleaning and maintenance. Buildings are long- Slow traffic, public transport
lasting; assuming a new-build rate of approx. Accessibility and usability for all
1% for Central Europe, the energy-efficiency
Well-being, health Safety/security
upgrading and ecological renewal of the exist- Light
ing building stock would take 100 years and Interior air
more! The largest CO2 reduction potential Radiation
therefore lies in the refurbishment of the exist- Summertime thermal performance
Noise/vibration
ing building stock; through the reduction in
materials flows, the continued use of existing Industry Building fabric Location
Structure
buildings makes a decisive contribution to Building layout/fitting-out
sparing resources compared to the provision
of new buildings. Installation costs Life cycle costs
Financing
External costs
Tools
Operating and maintenance costs Operation and maintenance
Protection aims and key indicators form the
Repairs
prerequisites for overcoming the sustainability
Environment Building materials Raw materials (availability)
deficit. In order to derive concrete strategies for
Environmental impact
action from these, however, tools are required Dangerous substances
that enable the planning team to identify the Deconstruction
effects and interactive relationships of social, Operating energy Heating (cooling) for interior climate
economic and ecological dimensions, and deal Heat for hot water
with these in the planning and/or construction Electricity
process. Numerous tools and aids, e.g. check- Coverage of energy requirements
lists, computer programs or building labels, are Ground, landscape Area of plot
available for evaluating the sustainability of External facilities
buildings. Infrastructure Mobility
The wide range of tools available is due to the Waste from operation and usage
many different tasks met with in the building Water
sector (e.g. competitions, preliminary/draft/ B 6.35
works planning, evaluation of completed build-
ings, etc.), which could not be dealt with by BREEAM LEED
one tool alone. Fig. B 6.37 shows an overview The BREEAM (Building Research Establish- The US Green Building Council initially intro-
of the tools and aids available [13, 14]. ment Environmental Assessment Method) label duced LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environ-
The development of building labels represents was developed in the early 1990s as the first mental Design) in 1995 for the American prop-
significant progress in the evaluation of sustain- assessment method for office buildings in the erty market. In the meantime, this assessment
ability. They permit a comprehensive assess- United Kingdom, and in the meantime is availa- system is being used more and more in
ment of the quality of building and planning for ble in different versions for other types of build- Europe, and especially in Asia. Similar to
different levels of precision. In early phases of ing (e.g. department stores, supermarkets, BREEAM, there are specific versions for differ-
the work, they supply planners and clients with schools, industrial buildings and houses) and ent types of usage, e.g. offices, existing build-
an evaluation of the project, from which indica- for different continents (Europe, North America ings, commercial interiors or owner-occupied
tors for improving the sustainability characteris- and Asia). The tool awards points for selected homes. The award of the appropriate label
tics can be derived. In the case of finished indicators; depending on the total number of (“certified”, “silver”, “gold”, “platinum”) is like-
projects, building certificates provide users points, a certificate is issued: “pass”, “good”, wise based on the building assessment achiev-
and operators with an understandable docu- “very good” or “excellent”. The indicators are ing a certain number of points for the corre-
ment regarding the sustainability quality of their divided into eight areas: management, health sponding catalogue of criteria. The indicators
building. The evaluation tools available cover a and well-being, energy, transport, water, mate- are divided into six areas: sustainable sites,
wide spectrum – from very simple, qualitative rials and waste, land use and ecology, pollution. water efficiency, energy and atmosphere,
assessment aids right up to precise tools with The method is especially designed for use by materials and resources, indoor environmental
quantified data. The selection of a suitable tool architects and planners. BREEAM is currently quality, innovation and design process.
must therefore always be carried out by weigh- one of the most widely used building labels.
ing up between objective accuracy, which,
however, is inevitably linked with an elaborate
study, and the reliability of subjective assess-
ments. A few of the evaluation tools available
are described below.

191
Strategies

Safety/security Light
Social contact Basic provisions/mixed uses
MINERGIE-ECO
Accessibility and usability for all Integration In compliance with the criteria of “Recommen-
Individual design/personalisation Summertime thermal performance dation SIA 112/1, sustainable construction –
Identification/recognition Society buildings”, the MINERGIE-ECO has been used
Interior air Slow traffic, public transport
in Switzerland since 2006 as a verification
Noise/vibration Radiation
method for offices, schools and multi-occupan-
Participation cy residential buildings. A revision that includes
Solidarity/justice detached houses and refurbishment projects is
in preparation. This building label supplements
External facilities
Dangerous substances the preceding MINERGIE standard, which
focused on comfort and energy efficiency, by
Environmental impact adding the themes of health and building ecol-
Building layout/fitting-out Coverage of energy requirements
ogy. The assessment criteria include light,
Area of plot
Location Mobility noise, interior air, raw materials, construction
Life cycle costs Economy Ecology Water and deconstruction. In addition, for the energy
External costs efficiency, this label specifies that the energy
Building fabric Heating (cooling) for interior climate consumption of the building must lie at least
Heat for hot water
Financing Electricity 25% below and the consumption of fossil ener-
Waste from operation and usage gy at least 50% below the average state of the
Operation and maintenance Raw materials (availability) art.
Repairs Deconstruction In order to satisfy the requirements of the label,
B 6.36 buildings must satisfy exclusion criteria in cer-
tain areas (e.g. no use of biocides and wood
preservatives in interiors) and achieve mini-
mum levels of compliance. In total, at least two-
Typology Tools (examples) Country HOAI thirds of the criteria must comply with the spec-
work ification in order to be awarded this label.
Object phases
Product declarations • Type I-III environmental product declarations D 5–7
Building products and sundries (see “Materials”, p. 171) Diagnosis system for sustainable building
Recommendation and exclusion criteria • Schwarz, Jutta: Ökologie im Bau. 5–7 quality (DSQ)
Building products and sundries Bern/Stuttgart/Vienna, 1998
Element catalogues • SIA D 0123: Construction of buildings CH 2–5 Taking the evaluation systems described above
Building components (functional according to ecological aspects as a starting point, a system for assessing the
units) in as-built condition
sustainability of buildings was drawn up within
Tendering aids • ECOBIS/WINGIS: Building Product Group D 3–7
the scope of preparing the German edition of
Ecologically-oriented Eco Information System/Building Sector Dangerous
specification Substances & Health Aspects Information System this book (Energie Atlas). The diagnosis system
• BKP: Data sheets according to building costs plan CH 3–7 is intended to replace the hitherto widespread
for tenders description of partial aspects with an under-
• ECO-DEVIS: Ecological specifications CH 5–7 standable presentation covering all the essen-
Energy performance certificates • Energy performance and energy requirement D 2–8 tial parameters of sustainability [15].
Description (and evaluation) of certificates according to Energy Conservation Act This diagnosis system has a hierarchical struc-
energy efficiency of buildings
ture whose themes and explanations are based
Checklists • Preisig, Hansruedi, et al.: Der ökologische CH/D 2–8 on the stipulations of SIA Recommendation
to match purpose (e.g. energy- Bauauftrag. Munich, 2001
saving construction etc.) • Checklists for energy-related, ecological planning CH 2–8 112/1. However, it reorganises the themes,
and building published by the Swiss Federal expands the explanations and includes addi-
Office for Energy Management tional criteria and indicators. Furthermore, the
Building examples (best practice) • SolarBau: MONITOR: “Energy-optimised building” D 2–4 criteria are assigned indicators, qualitative fea-
Buildings featuring exemplary solutions project database of the Federal Ministry of tures and source references that ease compila-
Economics & Technology tion and evaluation.
Competitions (best practice) • SIA D 0200/SNARC: System for assessing the CH 1–2 One important change has been in the division
Designs with energy and sustainability of architectural projects for the topic of the themes according to areas. Whereas SIA
sustainability evaluations of the environment
Recommendation 112/1, like other sources,
Guidelines • Sustainable building guidelines D 1–9 breaks down the sustainability aspects accord-
Formulation of targets, principles • SIA D 0216: SIA energy efficiency path CH 1–8
and models • SIA E 112/1: Sustainable construction – buildings CH 1–8
ing to the three-pillars model, using the head-
ings of “society”, “industry” and “environment”,
Holistic planning and • LEGEP: Integrated life cycle analysis tool D 2–6
evaluation tools ecological-economic assessment the diagnosis system for sustainable building
Interactive tools for making decisions • OGIP: Planning tool for optimising the costs, energy CH 2–6 quality (DSQ) uses a system based on the
for different applications (e.g. competitions, consumption and environmental impact of buildings planning-related categories of location, build-
life cycle analyses, etc.), partially • VITRUVIUS: Budgeting, property valuation, project CH 2–9 ing and process quality (Fig. B 6.38). This is
linked to databases development, portfolio management‚
intended to simplify use by architects and plan-
Building labels, evaluations • BREEAM: Building Research Establishment GB 2–8 ners, but this breakdown also avoids the prob-
or certificates Environmental Assessment Method
lems of assigning criteria that touch on all three
Building assessment • GBC (GBTool): Green Building Challenge CAN 2–8
• LEED: Leadership in Energy & Environmental USA 2–8 sustainability pillars, e.g. environmental pollu-
Design tion, location (Fig. B 6.36).
• MINERGIE-ECO: verification method CH 2–8 The DSQ was initially developed as a system
• TQB: Total Quality Building A 2–8 for evaluating the sustainability of finished
B 6.37

192
 Strategies

buildings, resulting primarily from the need to References: [8] Löhnert, Günter, et al.: Zielkonflikte. In: Bürogebäude
provide the case studies in Part C of this book [1] Banham, Reyner, cited in: Oswalt, Philipp: Wohlt- mit Zukunft. Cologne, 2005, p. 154f.
emperierte Architektur: neue Techniken des energie- [9] Jörissen, Juliane, et al.: Zukunftsfähiges Wohnen
with a single method of evaluation so that read-
sparenden Bauens. Heidelberg 1995, p. 9 und Bauen. Herausforderungen, Defizite, Strategien.
ers can easily compare the different projects. [2] BUND/Misereor (ed.): Zukunftsfähiges Deutschland. Berlin, 2005, p. 195.
But the diagnosis system also proved to be Ein Beitrag zu einer global nachhaltigen Entwicklung [10] Lützkendorf, Thomas, et al.: Nachhaltigkeitsorien-
suitable for the holistic evaluation of buildings. (Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment & tierte Investments im Immobilienbereich. Trends,
It provides a compact, comprehensive impres- Energy). Basel/Boston/Berlin, 1996 Theorie und Typologie. 2005, p. 11.
[3] Preisig, Hansruedi; Pfäffli, Katrin, et al.; Schweize- [11] Federal Ministry of Transport, Building & Urban
sion of the sustainability of a building. The defi- rischer Ingenieur- & Architektenverein (ed.): SIA D Affairs (ed.): Leitfaden Nachhaltiges Bauen. 2001
nitions of targets and the explanations associ- 0216. SIA Effizienzpfad Energie. Zurich, 2006 [12] Schweizerischer Ingenieur- und Architektenverein
ated with the criteria can serve equally well as [4] Hauff, Volker: Our Common Future, Report of the (ed.): Empfehlung SIA 112/1. Nachhaltiges Bauen –
planning aids and for the comparative assess- World Commission on Environment and Develop- Hochbau. Zurich, 2006
ment. Greven 1987 [13] Lützkendorf, Thomas, et al.: Nachhaltiges Planen,
ment of planning alternatives.
[5] Gruber, Edelgard, et al.: Energiepass für Gebäude. Bauen und Bewirtschaften von Bauwerken. Ziele,
Besides the non-formalised verbal description Evaluation des Feldversuchs. Study on behalf of the Grundlagen, Stand und Trends. Bewertungsmetho-
and the graphic-visual illustration of buildings German Energy Agency (dena). 2005 den und -hilfsmittel. Study on behalf of the Federal
usual hitherto, the DSQ permits an objective, [6] Kohler, Niklaus: cited in: Forgber, Uwe: Teamorien- Ministry of Transport, Building & Urban Affairs. 2002
comparative assessment. We distinguish tierte Bauplanung. Die Vernetzung von Kompetenz- [14] Steiger, Peter: The critical path to sustainable con-
domainen in virtuellen Projekträumen. Dissertation, struction. In: Construction Materials Manual. Munich,
between two categories of criteria: University of Karlsruhe, 1999 2005, pp. 19–21
[7] Löhnert, Günter: Der integrale Planungsprozess, [15] The development of the diagnosis system for sustain-
• The qualitative criteria, as a comprehensive Teil I Grundlagen. In: EnergieEffizientes Bauen, able building quality (DSQ) was sponsored by the
“backbone” to the DSQ, cover all the areas 01/2002, p. 31. Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt (DBU).
and themes of sustainability. Using these cri-
teria and their associated explanations as a
basis, the criteria are described by way of
headwords and are essentially objective.
Area Topic Criteria
• Supplementing these criteria are the quanti-
fied indicators (e.g. primary energy require- Location quality Energy availability
Basic provisions/mixed uses
ment in KWh/m2a), where such are available. Integration
Solidarity/justice
As significant indicators are currently hardly Usage
readily available even for model projects, the Mobility
Noise/vibration
better availability of such parameters is to be
Radiation
hoped for in the future so that they can be used
– as planning data and/or building data verified Building quality Access/communication Traffic
Social contact
by monitoring – to enable conclusions to be Accessibility and usability
drawn regarding the energy- and materials-
Plot Area of plot
efficiency of buildings. They can make a very Open areas
important objective contribution to the ongoing
Design Building culture
professional discussions and provide incen- Personalisation
tives for more care in the use of resources and
Well-being, health Safety/security
energy in the construction industry. Legally Sound
binding energy and sustainability verification, Light
as is required by the Energy Conservation Act, Interior air
energy performance certificates or life cycle Interior climate
assessments, for instance, will create the Building fabric Structure
necessary database in the medium-term. Building layout/fitting-out
Building costs Investment costs
Financing
Operating and maintenance costs Operation and maintenance
Repairs
Building materials Raw materials (availability)
Environmental impact
Dangerous substances
Deconstruction
Operating energy Building heating
Building cooling
Hot-water provision
Air management
Lighting
Other electrical consumers
Coverage of energy requirements
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage
Water
B 6.36 Overlapping sustainability criteria according to
Process quality Sustainable building
“Recommendation SIA 112/1, sustainable con-
Building tradition
struction – buildings”
Participation
B 6.37 Tools for evaluating the sustainability of planning
Integrated planning
and buildings
Analyses
B 6.38 Sustainable building criteria according to the
Monitoring
“diagnosis system for sustainable building
Facility management
quality” (DSQ)
B 6.38

193
Strategies

Criterion: aim Explanation Sources Qualitative Indicators,

features parameters

Location quality
Energy availability: A permanently viable, highly secure energy supply during the operating phase calls for Details of local Energy supplies ¤Global radia-
efficient use of energy the efficient use of the energy sources available locally. For this reason, both the local energy suppliers, specific to location tion [kWh/m2a]
sources and environmental technical infrastructure (e.g. gas supply, district heating, co-generation plant) and the climate data ¤Climate data
energy available locally environmental energy available (e.g. solar radiation, groundwater, wind) must be ana- relevant to
lysed to ascertain their suitability with respect to the sustainable, efficient configuration location
of the energy concept.
Basic provisions/mixed uses: Promoting activity in the neighbourhood plus permanent local supplies in the urban Local Mixed uses, ¤Density
short distances, achieving space are essential prerequisites for sustainable urban development. Mixed uses help development plan, measures for flexible [persons/km2]
attractive mix of uses to reduce traffic (and hence the “induced energy”). structure concepts structures
in neighbourhood
Integration: Communities with a social, ethnic and demographic mix have proved to be particularly Development Political and
creating optimum conditions stable and adaptable. Suitable building measures can promote the integration of various plans, land-use planning measures
for integrating different social groups of the population. Those measures include a diverse range of housing, different plans for socio-demographic
backgrounds, cultures and housing sizes and standards, multi-purpose and community facilities, housing and integration
generations business premises for rent, common infrastructures.
Solidarity/justice: The prerequisites for a society embodying justice and solidarity are that the space In situ visits, Vitality of
support for disadvantaged requirements of socially or a financially disadvantaged groups are taken more seriously schemes, neighbourhood,
persons and are included in the planning. statistics integration
Usage: The location should be equally interesting for clients, investors and users. Factors such Street map, Location and
guaranteeing long-term as image, rural quality and access to open spaces, accessibility with public transport location drawing, location develop
economic usage appropriate and closeness to educational, shopping and cultural amenities must be considered. building ment in conjunction
to the location specification with usage concept
Mobility: Building measures and systems of incentives contribute to the shift from private cars to Location drawing Measures for ¤Distance to
designing environmentally local public transport. The reduction and compact arrangement of car parking spaces with local public environmentally local public
compatible mobility in public areas plus the promotion of local public transport assist this development. transport services compatible reali- transport
sation of mobility [m]
Noise/vibration: Disadvantages due to external noise and vibration can be minimised through the Specification, Internal and
protection against noise and arrangement of the internal layout, the positioning of the windows and suitable technical sound insulation external sound
vibration from outside sound insulation measures. report insulation measures
Radiation: Suitable constructional measures must be taken in areas with a high radon exposure. Radon exposure Exposure levels
protection against ionising A high intensity of non-ionising radiation (electrosmog) means that, as a precaution, map, specification, specific to the
and non-ionising radiation the recommended maximum values (e.g. WHO: 5 kV/m) should not be exceeded. measurements radiation protection
from outside measures

Building quality
Access/communication
Traffic: The network of paths and roads provides the framework for developing the building Access concept, Access concept, ¤Bicycle
enabling good, safe access and access concepts. Good links with the neighbourhood, good, unmistakable location drawing, parking organisa- parking [m2]
and connections orientation possibilities and a clear layout create individual and collective feelings of ground floor plan, tion, footpath
safety and security. layout of external links, positioning
works with bicycle and design of
parking entrance areas
Social contact: Nurturing social contacts promotes a feeling of responsibility, creativity and the Location drawing, Quality of circula-
creating meeting places to establishment of social networks. This is helped by semi-public areas, circulation zones layout of external tion zones, com-
encourage communication that encourage communication plus a well-coordinated interaction of private, semi- works, floor plans munal and exter
public and public areas in buildings and their environs. nal areas
Accessibility and usability: Good accessibility and a clear layout are valuable and attractive for everyone, especially Specification, Barrier-free ¤Barrier-free
designing a well-laid-out, those whose mobility is temporarily or permanently restricted. A barrier-free design access concept, design (building (yes/no)
barrier-free building and improves communication within the building and – employed properly – increases the location drawing, and external
environs quality of architecture and open spaces. floor plans, works), usability
sections, (e.g. automatic
direction system doors, WCs for
disabled persons, etc.)
Plot
Area of plot: Refraining from the use of undeveloped areas by recycling existing sites, the economic Specification, Planning measures ¤Permiss./exist.
keeping the footprint small exploitation of the plot and compact construction render possible a sensible use of that location drawing, for reducing the plot ratio
scarce resource land. The continued use of existing buildings should take priority over floor plans footprint • New/exist. gross
new-build measures. floor area [m2]
Open areas: When designing the external works, the aim should be to preserve or create natural Specification, Measures for pre- • Unsealed
minimising ground sealing, habitats (extensive meadows and lawns, areas left in their natural state, retention basins location drawing, serving or creating ground
securing diversity of species and biotopes, trees and hedges, green roofs and facades). Rooftop planting can layout of external natural habitats [% of plot]
replace ground sealed by construction work. works • Rooftop
planting
[% of sealed ground]

194
 Strategies

Criterion: aim Explanation Sources Qualitative Indicators,

features parameters

Design
Building culture: Recognition of developed structures and landscapes assists human orientation and Design concept, Local structures, ¤Competition
improving orientation and conveys a feeling of safety, belonging and security. The identity of a location promotes specification, specific identity of (yes/no)
identification with a locality responsibility with respect to the environment and fellow human beings. Good archi- location drawing, the locality
through recognition tecture creates the special reference to the locality, high design quality, a specific elevations
identity and obvious interactions between buildings and their environs.
Personalisation: People require an identity for and the demarcation of their “territories”. Architecture and Design concept, Innovation, design
creating an identity, provid- open spaces make the key contribution here. Innovation is necessary for creating an specification, freedoms and
ing personal design options unmistakable identity for a location and for solving momentary social issues. As a location drawing, personalisation
contribution to the building culture, however, simultaneous design freedoms for self- floor plans options
expression and forming an identity should be preserved.
Well-being, health
Safety/security: Safety and security contribute to social and economic stability. Users should feel safe Specification, fire Protection against
reducing potential dangers, and secure both within the building (accidents, intruders, fire, industrial safety) and in protection concept, natural dangers,
promoting a feeling of safety its environs (assault, natural dangers), and should be protected as far as possible. location drawing, fire protection,
and security Accordingly, objective potential dangers (e.g. natural dangers specific to the location, external works, safety barriers,
risk of slipping, tripping, fire, etc.) should be ruled out as far as possible, and contri- floor plans, eleva- non-slip flooring,
butions to the subjective perception of safety/security (e.g. good layout, good lighting, tions, sections, lighting, clarity,
social controls, presence of other people, good visual links, etc.) are necessary. user survey social controls,
people, visual
links
Sound: Noise pollution and acoustic conditions influence the well-being of people and can Room acoustics Constructional ¤Sound insula-
creating pleasant acoustic impair their health. Noise between usage units (e.g. airborne and impact sound) plus report sound insulation tion [dB(A)]
conditions disturbances (noises from building services, unfavourable room acoustics) should be measures, room ¤Reverberation
avoided through precautionary building physics and room acoustics measures. acoustics measures time [s]
Light: The daylighting conditions over the course of the day influence the human hormone Specification Passive and tech- ¤Daylight-
creating optimum day lighting balance and synchronise our “internal clock”. Accordingly, daylight strategies, the (daylight simulation nical measures for autonomy [%]
conditions, providing good orientation of the building, the proportion of windows, the depth of rooms, glare pro- if applicable), optimum daylight
artificial lighting tection, the design of reflective surfaces and the colouring of the enclosing components sections, floor usage, glare
(floors, walls, soffits) are all important design factors. plans, elevations, protection
section through
facade
Interior air: A poor interior climate can cause numerous bodily symptoms and lower productivity. Specification, ven Ventilation concept ¤Ventilation:
aiming for a high interior Minimum contamination of the interior air (e.g. CO2, cleaning agents, tobacco smells, tilation concept, and other measures natural
air quality mould, mites, etc.) should be guaranteed by way of a suitable ventilation concept user survey, interior for guaranteeing [%flr. area],
backed up by corresponding user behaviour. air measurements the interior air mechanical
quality [%flr. area]
Interior climate: The thermal comfort has a major influence on the human heat balance and a direct Specification, Description of ¤U-values of
guaranteeing good thermal effect on the energy consumption of buildings. It should be optimised as far as possible draft design measures for bldg. envelope
comfort through constructional, passive measures: e.g. generally by way of the type of drawings, optimising the [W/m2K]
construction, thermal insulation, moisture control, coordinated proportion of windows sunshading, floor interior air ¤Operating-
and components with thermal storage capacity; protection against overheating by way plans, elevations, hours [h over
of sunshades and the possibility for night-time cooling. detailed drawings 26 ˚C/a]
¤Effective heat
capacity
[Wh/m2flr. area]
Building fabric
Structure: Building standards and the use of resources should take into account the intended Specification, Measures for ¤Predicted eco-
retaining value and quality economic lifespan. The quality of the building fabric and its proper maintenance are detailed drawings preserving value nomic period-
for the life of the building crucial for preserving the economic value of a building and its lifespan. with materials data and quality over of use [a]
the lifetime of the ¤Durability of
building ¤building com-
ponents [a]
Building layout/fitting-out: Fitting-out/adaptation options increase the value of a building so that it can be easily Specification, Usage concept ¤Alternative
guaranteeing good flexibility designed to take account of changing needs. The internal layout should simplify usage concept, taking into account usage
for various room and usage changes and, if necessary, allow for alternative usage scenarios through the creation interior layout, adaptation and fitting- concepts
requirements of standardised modules and neutral layouts. During the detailed design work, the floor plans, out options, adaptable (yes/no)
aim should be to achieve maximum separation between loadbearing structure and detailed drawings building services,
fitting-out. separation of load-
bearing structure and
fitting-out elements
Building costs
Investment costs: Low investment costs can help to open up the property market to a wide range of the Building costs Measures for ¤Building costs
activating investment population, but – for long-lasting buildings – may not be at the expense of durability, calculation, life reducing investment (cost groups
taking into account the life ease of maintenance and energy requirements during operation. cycle costs costs, contractual 300 – 400)[EUR]
cycle costs calculation relationship between ¤Ratio, cost
investor and user group 300/400
(tenant, owner- ¤Building costs
occupier etc.) [EUR/m2flr. area]

195
Strategies

Criterion: aim Explanation Sources Qualitative Indicators,

features parameters

Building costs (contd.)

Financing: The costs structure should guarantee the ongoing financing of properties right up to Determining the Investment, main-
securing long-term financing their deconstruction. Appropriate reserves should be set up for maintenance, repairs costs, contracts tenance and
for operating, maintenance and returning building materials to their life cycles. Buildings should recoup their costs deconstruction
and deconstruction costs over their period of use so that at the end there are funds available for feeding the pro- costs, incentive
perty into a new life cycle or replacing it. schemes

Operating and maintenance costs

Operation and maintenance: Considered over the lifetime of a building, the operating and maintenance costs usually Specification, Measures to reduce ¤Operating costs
ensuring low maintenance exceed the capital outlay. Careful planning, the choice of long-lasting, low-maintenance materials concept, operating and [EUR/m 2flr. areaa]
costs through early planning materials and forms of construction plus measures to reduce the energy consumption benchmarks, life maintenance costs ¤Maintenance
and continuous maintenance can help to lower the operating costs. A life cycle costs analysis supports the integral cycle costs calcu- [EUR/m2flr. areaa]
consideration of all cost factors and can contribute to low operating and maintenance lation ¤Energy costs
costs. [EUR/m 2flr. areaa]
Repairs: The quality and lifespan of each building component should be coordinated with the Floor plans, sec- Accessibility and
guaranteeing low repair costs intended period of use as far as possible. Components, building services, joints, tion through facade, replaceability of
through good accessibility connections and details should be readily accessible and designed to enable simple detailed drawings, components, ease
and quality renewal in the case of later repairs. building services of repair, junction-
drawings and connection
details-
Building materials
Raw materials (availability): When choosing building materials, readily available, preferably renewable raw materials Specification, Materials concept • Proportion of -
good availability of primary (e.g. wood), easily recycled materials and components, and secondary raw materials materials concept, renewable-
raw materials, but primarily (recycled building materials) should be considered more and more. tender materials
renewable and secondary [% by vol.]
raw materials • Proportion of
secondary
raw materials
[% by vol.]
Environmental impact: The production of building materials should take place with minimal environmental Specification, Measures to • PEI of building
aiming for low environmental impact. This concerns the associated embodied energy, the CO2 emissions but also materials concept, guarantee low carcass
impact during production many other factors (e.g. ozone depletion, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical life cycle assess- environmental [MJ/m2flr. area]
ozone creation), which are the objects of a life cycle assessment. ment, tender impacts during
production
Dangerous substances: The careful choice of building materials and components with low or zero emissions can Specification, Measures to reduce • Choice of build-
ensuring only low amounts of reduce the pollutants both indoors and outdoors quite substantially. In particular, more materials concept, emissions of ing materials
dangerous substances in attention should be given to paints, sealants, wood-based board products, adhesives tender, user sur- dangerous sub- with low or
building materials and metals. vey, interior air stances from zero emissions
measurements building materials (yes/no)
• Register of
• building
materials
(yes/no)
Interior air
measurements
(yes/no)
Deconstruction: The reuse and recycling of building materials saves raw materials and energy. Recycling Specification, Selection of • Deconstruction
using easily separable requires the constructions and systems to be separated into their original components. materials concept, building materials, concept
composite materials and Joints and connections should be planned taking into account easy replaceability, easy detailed drawings recyclability, (yes/no)
constructions to enable separability and good recyclability. Forms of construction with mechanical fixings are to design of joints
reuse/recycling be preferred to composite forms of construction. and constructions

Operating energy
Building heating: The heating requirement can be considerably reduced by passive measures (compact- Specification, buil- Passive and • Heating
aiming for a minimised ness, building geometry, building depth, orientation, minimising shadows, airtight build- ding services con- technical measures requirement
heating requirement ing envelope, thermal insulation, etc.) and by installing efficient building services. cept, floor plans, for reducing the [kWh/m2a]
elevations, detailed heating • Primary energy
sections through requirement requirement
envelope compon- [kWh/ m2a]
ents with U-values • Final energy
requirement
[kWh/ m2a]
Building cooling: Passive measures (e.g. thermal masses, coordinated proportion of windows, form of Specification, buil- Specification of • Primary energy
avoiding or minimising technical construction, heat capacity of interior components, etc.) and constructional-technical ding services con- passive and requirement
cooling requirements through precautions (e.g. sunshades, night-time cooling, etc.) can help to avoid overheating in cept, sunshading technical measures [kWh/m2 a]
constructional and building the building. Active cooling should be avoided as far as possible in buildings with low concept, eleva- for reducing the • Final energy
services measures internal heat loads. If cooling is necessary, it should be provided as efficiently as tions cooling requirement
possible. requirement [kWh/m2a]
Hot-water provision: A low energy requirement for hot water can be achieved through use of water-saving Specification, build-Measures to • Primary energy
reducing heating and energy fittings, conceptual measures such as concentrated wet areas and minimal pipework. ing materials con- reduce the hot-water requirement
requirements The actual consumption is, however, mainly influenced by user behaviour. cept, building ser- requirement [kWh/m2a]
vices drawings • Final energy
requirement
[kWh/m2a]

196
 Strategies

Criterion: aim Explanation Sources qualitative Indicators,

features parameters

Operating energy (contd.)

Air management: Natural ventilation should be preferred as the optimum ventilation strategy. If mechanical Specification, Constructional and • Primary energy
minimising electricity require- air management is necessary, the system should include heat or cooling energy reco- building services technical measures requirement
ments for air management very, favourable duct cross-sections and energy-efficient motors. concept, building for reducing electri- [kWh/m2a]
services drawings city requirements • Final energy
requirement
[kWh/m2a]
Lighting: A building design optimised for daylighting enables the energy requirement for artificial Specification, Constructional and • Primary energy
minimising electricity require- lighting to be minimised. Further lighting needs should be met by energy-efficient lighting concept technical measures requirement
ments for lighting lighting systems, lighting concepts coordinated with activities, and brightness- and for reducing electri- [kWh/m2a]
occupancy-related controls. city requirements • Final energy
requirement
[kWh/m2a]
Other electrical consumers: Important factors are reasonable comfort demands and appropriate fitting-out with Specification Selection of energy- • Primary energy
requirements through con- operational facilities plus energy-efficient equipment and systems. efficient equipment requirement
tual and operational pre- and systems [kWh/m2a]
cautions • Final energy
requirement
[kWh/m2a]
Coverage of energy A maximum proportion of renewable energy should be used to cover the energy requi- Specification, Energy concept, • Renewable
requirements: rements. Options for using renewable resources available locally (e.g. geothermal energy concept use of renewable energy cover-
increasing the proportion of heat) plus the integration of solar technology into the building envelope should be energy age rate [%]
renewable energy for covering considered right at the preliminary planning phase. • Solar area:
requirements solar thermal
energy
[m2], PV [m2]

Infrastructure
Waste from operation and Constructional precautions form the prerequisite for closing materials life cycles Specification, Infrastructure quali-
usage: through the separate collection and recycling of industrial and domestic waste. floor plans ties for separating
setting up an infrastructure Besides the functional quality of disposal systems and regular supervision, user beha- waste
for sorting waste viour has a considerable influence here.
Water: Lowering the water table can change ecosystems drastically. The treatment of drinking Sanitary drawings, Measures for low • Water
reducing the consumption of water and waste water is cost-intensive. Suitable measures, e.g. water-saving fittings, external works drinking-water con- consumption
drinking water household appliances and WCs, the use of rainwater and grey water, and a change in sumption and low [m3/person / a]
user behaviour, can reduce the environmental effects substantially. waste-water quanti- • Rainwater/grey
ties water usage
(yes/no)

Process quality
Sustainable building: Every building, whether new or refurbished, can contribute to spreading the sustainable Programmes, Measures for- • Sustainability-
contributing to sustainable management message through its particular features and image. The idea behind this publications implementing a oriented
development and to is to develop a new planning culture whose particular characteristics and successes sustainability-oriented benchmarks
strengthening awareness should be made public. planning process (yes/no)
among the public
Building tradition: The characteristics of good building culture, craft-like traditions and intelligent forms of Specification, Measures for
preserving jobs, knowledge construction should be nurtured and further developed in the course of the planning. detailed drawings, preserving the
and building culture Preserving the architectural or historical value of buildings contributes to the upkeep own view cultural
and ongoing development of regional building cultures. inheritance
Participation: The collaboration of users and others affected in the planning process promotes the Reports of Participation • Participation
aiming for a high degree of acceptance and can improve the usage quality of building measures. The critical con- experiences concept concept
acceptance through partici- sideration of the needs and requests of later users can generate social and financial (yes/no)
pation advantages. The targets, methods, scope and timing of the participation of interested
parties must be defined early on.
Integrated planning: The early inclusion of an integrated planning team and the provision of a sustainability- Specification, list Project participants
optimising the sustainability oriented design brief make vital contributions to securing the success of a project. of project partici- and their remits,
potential specific to a project Bringing in specialist planners in good time and with good communication plus the pants, benchmarks description of inte-
principles of integrated planning should be coordinated between client and architect. grated planning
Corresponding benchmarks and target stipulations should be defined in the preliminary process
planning phase.
Analyses: Materials flow analyses and building simulations can make a good contribution to Building specifi- Simulation method, • Simulation-
reducing materials flows, reducing environmental impacts and operating costs. Overall and detailed analyses cation, results of optimisation levels method
energy costs and operating must be evaluated in good time with suitable simulation tools and developed further as simulations (yes/no)
costs necessary.
Monitoring: Building monitoring means continuous checking of interior climate influences and Monitoring Monitoring concept • Monitoring
planning for monitoring and technical systems in order to establish the effectiveness of planned systems and draw concept (e.g. measurands (yes/no)
optimisation of the building conclusions for further planning. Monitoring contributes to identifying disruptive factors and duration of
at an early stage and hence to reducing the operating costs. monitoring)
Facility Management: Facility management (FM), as the controlling element for the building operations, con- FM concept, Concept for optimi- • FM concept
advance planning and orga- tributes to minimising operational expenses and energy requirements, controlling FM contract sing expenditure (yes/no)
nisation of operations maintenance and repair processes, and adapting the building to changing usage during the phase of
requirements. FM therefore ensures economic operation, the longevity of the building use
and its sustainable usability.

197
 Part C Case studies

01 Buzzi e Buzzi; private house in Gerra Gambarogno (CH)

02 Walter Unterrainer; private house in Satteins (A)

03 Brendeland & Kristoffersen; residential development in Trondheim (N)

04 Thomas Hillig; refurbishment of a private house in Berlin (D)

05 pos architekten, Treberspurg & Partner; mountain refuge, Hochschwab (A)

06 Siegfried Delueg; district heating plant in Sexten (I)

07 Felix Jerusalem; straw house in Eschenz (CH)

08 Dietger Wissounig; combined nursing and senior citizens’ home in Steinfeld (A)

09 Kränzle + Fischer-Wasels, Klotz + Knecht; home for several generations

in Darmstadt (D)

10 Allmann Sattler Wappner; sports hall in Tübingen (D)

11 Jourda et Perraudin, Hegger Hegger Schleiff; training academy in Herne (D)

12 Arup Associates; school in Ladakh (IND)

13 Lapointe Magne & AEdifica; hotel and tourism institute in Montreal (CAN)

14 pfeifer. kuhn. architekten; university institute in Freiburg (D)

15 Bob Gysin + Partner; institute building in Dübendorf (CH)

16 Hascher Jehle Architektur; office building in Landshut (D)

17 Behnisch, Behnisch & Partner; office building in Cambridge (USA)

18 Herzog + Partner; conference and exhibition pavilion in Osnabrück (D)

19 Bill Dunster architects; residential and commercial development in London (GB)

20 sauerbruch hutton; Federal Environment Agency offices in Dessau (D)

Fig. D Aerial photo of a school playground in

Cornwall (GB)

199
Example 01

Private house

Gerra Gambarogno, CH, 1998

Architects:
Buzzi e Buzzi, Locarno
Britta Buzzi-Huppert, Francesco Buzzi
Assistant:
Gabriella Beusch
Structural engineers:
Genazzi & Stoffel e Giacomazzi, Locarno

In this small but densely built-up village on the

eastern banks of Lake Maggiore, two old stone
stables were made habitable again through a
special refurbishment project. Important for the
Ticino-based architects was to emphasize the b
historical context and existing structure, and
deal with it sensitively. In order to create one
coherent interior space, the dividing wall in the a b a
old building was demolished. The roof of the
old building was removed and a geometrically
precise second enclosure was inserted into the
existing masonry perimeter walls like a piece of
furniture. The granite walls, looking almost like aa
ruins, serve as a thermal mass and also protect
the new enclosure from the weather. In order
that the box of larch wood appears like one ele-
ment cast in one mould, the new roof has no
overhanging eaves, which means that the joint
between old and new remains exposed; a con-
crete slab laid to falls beneath the new enclo-
sure drains away the incoming rainwater. The
timber construction consists of 28 prefabrica-
ted elements which were delivered by heli-
copter and assembled within six hours.
The external cladding of larch plywood empha-
sizes the unity of the box. The positions and
sizes of the prefitted larch wood windows, with
roller shutters to provide privacy and cut out
the sunlight, do not line up exactly with the exi-
sting openings in the random rubble masonry,
which means that the window frames are only
partially visible from outside and the original
structure remains intact. Inside the building, the
white-painted lining of gypsum fibreboard cre-
ates a bright, friendly atmosphere and at the
same time conceals a void for pipes and ca-
bles. The bathroom and bedroom are on the
lower floor; the stairs of bleached spruce with
an all-glass safety barrier form a built-in cup-
board. The living and dining areas plus the kit-
chen are on the ground floor; a low-level safety
barrier to the gallery reinforces the open-plan
impression.

º A+U 05 / 2001
db 09 / 2001
DBZ 01/ 2002

200
 Private house

Plan of ground floor

Section 1
Scale 1:200
Vertical section
Scale 1:20

2
1 Roof construction:
clay roof tiles
30 x 50 mm counter battens
50 x 50 mm battens
secondary waterproofing/covering
layer, diffusion-permeable,
seamless, bonded to 60 x 240 mm
rafters (ridge joint connected rigidly
with side plates) with 2 No. 120
mm rock wool thermal insulation
between vapour barrier, PE sheet-
ing, seamless, bonded to
gypsum fibreboard soffit,
2 No. 12.5 mm
2 Wall construction:
20 mm 3-ply core plywood, larch
120 mm timber-frame element,
spruce/fir, with
120 mm rock wool thermal
insulation between
PE sheeting
12 mm OSB
62 mm cavity for services
12.5 mm gypsum fibreboard bb

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Basic provisions/mixed uses: mountain village typical of this region • Global radiation: 1300 kWh/m2a
Integration: residential area; high proportion of tourism • Density: 134 persons/km2
Solidarity/justice: low-budget housing for local population • Distance to local public transport:
Usage: accommodation for use throughout the year 40 m (bus)
Mobility: central position in centre of village; on main tourism route
Building quality
Access/ Social contact: high-density development; semi-public forecourt • Exist. plot ratio: approx. 2.5
communication Accessibility and usability: only accessible on foot; link to intricate network of paths • Exist./new gross floor area: approx. 150 m2
Plot Area of plot: use of area already developed • Unsealed ground: approx. 15% of plot
Open areas: no ground sealing • Sound insulation, bldg. envelope: 35 dB(A)
Design Building culture: respectful handling of existing building by continued use of historical external walls; • Sound insulation, suspend. floors: 45 dB(A)
preservation of uniform appearance typical of this village • Ventilation: natural, 100% of floor area
• U-values, bldg. envelope [W/m2K]:
Well-being/ Safety/security: high social controls; non-slip floor covering
roof 0.2, ext. wall 0.3, window 1.6
health Light: maximum use of external wall openings due to frameless glazing; bright surfaces in interior;
• Projected economic period of use: 40 a
open interior layout with lighting from more than one side; energy-saving bulbs
• Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
Interior climate: thermal mass of existing building acts as climate buffer
approx. 250 000 EUR
Building fabric Structure: continued use of existing building fabric as weather protection; high precision of new structure • Bldg. costs: 1660 EUR/m2 gross floor area
due to prefabrication • Renew. raw mat.: approx. 80% by vol.
Building layout/fitting-out: open-plan interior layout for good variability • Renew. energy coverage rate: approx. 60%
Building costs Investment costs: cost-savings due to omission of weather protection (existing structure)
Operating and Operation and maintenance: zero-maintenance inner and outer leaves of facade • Low- or zero-emissions building materials
maintenance costs Repairs: minimised building services; simple details • Deconstruction concept
Building materials Raw materials (availability): wood used almost exclusively
Environmental impact: use of materials from the region
Dangerous substances: formaldehyde avoided
Deconstruction: building can be separated into its constituent materials and is completely recyclable
Operating energy Building heating: compact building; good insulation to new enclosure
Coverage of energy requirements: wood-burning stove; hot water heated by electricity
Process quality Sustainable building: comprehensive catalogue of requirements with building physics and ecological • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
stipulations
Building tradition: conservation of historic architecture; promotion of local craft traditions
Integrated planning: close cooperation with building physics consultant and timber engineering company

201
Example 02

Private house

Satteins, A, 2002

Architect:
Walter Unterrainer, Feldkirch
Assistant:
Sabine Tschohl
Structural engineer:
Merz Kaufmann, Dornbirn

The angular form and plastic facades of this

detached family home help it to stand out from
its neighbours in this Vorarlberg community.
The building consists of two offset blocks of
different heights. The two-storey section is the
main part of the house with its spacious living
and dining areas on the ground floor and bed-
rooms and study upstairs; the single-storey
section accommodates an entrance lobby, the
stairs down to the basement and the garage.
The entrance area serves as a link between the
two sections and provides access to garage, aa
basement and garden without having to pass
through the living area. It would be possible to
convert the garage into an office or add another
storey (for a small apartment) to the single-
storey section at a later date. The openings are
arranged according to usage and compass
direction. On the road side there are just two A
narrow windows, whereas the south-west
facade includes a generous expanse of glass
facing the garden.
The timber construction consisting primarily of
prefabricated elements was erected on a
ground slab insulated on all sides. This con-
struction results in an energy requirement of
14.7 kWh/m2a, which meets the passive-house
standard. The suspended floors and roof are
highly insulated timber box assemblies. Poly-
carbonate twin-wall sheets were fitted in front
of the 40 mm thick wood-fibre insulating boards
because such sheets are easy to clean with
high-pressure cleaning equipment – an aspect
expressly specified by the client. Space heat-
ing requirements are provided by a controlled
ventilation system with preheating of the incom-
ing air in a ground exchanger and heat recovery.
A mini-furnace, using wood logs or pellets as
fuel, can be operated as well in the case of
especially low temperatures. A solar thermal
system, assisted by a heat pump, heats the hot
water.

º Graf, Anton: Neue Passivhäuser. Munich, a a

2003

c c
b

202
 Private house

A 4 5 6

Section • Plans
1 Scale 1:250
Horizontal section through collector facade
Vertical sections
Scale 1:20

bb cc

1 Facade construction, U = 0.133 kWh/m2K: 21 mm Douglas fir floorboards

16 mm polycarbonate twin-wall sheets on 80 x 60 mm battens with
4 mm rubber 60 mm + 65 mm cellulose insulation between
100 x 30 mm battens 34 mm levelling screed
40 mm wood-fibre board 250 mm reinforced concrete
18 mm OSB 150 mm PU foam boards as insulation
timber frame with to underside
280 mm insulation between 4 Wall construction, collector facade:
18 mm OSB, vapour barrier 120 mm insulation and collector
50 x 30 mm battens with 40 mm wood-fibre board
50 mm flax insulation between 18 mm OSB
12.5 mm gypsum fibreboard timber construction with
2 Suspended floor construction: 26 mm vacuum insulation panels between
26 mm 3-ply core plywood, spruce 40 mm OSB
250 mm glued laminated timber with vapour barrier
40 mm thermal insulation between 12.5 mm gypsum fibreboard
18 mm OSB 5 Fibre-cement strips, 10 mm
60 mm chippings 4 mm seal
26 mm 3-ply core plywood, spruce 6 Wood/aluminium window with
3 Ground floor construction: triple glazing, Ug = 0.7 kWh/m2K

203
Example 02

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: high solar global radiation Basic provisions/mixed uses: exclusively residential area; • Global radiation: 1400 kWh/m2a
connection to town centre Integration: various types of housing Solidarity/justice: presence of high vitality • Density: 198 persons/km2
and perception of safety/security Usage: residential, office Mobility: rural district with little local public • Distance to local public transport: 250 m
transport (bus)
Building quality
Access / Traffic: residential street, 2 garages; space for bicycles Social contact: good neighbourly relationships • Exist. plot ratio: 0.25
communication Accessibility and usability: ground floor designed for wheelchair users • Gross floor area: 190 m2
Plot Area of plot: footprint typical of detached family homes Open areas: unsealed open areas • Unsealed ground: 80% of plot
• Ventilation: mechanical, 100% of floor area
Design Building culture: building volume like traditional surroundings, further development of highly efficient timber
• U-values, bldg. envelope [W/m2 k]: roof
construction with innovative polycarbonate facade Personalisation: flexible interior layout and use of rooms
0.12, ext. wall 0.13, window 0.83,
Well-being / Sound: above-average sound insulation, drop seals in doors; high mass in timber floors; sound-insulated grd. slab 0.12
health leakage-air openings Light: high proportion of windows, living areas lit from more than one side Interior air: • Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
air quality constantly good due to mechanical ventilation system, individual window ventilation possible 320 000 EUR
Interior climate: high surface temperatures due to well-insulated building envelope; external sunshades • Building costs: 1680 EUR/m2 gross floor
Building fabric Structure: high building quality due to prefabrication; durable outer leaf Building layout/fitting-out: house can area
be divided into 2 apartments; optional extra storey over garage; certain rooms suitable as offices • Proportion of renew. raw mat.: 80% by vol.
Building costs Investment costs: owner-occupier Financing: private funds, ecological housing assistance • Heating requirement: 14.7 kWh/m2a
Operating and Operation and maintenance: zero-maintenance building envelope Repairs: roof waterproofing accessible; • Primary energy requirement (Q),
maintenance costs inspection openings for building services; horizontal cable routing behind removable skirting boards heating: 25.5 kWh/m2a
• Renew. energy coverage rate: approx. 75%
Building materials Raw materials (availability): timber construction with weather-resistant polycarbonate facade Environmental
• Active solar areas: solar thermal 10 m2
impact: complete prefabrication for optimised construction process Dangerous substances: use of low-risk
materials Deconstruction: composite materials avoided; building can be separated into its constituent
• Barrier-free
materials and recycled
• Alternative usage concepts
Operating energy Building heating: excellent insulation to building envelope; ventilation system with heat recovery; high passive • Low- or zero-emissions building materials
solar gains (passive-house standard) Hot-water provision: heating by solar thermal energy and exhaust-air • Deconstruction concept
heat pump Air management: short ducts; efficient fans; ground exchanger (50 m long, 180 mm dia.) • Rainwater/grey water usage
Lighting: high daylighting component; energy-saving bulbs Other electrical consumers: technical equipment
with best-possible energy efficiency Coverage of energy requirements: heating via ventilation system with
heat recovery; solar thermal energy; exhaust-air heat pump; wood-burning furnace as emergency backup
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage: separate waste room, composting on the plot Water: short pipes;
rainwater tank for garden irrigation
Process quality Sustainable building: architect with high degree of specialist knowledge; extensive advice for client • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
Building tradition: promoting the tradition of timber buildings through further development; goal: solar-heat- • Simulation method
ed passive house Integrated planning: early inclusion of structural and services engineers Analyses: heat
requirement calculation according to passive-house project package (PHPP); simulation of solar thermal
system by specialist company

204
 Residential development

Residential development

Trondheim, N 2004

Architects:
Brendeland & Kristoffersen arkitekter,
Trondheim
Geir Brendeland, Olav Kristoffersen
Structural engineers:
Reinertsen Engineering, Trondheim

Housing for workers has been built in the city

district of Svartlamoen since the 19th century.
The first industrial premises appeared in 1947
and the district decayed over the years, until
the first punks occupied empty buildings in the
1980s. The Trondheim authorities reacted to
this development by abandoning plans to
expand industrial operations in the area and
instead build “green” housing. Sustainability,
low costs and the innovative use of timber were
the goals of the competition organised to find
the best solution. 6
The result is two substantial timber buildings
with living areas of 22–29 m2 per person – low aa bb
by Norwegian standards, where the norm is
generally 50 m2. The taller building contains
communities of five or six people per storey
and in the low-rise block there are six one-room
units. To keep the overall volume small, all the 2
stairs are in the form of external steel struc- 3 5
5 2
5 4
tures. All loadbearing components are in solid 2
timber, which were prefabricated and erected 3
on site in 10 days. The approx. 150 mm thick
3 2
external walls are supplemented by mineral
wool insulation and untreated wooden clad- 4
2
ding. A U-value of 0.17 W/m2 K was calculated
4 3
for the external walls; special insulating glass
was used for the windows. The 31 occupants
can add their own furnishings and fittings to the 2 3
2
unfinished interiors according to their own 2
needs and tastes.

º Arch+ 167 / 177, 2006

Architectural Review 12 / 2005
Japan Design 06 / 2005 b

2 3 5
4 5
5

2 4
a a b Sections • Plans
Scale 1:500
3
1 Entrance
2 2 Private area
3 Communal area
4 Kitchen zone
1 5 Studio apartment
6 Commercial usage

205
Example 03

Vertical section Scale 1:20

1 Roof construction:
1 cladding, untreated pine heartwood, 22 x 148 or
22 x 73 mm
36 x 48 mm battens
bituminous felt
23 x 36 mm counter battens
22 mm plywood
40 mm ventilation cavity
waterproofing
48 x 198 mm timber rafters with mineral wool
insulation between
208 mm solid timber prefabricated element
2 Floor construction:
22 mm floorboards
20 mm cement-bonded particleboard
48 x 125 mm timber joists with
125 mm mineral wool insulation between
218 mm solid timber suspended floor
3 Insulating glazing, U = 1.1 W/m2K
4 Facade construction:
cladding, untreated pine heartwood, 22 x 148 or
22 x 73 mm
36 x 48 mm counter battens
26 x 36 mm battens
waterproofing
9 mm plasterboard
waterproofing
48 x 200 mm timber studs with
200 mm mineral wool insulation between
vapour barrier
144 mm solid timber wall element

206
 Residential development

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: electricity from renewable energy sources Basic provisions/mixed uses: former district for • Global radiation: 600 kWh/m2a
workers’ housing near an industrial district Integration: conversion (industrial usage), increase in quality and • Density: 476 persons/km2
redefinition of location; start of long-term re-establishment of housing in the district Solidarity/justice: • Distance to local public transport: 200 m
creation of low-cost housing Usage: different housing forms, childcare, shops, cafeteria (bus)
Building quality
Access/ Traffic: plot integrated into existing access arrangement, bicycle parking inside and around buildings • Exist. plot ratio:1.7
communication Social contact: very high proportion of communal areas; joint kitchen and sanitary facilities Accessibility and • Gross floor area: 1015 m2
usability: accommodation accessed via common inner courtyard, open stairs and covered walkways • Unsealed ground: approx. 60% of plot
Plot Area of plot: compact form of construction and external access to minimise ground sealing • Ventilation: natural, 100% of floor area
Open areas: external areas completely unsealed • U-values, bldg. envelope [W/m2K]:
ext. wall 0.17, glazing 1.1
Design Building culture: striking building, constructional innovations in timber engineering Personalisation: occupants
• Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
responsible for interior fitting-out and design of communal areas
1.071M EUR
Well-being / Safety/security: clear layout; high social controls Sound: good sound insulation due to solid timber walls • Building costs: 1055 EUR/m2 gross floor
health Light: good illumination due to low room depths Interior climate: high thermal comfort due to untreated solid area
timber surfaces in interior • Ratio of cost groups 300/400: 80/20
Building fabric Structure: solid timber construction with high quality due to prefabrication Building layout/fitting-out: flexible • Proportion of renew. raw mat.:
internal layouts; different apartment sizes and standards; access zones can be used as open areas approx. 90% by vol.
Building costs Investment costs: very low capital outlay; minimised building volume due to external access; low specific • Electrical heating (space heating, hot
area consumption per person (22 m2), interior fitting-out omitted Financing: foundation established with water): 130 kWh/m2a
public assistance, organised by residents, financed by rental income • Electrical requirements for lighting and
Operating and other electrical consumers: 45 kWh/m2a
Operation and maintenance: untreated timber surfaces; minimised building services
maintenance costs • Renew. energy coverage rate: approx.
Repairs: very simple building design and details to reduce cost of repairs
90% (electricity from hydroelectric plants)
Building materials Raw materials (availability): timber used almost exclusively Environmental impact: high degree of prefabrica-
tion Dangerous substances: synthetic materials avoided in the interior – walls, floors and soffits of untreated • Competition
larch Deconstruction: building can be separated into its constituent materials • Low- or zero-emissions building materials
Operating energy Building heating: direct electric heating Hot-water provision: electric heating Other electrical consumers:
minimal technical equipment Coverage of energy requirements: electric heating (electricity generated
almost exclusively by hydroelectric power)
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage: waste separation as required by law; composting
Process quality Sustainable building: ecological-social pilot project, developed in conjunction with urban development plan • Participation concept
Building tradition: project integrated into research project for the further development of traditional timber
construction Participation: direct involvement of future residents

207
Example 04

Refurbishment of a private house

Berlin, D 2003

Architect:
Thomas Hillig, Berlin
Assistant:
Thomas Kaiser
Structural engineer:
Michael Grimm, Bischofsgrün, Berlin

This gently sloping plot is located on the eastern

banks of a lake in Berlin-Hellersdorf, not far
from the rediscovered Lemke Villa of Ludwig
Mies van der Rohe. The end house of this ter- Section • Plans
Scale 1:250
race dating from 1978 was formerly used as a
Vertical section
guest-house/youth club. The client’s original Scale 1:20
idea was to demolish the building completely
and replace it with a new structure. However,
as the interior layout was functional and cer-
tainly modifiable, he finally decided in favour of
converting the existing building.
As the concrete internal walls are loadbearing,
they could not be repositioned. Apart from the
kitchen, which was transferred from the road to aa
the garden side in the living area, the uses of
the individual rooms were retained. One impor-
tant component in the conversion concept was
to loosen the rigid internal structure and thus
make the living area more spacious. Walls were
opened up and provided with sliding elements;
storey-height slits for doors and windows
enhance the openness.
The facades, consisting of prefabricated con-
crete panels with 40 mm thick polystyrene cav-
ity insulation, were provided with a mineral ther- a a
mal insulation composite system as part of the
refurbishment project and in certain areas
covered with a larch cladding. The complete
renewal of the electrical installation, the installa-
tion of a gas-fired condensing boiler with hot-
water tank and standard radiators enabled the
energy consumption to be cut drastically. The
new wooden windows with insulating glazing
achieve a U-value of 1.3 kWh/m2a. The existing
marble in the entrance and staircase was
retained, the carpeting in the other rooms
replaced by wood-block flooring made from
smoked oak.

º Architektenkammer Berlin: Architektur

Berlin 04. Berlin 2004

208
 Refurbishment of a private house

1 Roof construction: 50 mm cavity insulation

bituminous waterproofing 150 mm reinforced concrete loadbearing
160 mm polystyrene foam thermal insu- inner leaf
lation 3 Floor construction:
lightweight screed laid to falls 22 mm wood-block flooring, smoked oak
140 mm reinforced concrete levelling mortar
2 Wall construction: 30 mm screed
80 mm thermal insulation composite 140 mm reinforced concrete
system with mineral render
75 mm exposed aggregate concrete
outer leaf

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: natural gas supply Basic provisions/mixed uses: edge of town; residential area Solidarity/ • Global radiation: 1000 kWh/m2a
justice: creation of low-cost housing for families Usage: after use as guest-house/youth club, revitalisation • Density: 3817 persons/km2
for residential use Mobility: residential access road • Distance to local public transport:
600 m (tram, bus)
Building quality
Access / Traffic: garage in basement; car parking Accessibility and usability: access via spacious staircase; patio at • Exist. plot ratio: 0.3
communication ground floor level Social contact: better visual links to outside world • Gross floor area, existing building: 280 m2
Plot Area of plot: refraining from an extension means no increase in size of footprint Open areas: essentially no • Unsealed ground: approx. 80% of plot
ground sealing to external areas • Ventilation: natural, 100% of floor area
• Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
Design Building culture: sensitive treatment of building stock; energy-efficiency and architectural upgrade with low
286 000 EUR
capital outlay
• Building costs: 885 EUR/m2 gross floor
Well-being / Safety/security: good social controls in established residential district Light: better use of daylight due to area
health enlarged window areas Interior climate: higher surface temperatures due to supplementary insulation; • Proportion of renew. raw mat.: approx.
highly effective thermal masses; external sunshades 20% by vol.
Building fabric Structure: continued use of high-quality loadbearing structure and floor coverings; retention and upgrading
of external walls due to insulation and new weather protection Building layout/fitting-out: opening up internal • Low- or zero-emissions building
layout for more flexibility materials
Building costs Investment costs: minimising the capital outlay by refraining from demolition and rebuilding
Operating and Operation and maintenance: use of easy-care surfaces in the interior
maintenance costs
Building materials Raw materials (availability): prolonging the life cycles of concrete construction and high-quality floor cover-
ings Environmental impact: minimising the consumption of resources by retaining the building stock
Dangerous substances: use of natural materials internally; waxed solid wood-block flooring
Operating energy Building heating: marked reduction in heating requirement due to energy-efficiency upgrade of building
envelope Lighting: minimising the artificial lighting requirement by increasing the window sizes
Coverage of energy requirements: gas-fired condensing boiler
Process quality Sustainable building: optimisation of resources through use of building stock Building tradition: retention of
cultural inheritance (panel construction) Integrated planning: inclusion of a landscape architect

209
Example 05

Mountain refuge

St. Ilgen, A 2005

Architects:
pos architekten, Vienna
Treberspurg & Partner Architekten, Vienna
Project team:
Florian Dorninger, Jutta Leitner, Fritz Oettl,
Marie Rezac, Christian Wolfert
Structural engineers:
Robert Salzer, Hohenberg
Gerald Gallasch, Vienna
Energy concept and building physics:
Wilhelm Hofbauer, Vienna

In the Austrian Hochschwab region in the Alps

there is a new self-sufficient mountain refuge in
passive-house quality at an altitude of 2154 m.
The location, form and internal layout of this
building are matched to the extreme climatic
conditions. Positioning the building on the ele-
vated plateau means that the north-west winds,
with speeds up to 200 km/h, prevent the build-
ing being engulfed in snow! The exact position
was determined by analyses of the sun’s trajec-
tory. All the building materials were delivered
by helicopter; the prefabricated wall elements
were therefore limited to a maximum weight of
1400 kg, the roof elements 600 kg. The build-
ing consists of a plinth storey in reinforced con- aa
crete and two upper storeys in timber, and it is
operated entirely with renewable energy –
including drinking-water treatment and waste-
water disposal. The south elevation has large
expanses of glass, photovoltaic panels and
5
solar collectors, and therefore serves as a pas-
sive and active source of solar energy. Con-
1 2 1 3 6
trasting with this, the other facades are essen-
tially closed in order to keep thermal losses to
6
an absolute minimum. The strict solar orienta-
tion is also reflected in the internal layout. Com-
5
munal areas and bedrooms face south, where- 4 5 5
as ancillary facilities and circulation zones are
placed on the north side.
Solar collectors integrated into the facade
cover an area of 64 m2 and provide all the hot-
water requirements. The heat recovery from the
ventilation system enables the building to be a
self-sufficient in terms of thermal energy. About
65% of electricity needs can be met by the use
of photovoltaic modules, which cover an area
of 70 m2; a co-generation plant, which runs on
8
vegetable oil, cuts in as required. Rainwater is 7
collected in a tank in the basement and used
for preparing the drinking water and other 11 2 9
water requirements of the building. After treat-
ment in a biological cleaning and disposal
plant, the waste water can be drained into the
soil without causing any harm. Dry-composting 10 12
toilets prevent the unnecessary use of water. b

b
º Bauen mit Holz 9 / 2005
DBZ 06 / 2006
Intelligente Architektur 04, 2006

210
 Mountain refuge

13

14

17

15

1 Washroom Section • Plans

2 Drying room Scale 1:250
3 Shower Vertical section
4 Caretaker’s apartment Scale 1:20
5 Bedroom
6 Staff room
7 Cloakroom/store
8 Entrance lobby 18
9 Dry-composting toilets
10 Kitchen
11 Bar
12 Lounge

13 Roof construction, U = 0.10 W/m2K:

stainless steel standing seam roof cover-
ing
separating layer, diffusion-permeable
30 mm untreated timber decking
100 mm ventilation cavity/battens, air-
tight membrane
16 mm wood-fibre board, diffusion-
permeable, hydrophobic coating
airtight membrane
300 mm rock wool thermal insulation 16
between timber members
18 mm OSB
vapour barrier, airtight PE sheeting
60 mm rock wool thermal insulation
between battens
fleece mat to retain fill
15 mm 3-ply core plywood, oiled/waxed
spruce 17
14 Solar thermal collector 19
15 Translucent photovoltaic panel
16 Triple glazing: 52 mm, low E coating,
argon filling, Ug = 0.6 W/m2K, in wood/
aluminium frame, Uw = 0.8 W/m2K
17 Facade construction, U = 0.10 W/m2K:
19 mm larch decking
30 mm ventilation cavity/battens
airtight membrane 20
16 mm wood-fibre board, diffusion-
permeable, hydrophobic coating
airtight membrane
rock wool thermal insulation
346/240 mm (lounge/standard) between
timber studs
18 mm OSB
vapour barrier, airtight PE sheeting
80 mm thermal insulation/battens
15 mm 3-ply core plywood, oiled/waxed
spruce
18 Floorboards, oiled/waxed spruce
19 Ready-to-lay wood-block flooring, oiled/
waxed ash
20 Photovoltaic panel on galvanised steel
framework

bb

211
Example 05

p g

External temperature Temperature of waste-water Temperature of storeroom

treatment
Temperature of staff room Temperature of lounge Temperature of corridor

Global radiation, horizontal Global radiation, PV panels

50.0 1200 A Measurements from November 2006

45.0 1100 B Interior zones, passive solar
40.0
1000 C Hot water, electricity
35.0

Incident radiation [W/m2]

30.0 900 D Ventilation/heat recovery
Temperature [°C]

25.0 80 0
20.0 700 1 Solar energy
15.0 2 Hot-water tank
6 00
10.0
500
3 Co-generation plant, rapeseed oil
5.0
4 Battery
0.0 400
-5.0
5 Exhaust air
300
-10.0 6 Incoming air, 20°
200
-15.0 7 Expelled air
-20.0 100
8 Fresh air
-25.0 0 9 Passive-house ventilation unit with exhaust-air
heat recovery
06

06

06

06

06

06

06
20

20

20

20

20

20

20
ov

ov

ov

ov

ov

ov

ov
N

N
21

22

23

24

25

26

27
A

1
5
6

5 8
6

2 3 9
B C D

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: 2154 m above sea level; high temperature fluctuations (min. -25°C, max. +23°C); no • Global radiation: 1300 kWh/m2a
public infrastructure Basic provisions/mixed uses: self-sufficient mountain refuge, open from May to October • Climate data relevant to location: average
Solidarity/justice: low-budget overnight accommodation Usage: guest-house with restaurant; events Mobility: annual temp. -0.2°C; winds up to 200 km/h
only accessible on foot; supplies delivered and refuse collected by helicopter every 8 weeks Noise/vibration: • Density: < 1 person/km2
very airtight form of construction and high sound insulation values to minimise wind noise • Dist. to local public transport: 12 km (bus)
Building quality
Access / Social contact: central common room; several beds/room; various bedroom sizes; joint sanitary facilities • Exist. plot ratio: 0.24
communication Access. & usability: forecourt; access on side facing away from wind & via terrace; common balcony • Gross floor area, existing building: approx.
Plot Area of plot: footprint as for original building; deconstruction of old building after completion of new one 490 m2
Open areas: no ground sealing to external areas; large elevated terrace • Gross floor area, new building: 626 m2
Design Building culture: re-interpretation of mountain refuge architecture in traditional timber construction; building • Unsealed ground: 90% of plot
optimised for solar energy gains; position and facade design maximise link with outside world (panoramic view) • Sound insulation: walls > 55 dB(A),
window > 35 dB(A)
Well-being / Sound: good room acoustics due to absorbent timber surfaces; high sound insulation in suspended floor,
• Ventilation: mechanical, 100% of floor area
health sound-insulated ventilation system Light: glazing quality permits large panoramic windows with optimised
• U-values, bldg. envelope [W/m2K]:
daylight utilisation Interior air: constant, good air quality due to controlled, preheated fresh air Interior
roof 0.1, ext. wall 0.1, window 0.8,
climate: good accommodation quality due to very high airtightness and surface temperatures
floor over basement 0.2
Building fabric Structure: prefabricated lightweight timber structure optimised for transport and short construction time • Projected economic period of use: > 100 a
Building layout/fitting-out: solar-oriented usage zoning, communal rooms on south side, ancillary rooms and • Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
access on north side; flexible heated floor space, depending on number of guests approx. 2M EUR
Building costs Investment costs: expensive materials transportation in mountainous area Financing: public assistance • Building costs: 3200 EUR/m2 gross floor
Operating and Operation and maintenance: zero-maintenance facade (larch) and roof covering (stainless steel); area (prototype)
maintenance costs low energy costs • Proportion of renew. raw mat.: approx.
80% by vol.
Building materials Raw materials (availability): mostly indigenous species of wood Dangerous substances: wooden surfaces oiled
• Heating requirement: 11 kWh/m2a
and waxed only Deconstruction: prefabricated construction; bldg. can be separated into its constituent materials
• Renew. energy coverage rate: 100%
Operating energy Building heating: compactness; passive use of solar energy (glazing); thermal insulation/passive-house • Active solar areas: solar thermal 64 m2,
standard; extract system with heat recovery Lighting: energy-saving bulbs Other electrical consumers: high- PV 70 m2
est possible energy-efficiency class Coverage of energy requirements: solar thermal and PV systems incor-
porated into facade; co-generation plant (vegetable oil) as backup; log-burning boiler for kitchen; recycling • Low- or zero-emissions building materials
of wood from existing building after deconstruction • Register of building materials
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage: highly efficient grease/fat separation; less waste due to washable filters in • Deconstruction concept
kitchen extract system Water: rainwater tanks (38 m3); treated to produce drinking water; high-quality • Rainwater/grey water usage
biological waste-water treatment, seepage on the plot itself; dry-composting toilets
Process quality Sustainable building: pilot project for passive-house mountain refuge Integrated planning: right from start of • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
project; project planning within the scope of a research programme Analyses: choice of location according • Simulation method
to analysis of sun’s trajectory; extensive simulations Monitoring: remote monitoring of building status, elec- • Monitoring
tricity load management to avoid high output requirements and to maximise battery life

212
 District heating plant

District heating plant

Sexten, I, 2005

Architect:
Siegfried Delueg, Brixen
Assistants:
Thomas Malknecht, Igor Comploi
Structural engineers:
Team 4, Bruneck

Tourism and the associated service industries

characterise the region around the little com-
munity of Sexten in South Tyrol. In order to
preserve the rural Alpine structure of this area,
harmonious, careful integration in the land-
scape was one of the stipulations in the design
competition for the new district heating plant. aa
The level plot is situated in an industrial estate
and is bordered on the north-western and
southern sides by the forested hillside and a
stream. Access to the site is via the existing
bridge at the north end. One of the two build-
ings contains the heating plant; the other is
used for storing the wood chippings. The two
bb
buildings fan out towards the forest, framing
an open-air storage area for further wood chip-
pings. The location and arrangement of the
buildings ensure trouble-free deliveries and
short transport distances. Untreated wood
chippings, sawmill by-products and logging
debris from the immediate region are used
exclusively as the fuel for this biomass district a
heating plant. The heat generated is then sent,
using water as a transfer medium, via the
b
36 km of pipes in the district heating network to
more than 300 customers in the area. The insu-
lated steel pipes are thermally prestressed and
undergo constant electronic monitoring. Pipe
friction losses and a hydrostatic head of 105 m
are compensated for by recirculating pumps.
Some 2.4 million litres of heating oil can thus be
saved every year.
Welded steel frames with rigid connections
form the loadbearing structure for the heating
plant building. The large-format glued laminat-
ed timber boards of the outer walls at the same
time provide the bracing for the building, form
a loadbearing enclosure and constitute the b
thermal insulation; additional, internal insulation
a
is required only in the walls around the offices.
Placing the external walls at an angle creates
an optical illusion, making the buildings appear
shorter than they really are. Vertical larch bat-
tens, which continue past the window and ven-
tilation openings, reinforce the homogeneous
appearance.

º Architektur Aktuell 10 / 2006

db 05 / 2006 Sections • Plan
Scale 1:1000

213
Example 06

1 1

2
2

Vertical sections • Horizontal section

Scale 1:20

214
 District heating plant

1 Roof construction:
120 x 30 mm rough-sawn larch open decking
60 x 40 x 2 mm steel hollow section, hot-dip galv.
60 x 40 x 5 mm steel Z-section
waterproofing, 2 layers of bitumen sheeting,
airtight, diffusion-permeable
25 mm spruce decking, 80 x 80 mm sq. sections
128 mm solid timber roof, larch, U = 1.3 W/m2K
2 Insect screen
3 Steel Å section, 300 x 550, tapering
4 Wall construction:
120 x 30 mm rough-sawn larch cladding
40 x 60 x 60 mm spacer blocks
50 x 80 mm square sections
90 x 60 x 5 mm steel angle, hot-dip galvanised
waterproofing, 2 layers of bitumen sheeting, air-
tight, diffusion-permeable
50 mm mineral wool thermal insulation
95 mm solid timber wall, larch
40 mm air space
20 mm lining, spruce multi-ply board
5 Larch lining, 25 x 90 mm
6 Steel tube, Ø30 mm, hot-dip galvanised
7 Neoprene bearing

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: extensive forests in the region Basic provisions/mixed uses: edge of settlement; industrial • Global radiation: 1400 kWh/m2a
estate Usage: new plant for central heat supplies based on biomass wood chippings to replace individual • Density: 23 persons/km2
heating plants Mobility: situated on main road • Distance to local public transport: 10 m
(bus); 15 km (regional trains)
Building quality
Access/ Accessibility and usability: arrangement of buildings creates forecourt and partially conceals open-air stor- • Plot: 6500 m2
communication age; minimal transport distances within plant Social contact: displays open to the public in entrance area; • Covered area: 2230 m2
guided tours; assembly room fitted out to a high quality • Unsealed ground: 0% of plot (asphalt
Plot Area of plot: footprint minimised by placing non-technical functions on upper floors Open areas: open area hardstanding required for storage)
used for storing wood chippings • U-value, boiler house walls: 1.3 W/m2K
• Projected economic period of use: 50 a
Design Building culture: sensitive harmonisation with the landscape; inclined facades to create the illusion of
• Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
smaller surfaces; homogeneous appearance due to uniform covering to facades and roof surfaces made
2.5M EUR
from larch battens attached at different pitches Personalisation: fitting-out determined by user
• Proportion of renew. raw mat.:
Well-being / Interior climate: thermal insulation to boiler house provided by solid timber facades; additional, approx. 70% by vol.
health internal insulation to offices • Renew. energy coverage rate: 100%
Building fabric Structure: materials selected taking into account efficiency and local availability Building layout/fitting-out:
roof space suitable for conversion; flexible use of assembly room • Competition
Building costs Investment costs: budget typical for this type of use Financing: power plant belongs to local community • Low- or zero-emissions building materials
Operating and Operation and maintenance: facades of untreated larch require no maintenance Repairs: facades made
maintenance costs from prefabricated elements that can be easily replaced
Building materials Raw materials (availability): use of indigenous species of wood; facades consist of structural, large-format
glued laminated timber elements; steel frames for large spans; reinforced concrete adjacent to ground
Environmental impact: biomass power plant replaces individual heating plants which hitherto had consumed
2.4 million litres of heating oil annually Dangerous substances: central heat generation enables high-quality
flue-gas scrubbing with heat recovery for minimal air pollution in the valley Deconstruction: timber panel
construction; entire plant can be separated into its constituent materials
Operating energy Building heating: heated rooms minimised; rooms heated via radiators fed from district heating system
Hot-water provision: no hot-water requirements Coverage of energy requirements: biomass
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage: separate ash collection/disposal Water: minimised water consumption
for cleaning
Process quality Sustainable building: extensive stipulations in competition regarding ecological aspects; harmonious inte- • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
gration into the surroundings required Building tradition: promotion of local timber construction industry • Participation concept
Participation: comprehensive involvement of citizens in project development Integrated planning: close • Simulation method
cooperation with power plant engineer Analyses: extensive studies carried out during project development • Monitoring
Monitoring: detailed monitoring by power plant operator Facility management: by power plant operator • FM concept

215
Example 07

Straw house

Eschenz, CH, 2005

Architect:
Felix Jerusalem, Zurich
Structural engineers:
SJB.Kempter.Fitze, Frauenfeld
Detailed design:
Création Holz, Herisau

Despite the tight budget, the architect man-

aged to design a simple but well-thought-out
house for a four-person family. Owing to the
damp ground, the building is raised clear on
small piles; only the heavyweight reinforced
concrete core – containing bathroom, WC,
kitchen units, cloakroom and basement
(accessed via a hatch in the ground floor) –
extends into the ground. At the same time, the
concrete core divides the rectangular building
into two parts: the two rooms for the children on
the south side, the living room and master bed-
room on the north side and above the latter –
exploiting the highest part of the monopitch
bb
roof – a gallery that serves as a study. The
rooms have the charm of a refined structural
carcass: a sealed screed serves as the floor
finish, all pipes and cables are left exposed,
and in some places the walls have been left
untreated. The real characteristic of the build- Sections • Plans
ing is to be found in its construction: apart from Scale 1:200
Vertical section
the concrete core, the house is built entirely of Scale 1:20
pressed straw boards – a zero-emissions, recy-
clable building material. The floors, roof and 1 Master bedroom
2 Living room
walls consist of sandwich elements all built 3 Entrance
according to the same principle: outer layers of 4 Bathroom
highly compressed straw boards for the load- 5 Kitchen
bearing function, a core of lightweight straw 6 Child’s room
aa 7 Gallery
boards for the thermal insulation. All the ele- 8 Void
ments were prefabricated and then assembled
on site. The building was completed in just four
months.

b
º Detail 06 / 2006
Werk, Bauen und Wohnen 11/ 2006

3
6

4
7 8 a
1 2

6 a
5

216
 Straw house

9
14

15 10

16 11

9 Roof construction: 12 Floor construction, living areas:

0.5 mm chromium-nickel steel sheet as roof covering 50 mm sealed screed
27 mm 3-ply core plywood 2 No. 20 mm impact sound insulation/space for services
80 mm battens/ventilation cavity floor element:
waterproof sheeting, diffusion-permeable 40 mm straw board, highly compressed
roof element: 200 mm highly compressed straw board ribs with
40 mm straw board, highly compressed lightweight straw board insulation between
200 mm lightweight straw board as insulation 40 mm straw board, highly compressed
40 mm straw board, highly compressed 13 Floor construction, bathroom:
10 Wooden window with insulating glass: 4 mm lam. 50 mm sealed screed
safety glass + 16 mm cavity + 4 mm lam. safety 2 No. 20 mm impact sound insulation/space for services
glass 160 mm insulation
11 Wall construction: 200 mm reinforced concrete
20 mm GFRP corrugated sheeting 14 Glued laminated timber beam, 100 x 240 mm
20 mm perforated aluminium Z-section cladding 15 Hardwood bearing, oak, 20 mm
rails/ventilation cavity 16 Floor construction, gallery:
wall element: 2 No. 80 mm highly compressed straw boards
40 mm straw board, highly compressed 17 Glued laminated timber strengthening, 80 x 200 mm
170 mm lightweight straw board as insulation 18 Oak section, 60 x 100 mm
40 mm straw board, highly compressed 19 HEB 200 steel beam section, tapered

13 17 12

18 19

217
Example 07

Horizontal section
Scale 1:20

1 Wooden window with insulating glass:

4 mm lam. safety glass + 16 mm cavity +
4 mm lam. safety glass
2 Wall construction:
20 mm GFRP corrugated sheeting
20 mm perforated aluminium Z-section
cladding rails/ventilation cavity
wall element:
40 mm straw board, highly compressed
170 mm lightweight straw board as insulation
40 mm straw board, highly compressed
3 Sheet steel, 2 mm
rock wool insulation, 60 mm
highly compressed straw board, 40 mm,
painted white

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: natural gas supply • Global radiation: 1300 kWh/m2a
Basic provisions/mixed uses: exclusively residential area • Density: 134 persons/km2
Solidarity/justice: pilot project for developing low-budget construction and components for housing • Distance to local public transport: 300 m
(bus); 700 m (regional trains)
Building quality
Access / Traffic: connection to residential road, 2 parking spaces on the plot; good visibility • Exist. plot ratio: 0.2
communication Accessibility and usability: access via 4 steps, ramp can be added • Gross floor area: 173 m2
Plot Area of plot: minimal ground sealing due to elevated construction, preservation of natural topography • Unsealed ground: 98% of plot
Open areas: unsealed external areas, vegetation beneath building • Ventilation: natural, 100% of floor area
• U-values, bldg. envelope: [W/m2K] roof 0.21,
Design Building culture: experimental architecture with innovative renewable materials, size adapted to the sur-
ext. wall 0.18 1, window 1.1 (g-value 0.6);
roundings, facade with high recognition value
grd. slab 0.17 1
Personalisation: interior and exterior design by the user
• Projected economic period of use: 50 a
Well-being / Safety/security: good social controls, numerous visual links Sound: high sound insulation due to new sand- • Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
health wich facade with components of different thickness Light: very high proportion of glazing, interior lit from 370 000 EUR
more than one side, white interior surfaces Interior air: cross-ventilation possible Interior climate: high stand- • Building costs: 2140 EUR/m2 gross floor
ard of insulation; sorptive interior surfaces; underfloor heating area (prototype)
Building fabric Structure: new types of building components made from renewable raw material (prototypes) • Proportion of renew. raw mat.:
Building layout/fitting-out: exposed pipes and cables for simple replacement or expansion approx. 90% by vol.
Building costs Investment costs: high degree of prefabrication, minimal earthworks • Heating requirement: 15 kWh/m2a
Operating and Operation and maintenance: zero-maintenance facade cladding; metal roof
maintenance costs Repairs: minimised interior fitting-out and building services • Barrier-free 2
• Low- or zero-emissions building materials
Building materials Raw materials (availability): fast-growing (regrows in approx. 3 months) raw material available locally
• Deconstruction concept
Environmental impact: building materials essentially compostable Dangerous substances: straw contains
no formaldehyde Deconstruction: entire building can be separated into its constituent materials
Operating energy Building heating: compact form of construction, MINERGIE standard, passive solar energy usage via trans-
lucent GFRP cladding Coverage of energy requirements: gas-fired condensing boiler, wood-burning fireplace
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage: composting of organic waste on the plot
Water: short pipes
Process quality Sustainable building: “green house” objective Building tradition: further development of traditional form of • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
construction with renewable raw materials using new material technologies Analyses: comprehensive build- • Simulation method
ing physics and static measurements on 1:1 model
1
Based on dynamic calculations by product manufacturer
2
Provided access ramp is fitted

218
 Combined nursing and senior citizens’ home

Combined nursing and senior citizens’ home

Steinfeld, A, 2005

Architect:
Dietger Wissounig, Graz
Structural engineers:
Kurt Pock, Gerolf Urban, Spittal/Drau

The gently sloping site of this combined nurs-

ing and senior citizens’ home is situated on the
western border of the small town of Steinfeld in
Carinthia. The building appears compact and
restrained. The east-west orientation is a
response to the surroundings: service areas
form a buffer to the north-west, where there is a
trunk road, whereas most of the apartments
and communal areas face the gardens to the
aa
south-east. Inside the building, visual links and
simple routing ease orientation. Generous and
flexible rooms encourage communication. The
supply and administrative facilities plus the
events/dining hall, library and chapel – all three
also open to the public – are all located on the
ground floor.
The two upper floors, entirely in timber, canti-
lever beyond the heavyweight, set-back con-
crete ground floor on all four sides. Prefabricat-
ed timber-frame walls, with glued laminated
timber columns and all services pre-installed,
transfer the loads to the concrete plinth. The
compact, highly insulated building envelope
reduces transmission heat losses to the level of
a passive house. Ventilation of the building is
via the central glass-roofed atrium. In winter the
preheating of the air in ground exchangers and
the additional solar energy gains result in an
average air temperature of approx. 20°C. In
summer, on the other hand, the incoming exter- b
nal air is cooled as it passes through the
ground exchanger. Shading elements above
the glass roof prevent overheating in the upper b
section. The individual rooms are supplied with
fresh air via a displacement ventilation system.
Numerous individual measures like the use of
a a
rainwater for flushing toilets and watering the
gardens, separate controls for heating zones,
district heating and electronic control gear for
the lighting mean that on the whole this build-
ing consumes about 50% less energy than
comparable facilities.

º Architektur Aktuell 6 / 2006

Baumeister 5 / 2006

Section • Plans of ground and 1st floor

Scale 1:500

219
Example 08

8 3

Vertical section
Scale 1:20
Energy scheme
A Winter: passive heat gains
B Summer: ventilation/cooling

11

20°

-10°
10 13 12

15 14

11

25°

30°
10 12

bb

220
 Combined nursing and senior citizens’ home

1 Roof construction:
5 mm waterproof sheeting
2 No. 110 mm PUR thermal insulation
2 mm vapour barrier
18 mm OSB
20–175 mm timber firrings
140 mm edge-glued timber elements
2 Floor construction, individual rooms:
22 mm oak wood-block flooring
70 mm heated screed
separating layer, PE sheeting
25 mm impact sound insulation
63 mm loose fill
separating layer, PE sheeting
140 mm edge-glued timber elements
3 Glass wall to corridor: 20 mm tough. safety
glass clamped in 75 x 170 mm glulam mem-
bers (larch)
4 Track, steel channel section, 30 x 30 mm
5 Sliding element:
80 x 20 mm vertical larch laths in 25 x 100 x
2 mm aluminium hollow section frame
6 Track for curtains
7 Spandrel panel/rail, larch, 50 x 255 mm
8 Insulating glass, U = 0.9 W/m2K
9 Wall construction:
tongue and groove boarding
80 x 20 mm vertical larch laths
35 x 50 mm counter battens
waterproofing, diffusion-permeable
35 x 50 mm battens with
35 mm thermal insulation between
36 mm wood-fibre board
50 mm rock wool thermal insulation
10 Fresh air, ground exchanger
11 Fresh air reservoir
12 Displacement ventilation
13 Expelled air with heat recovery
14 Sunshade
15 Natural ventilation/exhaust air

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: connected to district heating (biomass energy source) Basic provisions/mixed uses: edge • Global radiation: 1300 kWh/m2a
of town; town centre can be reached on foot Integration: mixed usage; facilities suitable for different gener- • Density: 27 persons/km2
ations Solidarity/justice: areas accessible to the public Usage: home for the elderly, town library, church, • Distance to local public transport: 20 m
rooms for public events Mobility: good links to existing infrastructure Noise/vibration: ancillary rooms posi- (bus); 1000 m (regional trains)
tioned on road side
Building quality
Access/ Traffic: footpath through park; car parking Social contact: lobby on ground floor, café, central atrium; • Exist. plot ratio: 0.5
communication 2 communal rooms per storey, loggia, terraces Accessibility and usability: entire facility barrier-free • Gross floor area: approx. 3730 m2
Plot Area of plot: 3-storey building ensures compactness; no ground sealing in atrium • Unsealed ground: 85% of plot
Open areas: gardens with circular paths, hardstandings with grass paving • Ventilation: mechanical, 100% of floor area
• U-values, bldg. envelope [W/m2K]: roof
Design Building culture: similar to traditional timber construction with heavyweight concrete plinth Personalisation:
0.13, walls 0.18, glazing 0.9, grd. slab 0.18
seasonal decoration of interior; users’ own furniture in communal areas as well
• Projected economic period of use for
Well-being / Safety/security: high transparency from inside to outside and vice versa; central care facility; non-slip floor- facade: 65 a
health ing; circular routes indoors and outdoors Sound: sound-absorbent wooden surfaces Light: high proportion • Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
of glazing; overhead light via atrium; artificial lighting controlled by occupancy detectors Interior air: con- approx. 4.1M EUR
stant, very high air quality due to controlled fresh/exhaust air in rooms, window ventilation possible; fresh air • Ratio of cost groups 300/400:
via atrium with ground exchanger Interior climate: high thermal comfort; airborne odours depending on sea- approx. 75/25
son and planting in atrium; smell of wood in the rooms • Building costs: approx. 1100 EUR/m2 gross
Building fabric Structure: high construction quality due to prefabrication Building layout/fitting-out: open-plan layout with floor area
numerous visual links for good orientation; communal areas suitable for various uses • Proportion of renew. raw mat.: approx.
Building costs Investment costs: higher capital outlay for insulation standard and ventilation system recouped through 80% by vol.
savings in energy consumption Financing: public sector • Heating requirement: 14 kWh/m2a
Operating and Operation and maintenance: very easy-care surfaces, epoxy resin floors with special coating for optimum • Renew. energy coverage rate: heating
maintenance costs cleaning by machine Repairs: systematic routing, inspection hatches 100%
Building materials Raw materials (availability): very high proportion of wood-based products; indigenous species of wood • Barrier-free
Environmental impact: high degree of prefabrication; untreated wooden surfaces Deconstruction: building • Competition
structure according to “house-of-cards” principle, materials can be separated for recycling • Low- or zero-emissions building materials
Operating energy Building heating: very high standard of insulation; ventilation system with heat recovery; solar gains via • Deconstruction concept
atrium Building cooling: fresh air for atrium via ground exchanger (500 m long, 800 mm dia.) • Rainwater/grey water usage
Coverage of energy requirements: biomass via district heating
Infrastructure Water: use of rainwater for WCs and watering gardens
Process quality Sustainable building: competition objective to achieve pilot project for combined nursing and senior citizens’ • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
home in modern timber construction with sustainable building technology; passive-house standard • Simulation method
achieved Building tradition: promotion of local building trades Integrated planning: close involvement of
specialists, external project management Analyses: heating requirement calculation

221
Example 09

Home for several generations

Darmstadt, D, 2003

Architects:
Kränzle + Fischer-Wasels, Karlsruhe
Klotz + Knecht, Darmstadt
Jürgen Ludwik, Reinheim (construction
manager)
Structural engineers:
ISG Gesellschaft f. Ingenieurbau &
Systementwicklung, Darmstadt

On the edge of Darmstadt, this flat, block-like

structure, facing the extensive park which
adjoins and merges with the plot, terminates an
open roadside development. The two-storey
clay brick building comprises three separate
maisonettes, each equipped with kitchen and
bathroom so that the various generations of the
client’s family can live together yet independ-
ently under one roof. Grouped together within a
uniform building envelope, the individually
designed apartments are reached via a com- aa
mon internal hallway. Voids extending the full
height of the building between the apartments
serve as conservatories, lightwells and commu-
nal areas. Like with a building kit, the rooms
can be added to horizontally or vertically, or
subdivided, to suit requirements. Up to six
apartments, or apartments for guests, or
offices, are possible. Uniform specifications 4
for the materials and colours of the walls, floors
and soffits, concentrating the services in cer- 2
tain zones and neutral room proportions simplify
subsequent conversions. The building is en- 3
closed on three sides with dark grey masonry, 3 3
so the house appears secluded when viewed
4
from the road or the sides. But on the south
side, facing the park, the facade is totally differ-
ent, with full-height glazing providing an un-
obstructed view over the park landscape. Solid
internal walls store the incoming solar gains
and release the heat into the interior after a
delay. External sunshades above the glass
roofs prevent overheating in the interior. The
glass facade is fitted with colourless solar-
control glass which is shaded by the balcony
and the extensive rooftop planting and there-
fore requires no further sunshading elements.
2
º db 03 / 2005
DBZ 08 / 2006

a
a
1
1 b
1
4
b

222
 Home for several generations

Section • Plans
Scale 1:500
Vertical section
Scale 1:20
10
1 Living accommodation
2 Communal area
3 Void
4 Terrace/balcony

5 Wall construction:
115 mm masonry in stretcher bond
30 mm ventilation cavity
120 mm mineral-fibre thermal insulation
200 mm reinforced concrete
6 Green roof:
50 mm extensive planting
11 9 8 substrate
filter fleece
drainage mat
root barrier
waterproof sheeting
7 250 mm rigid foam insulation laid to falls
vapour barrier
undercoat
200 mm reinforced concrete
15 mm plaster
7 Precast concrete edge beam
8 Steel cover plate, 20 mm
9 Wooden deck, bangkirai, 144 x 28 mm
10 Aluminium sliding door:
low E glass, U = 1.1 W/m2K, 6 mm float glass +
16 mm cavity + 4 mm float glass
11 Floor construction, upper floor:
15 mm oak wood-block flooring
70 mm heated screed
separating layer
35 mm impact sound insulation
220 mm reinforced concrete
10
15 mm plaster
12 Floor construction, ground floor:
25 mm Jura marble, grey
30 mm mortar bed
80 mm heated screed
separating layer
60 mm insulation
separating layer
240 mm reinforced concrete
15 mm plaster

12 9 8

bb

223
Example 09

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: natural gas supply Basic provisions/mixed uses: residential area; edge of town Integra- • Global radiation: 1100 kWh/m2a
tion: mixed age structure, student accommodation, home for the elderly Usage: home for several genera- • Density: 1156 persons/km2
tions Mobility: basement garage accessed from main road; 4 parking spaces on the plot (also suitable for • Distance to local public transport: 200 m
disabled persons) Noise/vibration: high boundary wall as noise barrier between house and road (bus); 3000 m (inter-city trains)
Building quality
Access / Traffic: parking beneath building Social contact: common access hallway; lightwells between housing units • Exist. plot ratio: 1.0
communication as communal areas; areas for joint use Accessibility and usability: footpath to common entrance; 2 further • Gross floor area: 1490 m2
separate entrances can be added; no barriers between inside and outside; lift can be added in lightwell • Unsealed ground: approx. 70% of plot
Plot Open areas: no ground sealing externally; pavers with open joints to footpath and garage ramp • Rooftop planting: approx. 70% of covered
area
Design Building culture: integration into historical built-up environment; reduced geometrical forms reminiscent of
• Ventilation: natural, 100% of floor area
classical modernism; flexible internal layout represents a re-interpretation of multi-generation living Person-
• U-values, bldg. envelope [W/m2K]:
alisation: private apartments can be arranged and decorated as required, communal areas after consultation
roof 0.26, ext. wall 0.24, window 1.4,
Well-being / Safety/security: high social controls due to open building structure; communal spaces and numerous visual grd. slab 0.35
health links Sound: lightwells provide acoustic decoupling between individual rooms Light: good illumination due • Heating requirement: 70 kWh/m2a
to high proportion of glazing plus lightwells with overhead glazing Interior climate: high surface tempera- • Final energy requirement, natural gas:
tures, very effective thermal masses; external sunshades over roof glazing approx. 58 500 kWh/a
Building fabric Structure: minimised structure of reinforced concrete wall plates; facade with brick facing leaf and ventila-
tion cavity Building layout/fitting-out: living concept with high flexibility in internal layout; building can be • Barrier-free1
used with 3–6 residential units, communal spaces can be flexibly allocated to individual rooms, which • Low- or zero-emissions building materials
means it is possible to adjust step by step to changing needs
Building costs Investment costs: use of good-quality materials with the aim of high durability and low maintenance costs;
minimised building services; synergy effects due to the “house-in-house” concept
Operating and Operation and maintenance: zero-maintenance facade, easy-care floor coverings of stone and solid wood;
maintenance costs metal window frames; extensive rooftop planting Repairs: little wear because of high building quality with
very durable materials
Building materials Raw materials (availability): stone and bricks from regional operations Environmental impact: rooftop planting
to compensate for ground sealing Dangerous substances: waxed wooden floors; internal walls finished with
mineral paint
Operating energy Building heating: high passive solar gains; living rooms and bedrooms on south side; circulation zone and
lightwells as climate buffer; underfloor heating Lighting: minimised artificial lighting requirements due to
very high daylighting levels Coverage of energy requirements: gas-fired condensing boiler
Process quality Sustainable building: plot and building layout chosen to suit the lifestyles of several generations • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
Participation: collaboration of the users as project developer, architect and client • Participation concept
1
Ground floor apartments provided ramp fitted in entrance area, total building provided lift is installed (allowed for in design)

224
 Sports hall

Sports hall

Tübingen, D, 2004

Architects:
Allmann Sattler Wappner, Munich
Assistants:
Dirk Bauer, Birgit Bader, Eva Hartl, Kai Homm,
Christof Kilius, Thomas Meusburger, Martin
Plock, Ulf Rössler, Steffen Schwarz
Structural engineers:
Werner Sobek Ingenieure, Stuttgart
Energy concept:
Transsolar Energietechnik, Stuttgart

This multi-function facility is located in the

immediate vicinity of the sports grounds in
Tübingen and the spacious leisure area along
the banks of the River Neckar. The monolithic
block denotes the end of the sports grounds.
The hall can be used in many ways – profes-
sional training and competitions, school sports
events, the latest sporting trends and popular aa
sports – and so it was necessary to include not
only the full internal volume in the concept, but
also the external walls as well! All four facades
have additional functions as well as just provid-
ing protection from the weather, e.g. complete
solar facade, outdoor climbing wall, half-pipe.
Inside, the sports arena itself, one floor lower
than the surrounding ground, is naturally the
central focus of the hall; the seating for specta-
tors on all sides accommodates the change in bb
level. The entrance level serves as a circulation
and service zone, the changing rooms are b
located in the basement and special events
can be held on the upper level. The roof to the
sports hall is supported by steel girders which
are supported on fair-face concrete external
walls and three service cores. The minimum
possible use of primary energy and the use of
natural resources form the heart of the energy
concept. A ground exchanger cools the incom-
ing fresh air in summer and preheats it in win-
ter. Refrigeration plant is used for large events
when there are up to 3000 people in the build-
ing. Heat exchangers at roof level recover the
heat from the exhaust air. Shimmering green
solar modules with white borders cover the
entire surface of the south-west elevation; the
electricity generated is fed into the public grid.
A flat roof with extensive planting helps to clean
the air and regulate the temperature. Hot water
for the radiant ceiling panels used for heating
the hall during the colder months comes via a
group heating network from the neighbouring
swimming pool.

º Baumeister 3 / 2005
a a
GLAS 2 / 2005

b
Sections • Plan of ground floor
Scale 1:1000

225
Example 10

226
 Sports hall

5
8
9

Vertical section
Scale 1:20
Energy and ventilation scheme

1 Roof construction: 300 or 360 mm reinforced concrete

extensive rooftop planting 3 Solar-control glass with internal glare protec-
substrate tion, argon-filled cavity, 50% silk-screen print-
drainage and filter mat ing on outer pane
waterproofing, polymer-modified bitumen 4 Floor construction:
140 mm thermal insulation, 50 mm cement screed
rock wool with bitumen coating PE sheeting
vapour barrier, polymer-modified bitumen 20 mm impact sound insulation
acoustic insulation in ribs, fleece facing 30 mm rigid foam
100 x 275 x 0.75 mm steel trapezoidal PE sheeting
profile sheeting 250 mm reinforced concrete
2 Wall construction, photovoltaic facade: 5 Fresh air drawn in via ground exchanger
tough. safety glass composite supported on angle, 6 Heat exchanger
supporting framework (fixed/sliding anchors) 7 Displacement ventilation
85 mm air space 8 Heat recovery via run-around coil
100 mm mineral wool with fleece facing 9 Radiant ceiling panels

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: heating requirement covered by group heating system involving neighbouring swimming • Global radiation: 1120 kWh/m2a
pool Usage: choice of location is obvious complement to existing leisure facilities (swimming pool, sports • Density: 775 persons/km2
clubs, festival grounds) Mobility: compact arrangement of parking spaces in conjunction with adjoining • Distance to local public transport: 30 m
facilities Noise/vibration: orientation of building plus positions of openings take into account noise from (bus); 1000 m (regional/inter-city trains)
main road on north side
Building quality
Access / Traffic: main entrance faces secondary road with less traffic; cantilevering upper floor creates covered fore- • Bicycle parking: 25 m2
communication court Social contact: design of external facades opens up leisure options for the whole day (skating, street- • Exist. plot ratio: 1.4
ball, climbing wall) Accessibility and usability: clear layout; lowering the playing level enables level entrance; • Gross floor area, new building: 6500 m2
ramp from ground level to basement • Unsealed ground: approx. 20% of plot
Plot Area of plot: footprint reduced by superimposing different types of sport and multiple uses • Rooftop planting: approx. 60% of covered
Open areas: extensive rooftop planting area
• Daylight autonomy: 4%
Design Building culture: public building represents “gateway” into town; signal effect of complete PV south facade;
• Ventilation: mechanical, 100% of floor area
differentiated green colouring of different facades creates specific identity and references to surrounding
• U-values, bldg. envelope1 [W/m2K]:
landscape; roof landscape visible due to surrounding topography
R 0.27, E 0.36, W 1.5, O 2.5, G 0.38
Well-being / Safety/security: rebound walls around sports arena; smoke/fumes fan with 10-fold air change rate Sound: • Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
health low-noise ventilation system Light: optimised proportions of roof and facade openings; illumination via 7.15M EUR
translucent rooflights guarantees non-glare, even illumination; artificial lighting concept generates 1000 lx • Ratio of cost groups 300/400:
on playing area (TV-compatible); light-coloured surfaces to ceiling and structure (degree of reflection > approx. 80/20
70%) Interior air: cross-ventilation possible; non-draughty displacement ventilation Interior climate: exposed • Building costs: approx. 1100 EUR/m2 gross
thermal masses: max. summer temp. 27°C; VIP areas partly air-conditioned (cooling) floor area
Building fabric Structure: robust materials internally and externally Building layout/fitting-out: flexibility of use due to tele- • Active solar areas: PV 525 m2
scoping spectator seating; multi-functional, divisible arena
Operating and Operation & maintenance: low energy costs; ventilation concept cuts annual operating costs by about 36% • Competition
maintenance costs (compared to conventional systems) Repairs: clear separation between loadbearing structure & fitting-out
Operating energy Building heating: compact building; entrance lobby; pre-conditioned fresh air; extract system with heat
recovery; efficient radiant ceiling panels Building cooling: ground exchanger for basic load (everyday oper-
ation); additional 180 W refrigeration unit to cover peak loads (major events) Air management: minimised air
change rate (2.5) due to displacement ventilation; fewer fans – extract system exploits thermal currents
Lighting: excellent daylighting; artificial lighting concept based on fluorescent tubes (basic illumination) plus
additional metal halide lamps (1000 lx) Coverage of energy requirements: 4 ground exchangers each 50 m
long – cooling output approx. 70 kW, heating output approx. 90 kW; electricity yield of PV facade min.
24 000 kWh/a; CO2 emissions cut by approx. 40 t/a due to energy concept
Process quality Integrated planning: interdisciplinary planning team from competition onwards • Simulation method
Analyses: extensive daylight and artificial light simulation; thermal-dynamic simulation
1
R: roof (heavyweight), E: external walls, W: windows, O: overhead glazing, G: ground slab

227
Example 11

Training academy

Herne, D, 1999

Architects:
Jourda et Perraudin, Lyon/Paris
Hegger Hegger Schleiff, Kassel
Structural engineers:
Ove Arup & Partners, London
Schlaich Bergermann & Partner, Stuttgart
Energy concept:
Ove Arup & Partners, London
HL-Technik, Munich

The Mont-Cenis Training Academy resulted in a

whole city district been restructured: the 25 ha
site also includes a landscaped park and a
5 ha residential estate. The glass enclosure of
the academy was developed with a footprint of
16 000 m2 as a “microclimatic envelope” for
passive solar energy gains, beneath which the
various parts of the facility are accommodated
3 3
as separate units. Photovoltaic glass modules 3
cover about half of the roof and facade surfaces 1 2
a
and are integral components in the design con-
a
cept; apart from generating electricity, they 8
also provide sunshading and control the amount
of incoming daylight. In order to realise a 9
6
“clouds effect”, the modules were installed in 5 6 7
6
different densities. Opening lights in the centre 4
of the roof act as vents. The protection from the
weather and the solar energy gains result in a
mild climate, which makes the glass enclosure
usable as an external space and reduces the
energy requirements of the buildings within it.
The building envelopes of the structures within
the glass enclosure need to be neither airtight
nor rainproof, and simple forms of construction
are therefore possible. Heated areas are saved
because large sections of the access zones
have been transferred to the glass enclosure.
The warm air that builds up beneath the glass
roof can be used to save additional heating
energy in winter. Loadbearing structure and
facade construction are in timber, a renewable
resource. The energy concept also includes a
co-generation plant, which uses the methane
escaping from the former mine shafts to gener-
ate electricity. As large quantities of gas are
available during overcast periods of low atmos-
pheric pressure, the plant then compensates
for the low solar yields. With optimum control of
the systems, the total energy requirement is
approx. 32 kWh/m2a.

º Architectural Review 10 / 1999

Hagemann, Ingo: Gebäudeintegrierte
Photovoltaik. Cologne 2002

228
 Training academy

10

11

12

13

14

14

15

16

17

18

18

bb

Plan Scale 1:1500

Vertical section • Horizontal section
Scale 1:20
b b
14 19 1 Library
2 Municipal offices
3 Hotel/apartments
4 Assembly hall
5 Casino, leisure area
6 Training academy
7 Training academy offices
8 Water feature
9 Timber terrace

10 Roof glazing, laminated safety glass:

6 mm extra-clear heat-strengthened glass
2 mm photovoltaic cells in casting resin
8 mm heat-strengthened glass
11 Inverter
12 Galvanised steel gutter
13 Rainwater quick-drain system
14 Facade, single glazing:
structural sealant glazing on
160 x 60 mm glulam facade posts
individual photovoltaic modules in certain areas
15 Glulam edge beam, 300 x 400 mm
16 Opening lights
17 Timber roof girder
18 Timber girder to resist wind forces
19 Glulam facade rail

229
Example 11

Schematic diagrams of Section

climate concept Scale 1:1000
A Summer
B Spring/autumn
C Winter

aa

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: methane Basic provisions/mixed uses: academy, hotel, restaurant, sports facilities, com- • Global radiation: 960 kWh/m2a
munity centre, public library, municipal offices Integration: regional training facility + local public amenities • Density: 3231 persons/km2
in low-income area Usage: symbol of structural change in region Mobility: bicycle parking, rented bicycles • Distance to local public transport: 100 m
in bldg. Noise/vibration: less ext. noise due to climate envelope Radiation: sealing against methane (bus)
Building quality
Access / Traffic: main entrance via urban square Social contact: climate envelope as central, public communication • Bicycle parking: 80 m2
communication space; academy guests and local citizens intermingle; networking via associated stairs and covered walk- • Exist. plot ratio: 0.48
ways Accessibility and usability: reception; 24 h public accessibility • Gross floor area, climate env.: 12 326 m2
Plot Area of plot: land recycling; former colliery and coking plant Open areas: level, elliptical rainwater seepage, internal buildings: 14 346 m2
“poplar ellipse”, with overflow to stream as architectural element • Unsealed ground: approx. 40% of plot
• Ventilation: natural, 100% of floor area,
Design Building culture: termination of a regional green belt; high significance creates local identity in city district
climate env. mechanical 100% of floor
Well-being / Safety/security: clear design of ext. areas/climate envelope; orientation suitable for disabled persons Sound: area, bldgs.
health absorbent int. facades Light: optimised window proportions; light shelves/HOEs to redirect daylight Interior • Operating hours > 26°C/a: approx. 80 h
air: ground exchangers for ventilating int. bldgs; natural ventilation of offices/seminar rooms Interior climate: • Projected economic period of use: 50 a
high int. air hygiene spec.; exposed thermal masses; intermediate climate in climate envelope • Bldg. costs, cost grp. 300–400: 41.5M EUR
Building fabric Structure: durable materials/details Bldg. layout/fitting-out: separated structure, fitting-out & bldg. services buildings (cost group 300: 15.5M EUR;
Building costs Investment costs: typical building costs for this type of use despite additional climate envelope cost group 400: 5M EUR)
Financing: integral photovoltaic power plant financed by local energy company climate envelope (cost group 300: 11.5M
Operating and Operation and maintenance: investment and operating costs variants analysed during the planning; low EUR; cost group 400: 9.5M EUR incl. PV)
maintenance costs energy costs Repairs: use of durable materials that age gradually and naturally • Ratio of cost groups 300/400: 65/35
• Bldg. costs: 2896 EUR/m2 gross floor area
Building materials Raw materials (availability): structure/fit-out in untreated timber Environmental impact: planning w. LCA data
• Proportion of renew. raw mat.:
Dangerous substances: checking constituents of fit-out mat. Deconstruction: prefab. construction
approx. 50% by vol.
Operating energy Building heating: reduced energy requirement due to unheated climate envelope, high insulation quality for • Heating requirement: 56 kWh/m2a
internal facades, heating via group heating network, ventilation system with heat recovery Building cooling: • Renew. energy coverage rate: 100%
thermal masses in buildings permanently in use, night-time cooling Hot-water provision: central via group (energy-plus house)
heating network Air management: local for each building, natural ventilation (except kitchen) Lighting: • Active solar area: PV 8400 m2
controlled via occupancy and brightness sensors Coverage of energy requirements: 1 MWpeak photovoltaic
system integrated into roof and facades, with 1200 kWh battery storage to cover peak loads, methane-fired • Barrier-free
2.9 MW co-generation plant (1150kWelec +1740 kWtherm) • Competition
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage: recyclable materials collected in basement Water: water-saving fittings • Low- or zero-emissions building materials
• Rainwater/grey water usage
Process quality Sustainable building: model project of the federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia for sustainable, energy- • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
efficient, barrier-free construction Building tradition: timber structure is reminiscent of former timber sup- • Participation concept
ports in mine galleries Participation: local citizens kept informed as part of the project; “open building site” • Simulation method
Integrated planning: multi-cultural, interdisciplinary planning team with user participation during planning • FM concept
and construction processes Analyses: thermal, flow, energy requirement and daylight simulations, wind
tunnel tests Facility Management: introduced during planning

230
 School

School

Ladakh, IND, 2001

Architects:
Arup Associates, London
Structural engineers:
Arup & Arup Associates, London
Energy concept:
Arup & Arup Associates, London

Mountains stretching into the distance and the

culture of the Tibetan Buddhists characterise
the district of Ladakh on the Indian side of the
Himalayas. On average, the area is 3500 m
above sea level. The climate is extremely dry, 5
and even during the hottest months the temper-
ature can drop to -10°C at night – an extreme
temperature gradient. The goal of the London-
based architects was to erect a school for 750
boys and girls which besides references to the
religion and culture of the region would also 4
reflect the traditional methods of building with
local materials in accordance with the climatic
a

conditions. The plan layout of the school com-

3 2 4
plex is based on the form of a mandala, the 4
size and layout on the surrounding village and 2
b b
monastery structures.
a

The economics of traditional building materials

and the use of the solar energy available were 1
optimised with the help of computer simulations
and analyses. The use of solar-powered water
pumps for irrigation, non-glare light manage-
ment, natural cross-ventilation and passive
shading resulted in virtual self-sufficiency in
terms of water and energy supplies. The board- Location drawing 1 Main entrance 5 Central energy supply facility with
ing school rooms on the north side of the com- Scale 1:4000 2 School water borehole and solar pump
3 Central assembly area
plex are heated with Trombe walls – insulating 4 Boarding school
glazing 100–150 mm in front of the black sur-
face of the solid masonry walls. The radiation
absorbed during the day is released slowly into
the interior; ventilation openings at top and bot-
tom ensure convection currents. All sanitary
facilities were placed outside and the tradition-
al form of the dry-composting toilet further
developed – a two-chamber system with a dry
pit and seepage surface behind a solar-assist-
ed ventilation shaft. The external walls of the
building are of stone with loam plaster on the
inside; the internal partitions are made from
loam bricks. To improve stability during earth-
quakes, the timber construction supporting the
roof is separate from the walls. The supplies of
granite, willow and poplar were obtained local-
ly.

º Architectural Review 05/2002

Casabella Dec/Jan 2006/2007

231
Example 12

c
8

1
1
9 10
12

6 4
12 11

13 11 13
3

14 14
a
5 b b
14 14
16
a 6
2 14 14

15 15

aa bb

232
 School

30
Classrooms Plans • Sections
25
school, boarding school
20 Scale 1:500
15 Section through sanitary facilities
10
Scale 1:100
Temperature diagram,
5
Exterior
classroom
0 ºC

-5

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time 9h/16h 9h/16h 9h/16h 9h/16h 9h/16h 9h/16h 9h/16h

1 Entrants
2 Open-air classroom
3 Playground with well
4 Nursery
5 Kindergarten
6 Classroom
7 Staff room
17 8 Sanitary facilities
9 Lobby with lockers
21 10 Heated rest room
11 Entrance lobby
18 12 Living room
13 Bedroom, teacher
14 Bedroom, pupil
15 Washroom
17 16 Internal courtyard
19
17 Galvanised steel sheet,
dark paint finish
18 Communal wash basin
20 19 Dry pit
20 Seepage surface
cc 21 Ventilation shaft

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: 3500 m above sea level; high temperature fluctuations (down to -10°C even during sum- • Global radiation: approx. 1800 kWh/m2a
mer nights); very dry and windy; hardly any public infrastructure (no electricity, water or sewage) Basic • Climate data relevant to the location:
provisions/mixed uses: masterplan includes vocational workshops, computer workstations, kitchen and external air temp. in winter as low as -30°C
medical centre plus school and boarding school Integration: schooling for all social groups and all ages • Density: 3 persons/km2
from kindergarten to high school; accommodation for pupils from remote villages Solidarity/justice: develop-
ment aid project; support and vocational qualifications for low-income rural populations Mobility: near to
main road; bus stop
Building quality
Access / Social contact: central assembly area; sports ground; library; open-air classrooms; playground; rest room; • Gross floor area, new building: 4445 m2
communication communal living areas • Unsealed ground: approx. 40% of plot
Plot Open areas: vegetation guarantees protection from sun and wind; hardstandings mainly unsealed • Ventilation: natural, 100% of floor area
• Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
Design Building culture: building based on the appearance of local monastery and village structures; direct refer-
1.9M EUR
ence due to the use of granite from the vicinity Personalisation: innovations in the contexts of “low-tech”
• Ratio of cost groups 300/400: approx. 93/7
(building materials) and “high-tech” (optimisation through simulation)
• Building costs: 430 EUR/m2 gross floor
Well-being / Safety/security: seismic-resistant roof construction Light: large areas of south-facing glazing; even, non- area
health glare daylight illumination of classrooms due to additional northern light; bright surfaces to walls and soffits • Proportion of renew. raw mat.: 40% by vol.
Interior air: cross-ventilation in classrooms; solar-powered ventilation of sanitary facilities Interior climate: • Renew. energy coverage rate: 100%
passive shading, internal courtyards protected from the wind
Building fabric Structure: selection of robust, ageing-resistant materials and forms of construction Building layout/fitting-out: • Low- or zero-emissions building materials
solid construction; flexible classrooms; minimal building services; sanitary facilities in separate building • Register of building materials
Building costs Investment costs: low building costs; minimisation of capital outlay Financing: approx. 40% from donations • Rainwater/grey water usage
Operating and Operation and maintenance: low operating, maintenance and energy costs Repairs: easy-to-repair and
maintenance costs replaceable assemblies and details; minimal plant
Building materials Raw materials (availability): primarily renewable or local building materials such as wood, loam, stone
Environmental impact: low embodied energy Deconstruction: partially detachable connections
Operating energy Building heating: maximum exploitation of solar gains; classrooms face south-east; entrance lobby; Trombe
wall; wood stoves Building cooling: thermal masses; overhanging eaves Lighting: no artificial lighting in
classrooms Coverage of energy requirements: PV for water pump and electrical equipment; biomass (wood)
Infrastructure Water: water supply from groundwater (30 m deep); storage tank; dry composting toilets; grey water used
for irrigation
Process quality Sustainable building: model project for sustainable development; self-sufficiency in energy supplies; con- • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
veying the idea of sustainability as part of school curriculum Building tradition: choice of materials, form of • Participation concept
construction and details based on local building traditions and methods; knowledge transfer Participation: • Simulation method
self-help; integration of local craftsmen and day labourers into the building process Integrated planning:
2-year study of conditions specific to the location; interdisciplinary in situ planning team made up of engi-
neers and architects Analyses: Trombe wall; daylight and thermal-dynamic simulation

233
Example 13

Hotel and tourism institute

Montreal, CAN, 2005

Architects:
Lapointe Magne & Ædifica, Montreal
Michel Lapointe, Robert Magne
Assistants:
Guy Favreau, Jean-Luc Vadeboncoeur
Structural engineers:
Les Consultants Géniplus, Montreal

The building complex for the Quebec Tourism

& Hotel Institute (ITHQ) contains a total floor
area of 21 000 m2 and was originally built in
1970. Rising from the four-storey plinth, which
fills the whole area of the city-centre plot, is a
seven-storey tower which creates an important
landmark within the city of Montreal. Part of the
ground floor is used as the entrance to an
underground station and so this renowned
international training centre for the tourism,
hotel and restaurant industry also forms part of
the public infrastructure in the city. In order to
convey to the public the importance and func-
tion of this institute in a contemporary way, the 12
interior of the building was thoroughly refur- 15
bished and the original, hermetically sealed
building envelope of reinforced concrete was 17
upgraded by adding a glass outer leaf to lend 16
the building more transparency and depth. In 15
addition, the use of glass elements in different
14
colours, with different textures, now divides up
the building according to its particular func- 10
tions. The facilities such as restaurant, foyer
13
and lobby on the ground floor, all open to the 11
public, are enclosed totally in glass and are
12
fully visible 24 hours a day. The giant letters 10
printed on the glass to the plinth storeys ensure
aa
that the building’s functions are visible to the
outside world. The protruding balcony elements
break up the hotel and offices areas on the
longer facades of the central tower. Contrasting
with this on the facade facing the Rue Saint-
Denis is the alternation between clear and
green glass, the appearance of which changes a
depending on the position of the observer. The
double-leaf facade optimises the energy bal-
ance of the building: in winter the air masses in
the facade cavity are heated up by solar energy 6 7
4
gains and fed into the heating system; in sum-
mer the hot exhaust air is driven upwards by
natural thermal currents and escapes via open- 5
ings at the top of the facade. 9

º Canadian Architect 05/2006

1 2 3 8

234
 Hotel and tourism institute

Section 1 Foyer 18 Facade element, cold-formed alumi- 28 Expanded metal grid, 700 x 5 mm
Plans 2 Hotel lobby nium grid, 475 x 40 x 5 mm, fixed to 29 Glass door as thermal break
ground floor 3 School lobby 19 Steel angle, 50 x 50 x 3 mm 30 Single glazing to balcony as
10th floor 4 Restaurant 20 Clear glass, 200 x 340 mm climatic separation
Scale 1:1000 5 Kitchen 21 Green glass, 55 x 340 mm 31 Spandrel panel to balcony, 2 No.
Horizontal section • Vertical section 6 Access to basement parking 22 Patent glazing fixing, 20 x 60 mm 10 mm lam. safety glass, clamped
double-leaf facade 7 Deliveries aluminium hollow section in steel sections
Scale 1:20 8 Students’ lounge 23 Aluminium channel, 65 x 30 x 3mm, 32 Expanded metal grid, 1350 x 5 mm
9 Entrance to underground station black, galvanised 33 Balcony floor plate, 650 x 5 mm
10 Open-plan offices 24 Facade post, 100 x 65 x 5 mm steel sheet steel
11 Individual offices hollow section, black, galvanised 34 Balcony support beam, IPE 310
12 Institute management 25 Support for facade walkway, 50 x 50 steel section
13 Classrooms x 3 mm steel hollow section 35 Cladding to inner leaf, 5 mm sheet
14 Staff room 26 Loadbearing construction, 150 x 75 x metal, painted grey
15 Plant room 5 mm steel hollow section, black 36 Thermal insulation, 140 mm
16 Banqueting halls 27 Support for facade walkway, 100 x 37 Reinforced concrete, 550 mm
17 Hotel rooms 200 x 5 mm steel hollow section 38 Double glazing as thermal break

18 19

20 29

21 35
30

26 36
37
24 27 31

23
22 25

28 33 38
32

bb

b b

20 24 26 29 31 32 33 35

34 34
28
25

27

235
Example 13

Energy scheme for double-leaf facade

A Plinth, winter/summer
B Tower, winter/summer

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: natural gas supply Basic provisions/mixed uses: city-centre location; amenities for differ- • Global radiation: 1200 kWh/m2a
ent user groups Integration: training hotel, teaching facilities, multimedia documentation centre Usage: PR, • Density: 4439 persons/km2
research and training centre for tourism, hotel and restaurant industry, PR upgrade for location Mobility: • Distance to local public transport: 0 m
entrance to underground station integrated into ground floor (underground trains)
Building quality
Access / Traffic: good integration into public infrastructure due to numerous entrances, facade design varies accord- • Exist. plot ratio: 5.9
communication ing to compass direction Social contact: public areas on ground floor, communication areas, workshop • Gross floor area, existing building: 27 000 m2
courses (e.g. in demonstration kitchens) Accessibility and usability: spacious circulation zones • Ventilation: mechanical, 100% of floor area
Plot Area of plot: continued usage and revitalisation of building stock • Unsealed ground: 0% of plot
• Bldg. costs, cost grp. 300–400: 25M EUR
Design Building culture: lifetime of building stock prolonged through conversion, relationships with surroundings
• Building costs: 930 EUR/m2 gross floor area
reinforced through enhanced transparency (e.g. communication of usage)
• Energy consumption (2002, before refurb.)
Well-being / Sound: double-leaf facade cuts noise from outside Light: good daylighting levels due to high proportion of operating hours: 8108 h/a
health glazing Interior air: mechanical ventilation; window ventilation possible in hotel; double-leaf facade preheats gas: 3 407 580 kWh/a
incoming air Interior climate: increase in thermal comfort due to higher surface temperatures of existing facade electricity: 8 873 794 kWh/a
Building fabric Structure: use of building fabric dating from 1970s final energy requirement (heating, cooling,
Building costs Investment costs: cost of refurbishment approx. 50% of that for a comparable new building; lower operating lighting, equipment): 455 kWh/m2a
costs enable opening times to be doubled, with enhanced services and turnover • Energy consumption (2005, after refurb.)
Operating and Operation and maintenance: long-lasting materials chosen for facade; easy-clean surfaces operating hours: 16 712 h/a
maintenance costs Repairs: modular steel construction; simple standard details gas: 2 871 690 kWh/a
electricity: 8 100 000 kWh/a
Building materials Dangerous substances: finishes and floor coverings with fewer dangerous substances (e.g. linoleum)
final energy requirement (heating, cooling,
Deconstruction: modular steel construction suitable for dismantling
lighting, equipment): 406 kWh/m2a
Operating energy Building heating: energy-efficiency upgrade due to double-leaf facade as climate buffer; ventilation with • Energy costs:
heat recovery; energy requirement < 40% of national standard Building cooling: efficient compression-type 2002: 1810 EUR/m2a
refrigeration units Air management: fans with lower electricity consumption Other electrical consumers: 2005: 1755 EUR/m2a
kitchen equipment driven with alternative power (gas) Coverage of energy requirements: electricity (100% • Renew. energy coverage rate:
hydroelectric power) electricity requirement 100%
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage: recycling station on each floor; subsequent sorting within building
Water: use of rainwater and grey water in preparation • Barrier-free
• Choice of low-emissions building materials
Process quality Sustainable bldg.: energy-efficiency upgrade; increased acceptance of bldg. due to distinctive redesign; • Simulation method
architectural discussion stimulated through exhibition in local gallery Bldg. tradition: further development of • FM concept
industrial prefabrication processes to shorten construction time Integrated planning: interdisciplinary plan-
ning team (e.g. involvement of restaurant consultant) Analyses: thermal-dynamic simulation Monitoring:
measuring points in preparation Facility Management: external

236
 University institute

University institute

Freiburg, D, 2006

Architects:
pfeifer. kuhn. architekten, Freiburg
Project team: Alwin Neuss (project manager),
Achim Schneider, Wolfgang Stocker, Johannes
Abele, Bendix Pallesen-Mustikai, Dominic Ikic,
Marcus Hannemann, Sebastian Fiedler
Structural engineers:
Mohnke Bauingenieure, Denzlingen
Energy concept:
Ingenieurbüro Kuder, Flein (building services),
Delzer Kybernetik, Lörrach (simulation)

The Department of Environmental Health Services

is the second of six new buildings planned for
the university’s Faculty of Medicine and is
located in the south-western corner of the hos-
pital complex. These buildings are lined up
along the so-called Researcher Street and will
later be linked via walkways. The internal layout
is based on the usage and the associated
energy requirements. The supply corridor to
the laboratories has been divided into acces-
sible cells with waiting loggias along the north- Section • Plan of 1st floor
east facade, which results in a flexible, open Scale 1:500
internal layout. The open-plan offices facing
1 Supply corridor
south-west are interrupted by the conservato- 2 Laboratory
ries extending over three storeys. The central 3 Office
zone of this block is reserved for access and 4 Conservatory
ventilation shafts.
Optimum use of renewable energy sources is
the priority in the building’s energy concept.
An important element here is the air collector
facade plus the conservatories on the south- aa
west side, which collect solar energy and pro-
vide natural ventilation to the offices at the
same time. During the winter, the air preheated
in the collector facade is fed into the offices
and extracted via the central shafts which
extend up to the roof, where heat recovery
takes place. During the summer, the external
air, cooled in a ground exchanger, is fed via a
these same central shafts into the offices and
extracted via the collector facade, where natu-
ral currents ensue to carry the air upwards to 1
controlled vents at the top of the facade.
After consultation with the authorities, it was 2
decided that four air changes per hour would
be adequate for the laboratories instead of the
eight normally prescribed for mechanical venti-
lation to such rooms; however, the air change
rate can be increased locally if required. This
resulted in considerable energy-savings and 3 4
b c
meant that the size of the ventilation plant could
be reduced. b c

237
 Example 14

2
1

12

13

7
8

10

4 4

bb

1 Roof construction: 4 Suspended floor construction:

100 mm vegetation 2 mm PU resin finish
5
filter fleece, drainage mat 50 mm separate screed 6
storage mat, root barrier 350 mm reinforced concrete with
waterproofing, polymer-modified bitumen activation of concrete core
sheeting, 2 layers 5 Ground floor construction:
200 mm cellular glass thermal insulation 2 mm PU resin finish
bitumen undercoat 50 mm screed on separating layer
300 mm reinforced concrete 250 mm reinforced concrete 9
2 Vent 100 mm insulation
3 Wall construction: 100 mm 4/8 gravel 10
post-and-rail construction with 6 Ventilation grille (insect screen)
8 mm toughened safety glass 7 Fascia panel, 15 mm 3-ply core plywood
260 mm cavity for air flow 8 Vent (with motor)
11
180 mm edge-glued timber elements 9 Vent
12 mm OSB 10 Convector
210 mm cavity for air flow 11 Filter
50 mm metal stud construction 12 Wood/ aluminium window, double
25 mm framework glazed, 2 No. 4 mm tough. safety glass
20 mm 3-ply core plywood 13 3-ply core plywood, slotted cc

238
 University institute

2
A

Vertical sections
Scale 1:20
Energy scheme
A Summer
3 B Winter

1 Heat exchanger
2 Ground exchanger
3 Collector facade
2
B

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: district heating CHP; central cooling network Usage: site chosen in the context of the • Global radiation: 1160 kWh/m2a
reorganisation concept of the clinical/research institute Mobility: central basement parking for all institute • Density: 1411 persons/km2
buildings (planned) Noise/vibration: arrangement of uses according to acoustic requirements, laboratories • Distance to local public transport: 50 m
on road side (bus); 150 m (tram)
Building quality
Access / Traffic: access via pedestrianised “Researcher Street”; good links to neighbouring facilities Social contact: • Bicycle parking: 40 m2
communication circulation and access areas designed as communication zones (e.g. library, open tea kitchens) • Gross floor area, new building: 5076 m2
Plot Area of plot: compact structure Open areas: minimised ground sealing; infiltration ponds • Rooftop planting: 90% of covered area
Design Building culture: distinctive collector facade; multiple coding of all components and systems (function, • Ventilation: natural, 56% of floor area,
energy, construction, appearance) mech., 44% of floor area
• U-value, bldg. envelope: H'T 0.55 W/m2K
Well-being / Safety/security: good orientation due to clear layout; visual links to labs. (glass walls); 8-fold air change rate
• Operating hours > 26°C/a: 160 h
health in the event of a fire Sound: suspended acoustic elements in some areas Light: optimised proportion of
• Effective heat capacity: 218.5 Wh/m2flr.
windows; good level of daylight Interior air: ground exchanger; natural ventilation in offices, mechanical in
area
laboratories Interior climate: exposed thermal masses; summer temp. max. 26.7°C; “energy gardens”
• Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
Building fabric Structure: materials chosen taking into account durability Building layout/fitting-out: frame construction with 7.084M EUR
stiffening cores; flexible internal layout; shafts easily accessible for maintenance • Ratio of cost groups 300/400: 61/39
Building costs Investment costs: life-cycle costing Financing: assistance from innovation fund • Building costs: 1395 EUR/m2 gross floor
Operating and Operation and maintenance: very low operating, maintenance and energy costs Repairs: low-maintenance area
maintenance costs surfaces; good access and easy replacement of components and building services • Operating costs: 20.26 EUR/m2 floor area
p.a.
Building materials Raw materials (availability): wood is the preferred building material (180 mm edge-glued facade), concrete, glass
• Energy costs: 22.77 EUR/m2 floor area p.a.
Operating energy Building heating: compact volume; passive solar gains from collector facade and “energy gardens”; pre- • Heating requirement: 47.6 kWh/m2a
conditioned fresh air; extract system with heat recovery; heat pump; activation of building components; • Primary energy requirement (Q), space
additional radiators for periods of extremely cold weather only Building cooling: north-south orientation with heating and hot water: 26.8 kWh/m2a
corresponding proportion of windows; high heat capacity; night-time cooling; heat pump; sorption-type • Q cooling: 7.5 kWh/m2a
refrigeration unit; activation of building components Hot-water provision: cold water only in the WCs Air • Q air management: 12.0 kWh/m2a
management: minimised air change rate (4 instead of 8); thermal currents in air collector reduce number of • Q lighting: 31.0 kWh/m2a
extract fans needed Lighting: daylight sensors; occupancy detectors Coverage of energy requirements: • Active solar area: PV 145 m2
ground exchanger; air collector; electricity requirements covered by “green electricity”; PV yield approx.
20 000 kWh/a • Barrier-free
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage: connected to underground hospital supply street, automatic supply and • Competition
disposal system, central waste collection depot Water: tanks; great water used for flushing toilets and • Rainwater/grey water usage
watering gardens; waterless urinals
Process quality Sustainable building: model project; ecologically oriented competition stipulations: sparing of resources • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
(materials and energy), use of rainwater Integrated planning: from competition onwards Analyses: cyber- • Simulation method
netic design approach; daylight simulation, thermal-dynamic simulation Monitoring: 12 months (relative • Monitoring
humidity, temperature)

239
Example 15

Institute building

Dübendorf, CH, 2006

Architects:
Bob Gysin + Partner, Zurich
Assistants:
Rudolf Trachsel, Marco Giuliani,
Daniel Leuthold, Reto Vincenz
Structural engineers:
Henauer Gugler, Zurich
Energy concept:
3-Plan Haustechnik, Winterthur

Among the research buildings of the Swiss

Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, the
one for the Water Research Institute stands out
thanks to its envelope of silk-screen-printed
blue glass louvres. The homogeneous enve-
lope structure is interrupted only by the fair-
face concrete entrance. With a volume measur-
ing 38 500 m3, this compact office building is
regarded as one of the largest zero-energy
structures in Europe. And with the help of
numerous dynamic simulations (ventilation,
thermal currents, shading, smoke), it was pos-
sible to keep the temperature between 20 and
aa
26.5°C without active cooling or conventional
heating.
The heart of the building is the internal atrium,
which rises above the general roof level. The
offices, meeting rooms and lecture theatres are
arranged around this. Daylight can reach the
inside of the building via the glazed roof of the
atrium, which also functions as a climate buffer.
During the hotter months of the year, the heat
stored in heavyweight components such as
concrete floors, flooring cement and loam walls
dissipates at night via vents in the offices into
the atrium where it can escape via the roof.
During the winter, the heat stored in the build-
ing components is slowly released into the inte-
rior. The glass louvres of the outer leaf control
the incoming radiation; the inner, sealed leaf
made from prefabricated, highly insulated tim-
ber elements prevents the undesirable infiltra-
tion of heat and cold from outside. The fresh-air
supply, the removal of pollutants and the heat
balance are regulated by the central ventilation
plant. The outside air passes through a ground
exchanger, heat recovery and filter processes.
One-third of the electricity requirement is cov-
ered by the photovoltaic installation on the roof,
the remainder is drawn from the total network in
this area. Rainwater is collected on the green
roof and used for flushing the toilets.
a a
º Werk, Bauen und Wohnen 11/2006

240
 Institute building

Section • Plans
ground floor
1st floor
Scale 1:750
Vertical section
Scale 1:20

1 Ground floor construction:

5 10–12 mm flooring cement
70–68 mm cement topping with glass fibre
reinforcement
20 mm impact sound insulation
360 mm reinforced concrete with conventional
reinforcement
2 Wall construction, U = 0.114 W/m2K:
8 mm fibre-cement sheeting
40 x 60 mm battens
40 x 60 mm counter battens/40 mm ventilation
cavity
waterproof sheeting, diffusion-permeable
180 mm mineral wool thermal insulation
15 mm wood-fibre board, diffusion-permeable
120 mm mineral wool insulation
15 mm gypsum fibreboard
vapour barrier, PE sheeting
30 mm mineral-fibre board
17 mm MDF acoustic board, grooved
3 Window element:
spruce frame
triple glazing, 6 mm float glass + 12 mm cavity +
5 mm tough. safety glass + 12 mm cavity +
4 mm float glass, U = 0.5 W/m2K
4 Steel flat, 150 x 10 mm, hot-dip galvanised
5 Glass louvre with silk-screen printing
3
6 Photovoltaic element
1

241
Example 15

1
2

Ventilation scheme 1 Fresh-air reservoir, 3 Expelled air with heat

A Ventilating ground exchanger recovery
B Night-time cooling 2 Central ventilation plant 4 Natural ventilation/exhaust air

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: district heating CHP (energy drawn only during periods of very low external tempera- • Global radiation: 1300 kWh/m2a
tures); central cooling network Basic provisions/mixed uses: kindergarten on the plot for the children of • Density: 1671 persons/km2
employees Usage: choice of location is an obvious extension of the existing EAWAG and EMPA research • Distance to local public transport: 200 m
facilities Mobility: fewer car parking spaces (6 spaces for visitors, no new allocations) (tram, planned); 700 m (regional trains)
Building quality
Access / Traffic: grounds open to the public; good pathways to neighbouring buildings; striking main entrance • Bicycle parking: 60 m2
communication Social contact: atrium provides orientation and space for informal meetings; restaurant; library; seminar and • Gross floor area, new building: 8533 m2
teaching rooms Accessibility and usability: all floors barrier-free, disabled WCs • Rooftop planting: 55% of covered area
Plot Area of plot: compact building Open areas: natural-type landscaped areas, indigenous vegetation; planned • Ventilation: mechanical, 100% of floor area
rehabilitation of adjoining Chriesbach stream; low proportion of ground sealing; water features • U-values, bldg. envelope1 [W / m2K]:
Design Building culture: viable sustainability concept, primary energy cut by a factor of 4 (corresponds to vision of R: 0.10, E: 0.11, W: 0.7, G: 0.13
“2000 Watt Society”) Personalisation: open interior space for communication which helps identification • Building costs, cost groups 300–4002:
13.43M EUR
Well-being / Safety/security: good visual links; perimeter escape balconies; sprinklers Sound: acoustic glass between • Building costs: 1575 EUR/m2 gross floor
health offices/atrium, sound-attenuating office walls (perforated) Light: light-redirecting glass louvres; separate area
glare protection; offices lit from 2 sides Interior air: ground exchanger; mech. supply/extract air Interior • Heating requirement: 14.4 kWh/m2a
climate: ext. sunshades; exposed thermal masses; loam walls in some areas; night-time cooling • Primary energy requirement (Q), space
Building fabric Structure: very hardwearing floor finishes (flooring cement) and weather protection leaf (glass louvres) heating and hot water: 2.7 kWh/m2a
Building layout/fitting-out: frame construction; flexible office layouts; consistent separation of loadbearing • Q cooling: 1.2 kWh/m2a
structure/fitting-out/building services • Q electricity: 48.6 kWh/m2a
Operating and Operation and maintenance: very low energy and operating costs Repairs: easily accessible shafts, flexible • Renew. energy coverage rate: 46%
maintenance costs building services; selection of low-maintenance materials and surfaces • Active solar areas: solar thermal 50 m2,
Building materials Raw materials (availability): recycled aggregate concrete; prefabricated timber external walls; loam partitions PV 459 m2
Environmental impact: low embodied energy (43 201 GJ); stipulation: 5000 MJ/m2 gross floor area
Dangerous substances: individual checks of all building materials; avoidance of solvents • Barrier-free
Deconstruction: deconstruction concept embodied in draft design • Competition
Operating energy Building heating: minimised transmission heat losses due to compactness, high standard of insulation, air- • Low- or zero-emissions building materials
tight envelope, thermal zoning (offices 20°C, circulation zones 18°C); buffer zones; no conventional heating • Register of building materials
plant (preheating of incoming air, use of waste heat from servers); extract system with heat recovery Build- • Deconstruction concept
ing cooling: tracking sunshades; night-time cooling; high heat capacity; pre-conditioned fresh air; cooling • Rainwater/grey water usage
ceilings in seminar rooms Air management: minimised air change rate Lighting: daylight sensors; occupan-
cy detectors Other electrical consumers: energy-efficient appliances Coverage of energy requirements:
80 ground exchangers each 20 m long; yields: vacuum-tube collectors 24 000 kWh/a, PV 60 300 kWh/a
Infrastructure Water: green roof; water features; waterless urinals; no-mix WCs (rainwater usage)
Process quality Sustainable bldg.: model project; exemplary competition spec.: sparing of resources, zero-energy bldg., PV • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
to provide 33% of electricity needs, rainwater usage Integrated planning: from competition onwards; early • Simulation method
integration of general contractor Analyses: comprehensive simulations Monitoring: 2 years • Monitoring
1
R: roof (average), E: external walls (average), W: windows, G: ground slab 2 Figures correspond to CHF 22.07m (Swiss building costs schedule No. 2)

242
 Office building

Office building

Landshut, D, 2003

Architects:
Hascher Jehle Architektur, Berlin
Project team:
Thomas Weber, Thomas Breunig, Carsten
Burghardt, Andreas Dalhoff, Matthias Rempen,
Friedrich Rohdich, Ulrike von Schenk
Structural engineers:
Seeberger, Friedl & Partner, Munich
Energy concept:
Climaplan GmbH, Munich

The social security organisation for agricultural

and forestry workers purchased a 30 000 m2
plot on the edge of Landshut in order to unite
its four divisions (pensions, health insurance,
nursing insurance, employees’ compensation
scheme) under one roof. The extensive build-
ing complex essentially comprises three ele-
ments: the east-west office wings at 90° to the
120 m long “thoroughfare” which widens out as
it meets the raised convex block in the eastern
a a
corner housing entrance, meeting rooms and
library. Whereas the loadbearing structures to
the office wings consist of reinforced concrete
frames which allow the interior to be divided up
flexibly, the thoroughfare is built from timber
from local forests. The curving glued laminated
timber beams of the southern facade are car-
ried by tree-like columns of glued laminated
timber up to 17 m tall; timber walkways at every
floor level link the office wings together. Con-
ceived as a noise barrier and thermal buffer
zone, the natural ventilation of the building and
activation of heat thermal masses form the
main parameters for the summertime climate
concept of the glass thoroughfare. The thermal
currents are assisted by fresh-air openings at
the base of the south-facing facade and
exhaust-air vents along the northern edge of
the roof. The convex block at the eastern end
provides a certain amount of shadow to reduce
the build-up of heat, and a ventilation cavity in
the internal sunshades prevents further heat
building up within the building. Radiant panels
fitted below the walkways plus underfloor heat-
ing and convector heaters prevent cold air
descending down the facade in the winter and
thus increasing the flow velocity. On the whole,
the energy figures of the building complex are
well below the stipulations of the Energy Con-
servation Act.

º AIT 12/2003
db 04/2005

aa

Plan of ground floor • Section Scale 1:1000

243
Example 16

9
3 8

2
7
10

11

Vertical sections
Scale 1:20
5 Roof edge beam, glulam,
1 Solar-control glazing: 140 x 240 mm
4000 x 1650 mm, fixed at 2 points top 6 Parapet, bent aluminium sheet
and bottom, lateral joints with seal but 7 Low E glazing
no patent glazing fixing 8 Post-and-rail construction, steel, with
2 Glulam rail, 80 x 140 mm, inclined at walkways connected to tension mem-
11° to curved beams ber (Ø101.6 mm steel hollow section)
3 Glulam curved beam, 140 x 360 mm, 9 Bracing, Ø44 mm steel hollow sections
bottom section as circular arc with 10 Column head with 4 cantilever arms,
gluing in curved jigs glulam, 140 x 280–840 mm
4 Roof construction: 11 Column, glulam, Ø300 mm
1.5 mm aluminium standing seam roof 12 Steel plate, 300–350 x 600 x 10 mm,
covering let into timber, cast into fair-face
180–260 mm insulation laid to falls reinforced concrete plinth
vapour barrier 13 Vent 15
100 mm edge-glued timber elements 14 Stainless steel with weather protection
2 No. 6 x 330 mm steel flat supports 15 Steel grille

12

13

14

244
 Office building

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Usage: attractive rural environment with adjoining urban, commercial and ex-military functions; availability • Global radiation: 1100 kWh/m2a
of land enabled all company divisions to be united Noise/vibration: thoroughfare adjacent to main road to • Density: 944 persons/km2
Landshut screens offices against road noise • Distance to local public transport: 200 m
Building quality
Access / Traffic: compact parking layout taking into account existing vegetation; striking design for entrance area • Bicycle parking: 80 m2
communication Social contact: quiet int. courtyards; thoroughfare serves as foyer, main access route & canteen, provides • Exist. plot ratio: 0.6
space for informal meetings Access. & usability: clear bldg. layout, usability & organisation of lifts • Gross floor area, new building: 18 000 m2
Plot Area of plot: revitalisation of former military barracks Open areas: position of building ensures that the road- • Unsealed ground: 65% of plot
side trees are preserved; diversity of species encouraged by water features and diverse planting; specific • Ventilation: natural, 95% of floor area,
themes between office wings mech. 5% of floor area
• U-values, bldg. envelope1 [W / m2K]:
Design Building culture: raised convex block and thoroughfare create significant landmarks; office wings create a
R: 0.23, E: 0.27, W: 1.4, G: 0.44
reference to the neighbouring military barracks; complex geometry of southern facade and supporting
• Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
structure due to extensive form-finding process
24.5M EUR
Well-being / Safety/security: appropriate sizing of sections means that no fire compartments are necessary despite tim- • Ratio of cost groups 300/400: 73/27
health ber construction Sound: acoustic ceilings in conference hall and meeting rooms Light: good daylighting; • Building costs: 1360 EUR/m2 gross floor
east-west orientation of office wings; individual offices with high-level windows on corridor side Interior air: area
natural cross-ventilation in thoroughfare; window ventilation in offices; mechanical ventilation to meeting • Heating requirement: 60.0 kWh/m2a
areas, canteen, kitchen Interior climate: offices with external sunshades; comprehensive measures guaran-
tee thermal comfort in thoroughfare – internal sunshades with ventilation cavity; winter temp. > 18°C; pre- • Barrier-free
vention of descending cold air (e.g. underfloor heating, radiant ceiling panels); water feature creates pleas- • Competition
ant microclimate in canteen area • Rainwater/grey water usage
Building fabric Building layout/fitting-out: functionally self-sufficient wings; flexible usage possible
Building costs Investment costs: economic offices layout; efficient loadbearing structure; all office wings identical
Operating and Operation and maintenance: energy costs cut by about 15% (compared to conventional office buildings)
maintenance costs Repairs: accessible shafts
Building materials Raw materials (availability): regional timber (e.g. roof structure, loadbearing structure to thoroughfare, win-
dow, wood-block flooring) Environmental impact: CO2 emissions cut by 110 t (comparison of timber and
steel structures for thoroughfare)
Operating energy Bldg. heating: thermal zoning, buffer zone, solar gains in thoroughfare Bldg. cooling: shade from other parts
of building/existing trees taken into account; exposed thermal masses; natural ventilation in thoroughfare;
evaporative cooling via water feature; solar-control glazing; effective sunshades; night-time cooling
Infrastructure Water: rainwater used for watering gardens
Process quality Building tradition: promotion of regional timber building tradition Integrated planning: interdisciplinary devel- • Simulation method
opment of thoroughfare – form-finding, thermodynamics, efficient loadbearing structure Analyses: daylight-
ing, shading and flow simulation; thermal-dynamic simulation
1
R: roof (average), E: external walls (average), W: windows (office wings, thoroughfare), G: ground slab

245
Example 17

Office building

Cambridge, USA, 2003

Architects:
Behnisch, Behnisch & Partner,
Stuttgart/Venice
Project team:
Martin Werminghausen (project manager),
Maik Neumann; Tim Krebs, Claus Mihm,
Sarah Straubenmueller
Structural & building services engineers:
Buro Happold, Bath/New York
Lighting consultant:
Bartenbach Lichtlabor, Aldrans

This new headquarters for a biotechnology

company is intended to allow the 920 employ-
ees and visitors to identify with the company, 12
11
and combine functionality and flexibility with 13
pleasant, communicative working conditions
and modern environmental technology. Strin-
gent urban planning stipulations led to a
restrained building envelope. Prefabricated, 14 9
single-leaf curtain walls alternating with double-
leaf facades with accessible “loggias” as cli-
mate buffers and “live” spaces, windows that
can be opened both manually and electrically 19 15 21
for natural night-time ventilation, movable sun-
shading elements and coloured curtains com- 19
bine energy-efficiency aspects with architectur-
al and spatial differentiation. 17
A complex, graduated atrium flooded with light,
which extends through all floors, forms the
heart of the building. Seven computer-control-
led heliostats on the roof direct the light into the 18
9
atrium via a fixed bridge of mirrors. Pivoting
prismatic louvres scatter the incoming daylight
and prevent excessive heat infiltration through 21
16 17
complete reflection of the direct sunlight. In the
20
atrium, freely suspended panels split up the
light into its spectral components, and vertical
louvres distribute the light throughout the open
15
area. Further reflective surfaces such as stain-
less steel panels and water features in the spa-
cious lobby direct daylight deep into the interior.
The atrium also serves as a giant ventilation
space. Fresh air is blown into the offices via
aa
windows in the climate facade or via ventilation
inlets in the ceilings, then channelled into the
atrium due to the pressure difference and
expelled via extractor fans fitted in the glass
roof. The heating and cooling plant is operated 1 Reading zone 14 Prismatic tracking, pivoting louvres,
with waste heat from the power plant located 2 Atrium perspex
just two blocks away which is fitted with mod- 3 Water feature 15 “Light wall” made from highly reflective,
4 Garden computer-controlled vertical louvres
ern emissions filters. Rainwater tanks cover the 5 Reception 16 Stainless steel panels
requirement for cooling water and irrigation of 6 Work areas 17 “Chandeliers” in the form of 16 “mobiles”
the green roof. 7 Lecture theatre with a total of 768 freely moving, light-
8 Deliveries scattering tiles
9 Loggia 18 Exhaust-air ventilation due to stack
º Architectural Review 04/2004 10 Tea kitchen effect
Steele, James: Genzyme Center. 11 Tracking heliostat with 19 Ventilation openings
Stuttgart, 2004 1600 x 1600 mm mirror 20 Opening windows
12 Fixed bridge of mirrors 21 Double-leaf facade
13 Rooflight with low E glazing and
extractor fans

246
 Office building

11
Section
Scale 1:500
Section through 12
atrium roof
Scale 1:250
Plans
1st floor 13
4th floor
Scale 1:1000

14

4
8 6

4 7
10 6 4

5
4 9
6 3
4 6 4
2 a
a

1 6
6
6

247
Example 17

Light-redirecting louvres
Scale 1:20

1 Prismatic tracking, pivoting louvres,

perspex
2 Drive for louvres
3 Steel Å-beam between louvres
3
2

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: district heating CHP Basic provisions/mixed uses: public facilities on ground floor (e.g. • Global radiation: approx. 1450 kWh/m2a
shops, café) Usage: choice of location promotes development of a new local centre; Harvard University • Density: 6086 persons/km2
and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) can be reached on foot Mobility: company vehicle fleet • Distance to local public transport: approx.
with 4 hybrid cars, charging point for electric cars 500 m (underground trains)
Building quality
Access / Traffic: basement parking, for bicycles too (with changing rooms, showers) Social contact: numerous com- • Bicycle parking: approx. 70 m2
communication munication and meeting areas: company canteen on 12th floor; gardens; library; conference area; quiet zones; • Exist. plot ratio: 11.2
small café on each floor Accessibility and usability: good orientation and usability; spacious circulation zones • Gross floor area, new building: 32 500 m2
Plot Area of plot: recycling of a former industrial site, high utilisation of ground area (12 storeys) • Unsealed ground: 0% of plot
Open areas: sealed, individual roadside trees; partial rooftop planting as compensation • Rooftop planting: 20% of covered area
Design Building culture: building designed to comply with stringent urban planning stipulations; differentiated • Daylight autonomy1: 2 %
facade design; interior formed as vertical city, atrium creates horizontal and vertical neighbourhoods • Ventilation: mechanical, 100% of floor area
Personalisation: diverse, flexible office areas (separate, combined, open-plan); high degree of identification • Building costs, cost groups 300–4002:
among employees approx. 107.5M EUR
• Building costs2: approx. 3300 EUR/m2
Well-being / Safety/security: good, clear design; access controls from 1st floor upwards Sound: acoustic ceilings and gross floor area
health carpeting in offices Light: all offices with view of outside world; light-redirecting louvre blinds; atrium with • Active solar areas: PV 30 m2
excellent daylighting, 7 heliostats with additional light-redirecting elements (“light wall”, “mobiles”)
Interior air: fresh-air supply to offices (fully air-conditioned), exhaust air via atrium; windows can be opened • Barrier-free
individually; CO2 sensors Interior climate: 5% less sick leave since building first occupied • Competition
Building fabric Building layout/fitting-out: frame construction; all storeys with different, partially flexible layouts • Low- or zero-emissions building materials
Building costs Investment costs: weighing up investment and operating costs (life-cycle costing) • Rainwater/grey water usage
Operating and Operation and maintenance: energy costs cut by 42% (compared with the US standard); easy-care floor
maintenance costs coverings in circulation zones
Building materials Raw materials (availability): minimising transport distances (50% within 800 km radius); certified wood
Environmental impact: building materials with higher proportion of recycled materials
Dangerous substances: certified building materials (labels)
Operating energy Building heating: solar gains from double-leaf facade, climate buffer Building cooling: atrium roof with pris-
matic sunshading system; internal sunshades in offices; night-time cooling; cooling ceilings; decentralised
absorption-type refrigeration units Air management: fewer fans due to thermal currents in atrium
Lighting: high daylight autonomy; daylight sensors; luminaires (offices), metal halide lamps (atrium)
Coverage of energy requirements: electricity requirements covered by “green electricity”
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage: recycling of 90% of building waste Water: water consumption cut by 32%;
waterless urinals; rainwater usage (irrigation, vegetation, cooling water)
Process quality Sustainable building: highest certification according to US Green Building Council (LEED “Platinum”) • Simulation method
Integrated planning: from competition onwards Analyses: daylighting, thermal-dynamic simulation • Monitoring
1
Related to min. 75% of office floor space; 2 Figures correspond to 140M USD gross, including interior fittings and furnishings

248
 Conference and exhibition pavilion

Conference and exhibition pavilion

Osnabrück, D, 2001

Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich
Thomas Herzog + Hanns Jörg Schrade
Project team:
Stefan Sinning, Kirsten Braun, Patrick Bröll,
Peter Gotsch, Matthias Lettau, Sybille Fries
Building services:
NEK Ingenieurgruppe, Braunschweig
Energy consultant:
ZAE Bayern, Garching

a
The design brief for the conference and exhibi-
tion pavilion of the German Environmental
Foundation (DBU) listed optimum daylight
usage, a sustainable and low-resources energy
concept, flexible usage and the use of natural-
based materials as the governing criteria. The
heart of this timber frame building, adjoining
the offices and circulation/exhibition areas, is
the 6.50 m high conference room. A three-
storey, stiffening reinforced concrete core, on
which a photovoltaic installation and vacuum-
tube collectors are mounted, houses the sani-
tary and technical facilities.
The transparent, ventilated membrane roof pro- Plans
vides the weather protection. The single layer a Scale 1:1000
of pretensioned ETFE film can be completely
reused and its anti-adhesive properties mean it
is self-cleaning. Thanks to the multi-layer con-
struction, every bay of the roof can be adapted
to suit the climatic requirements of the room
below. Whereas above the offices and the
storeroom the inner layer is well insulated and
opaque, the roof above the conference and
exhibition rooms is translucent. Overhead illu-
mination achieves a much higher luminance
than light from the side. Sunshading, blackout
requirements and daylight control are achieved
by the pivoting louvres, which are mounted
between the membrane and the glazing.
The roof construction not only contributes to
saving electrical energy for artificial lighting,
but also enables high passive heat gains.
Nevertheless, effective shading options mean
that there are no great cooling needs in sum-
mer. In winter a co-generation plant heats the
new building and the existing office building.
In the summer, groundwater cooling linked with
the underfloor heating lowers the interior tem-
peratures. A heat exchanger cools the outside
air drawn in by the ventilation plant, or heats it
up during the colder months.

º Archicreation 06/2003
Rassegna 12/2006

249
Beispiel 18

Section Scale 1:750

A Schematic view of ventilation
B Schematic view of groundwater cooling
Vertical sections Scale 1:20

1 ETFE film, 1 layer, pretensioned on 4 sides

2 Galvanised steel hollow section, 120 x 80 mm
3 Aluminium louvres, can be rotated for sunshading/
daylight control/blackout
4 Fascia plate for blackout
5 Triple glazing:
6 mm tough. safety glass with low E coating +
12 mm argon-filled cavity + 5 mm float glass +
12 mm argon-filled cavity + 10 mm lam. safety
glass with low E coating
6 Thermal insulation, 160 mm, white facing
39 mm LVL
7 Insect screen, glass-fibre fabric, white
8 Double glazing:
10 mm tough. safety glass + 16 mm argon-filled
cavity + 6 mm tough. safety glass with low E
coating 8
9 Sunshade, stationary aluminium plate, 3 mm,
on Ø8 mm stainless steel cable

aa

26 °C

16 °C
B

250
 Conference and exhibition pavilion

4 6
3

Ventilation tioned. The system can be used to remove smoke in the above all, the roof. Effective shading options mean that
Besides local ventilation via individual windows, there is a event of a fire. The fresh-air rate corresponds to the hardly any cooling is necessary in summer. Groundwater
mechanical ventilation system for the offices and the con- amount necessary for hygienic conditions; the fresh air is cooling provides any cooling required: water is pumped
ference and exhibition areas. With the help of groundwa- filtered centrally. Recirculating operation and humidifica- through hoses laid below the water table not far beneath
ter cooling, a heat exchanger can cool the incoming fresh tion/dehumidification are unnecessary. The costs for the the ground slab and distributed throughout the building
air to approx. 23°C, even on hot days. Over much of the plant and the energy are therefore low, but the relative via the underfloor heating pipes. Water temperatures
year, a combined supply/extract duct enables a heat humidity in the interior is the same as that outside – in around 20°C cool the interior air temperature down to
recovery rate of more than 80%. In the conference and winter very low, in summer relatively high. approx. 26°C. The night-time heat dissipation requires
exhibition areas, the fresh air is introduced at a low level considerably lower flow rates compared to air cooling,
and with a low velocity, so there is always fresh, in sum- Heating and cooling and the room temperatures can be kept relatively low
mer also relatively cool, air just above floor level. Used, A co-generation plant heats the new building and the even during longer periods of hot weather.
hot air rises and is extracted from beneath the ceiling – existing office block; considerable heat gains are
only the lower part of the great volume has to be condi- achieved via direct solar radiation on the facade and,

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: building services of the DBU’s existing building; groundwater near the surface Integra- • Global radiation: 960 kWh/m2a
tion: events for various groups of the population Solidarity/justice: events concerning the proper treatment • Density: 1364 persons/km2
of the environment Usage: choice of site supplements the existing DBU buildings; near to urban park • Distance to local public transport: 200 m
Mobility: good transport and local public transport links; can be reached on foot through the park Noise/ (bus); 900 m (regional trains)
vibration: main rooms face onto open areas
Building quality
Access / Traffic: area open to the public; roadside car parking; entrance area readily visible Social contact: access, • Bicycle parking: approx. 25 m2
communication assembly and exhibition areas promote communication; defined transition to office usage; terrace with • Exist. plot ratio: 0.4
direct access to park, which can be used as a zone for relaxation Accessibility and usability: barrier-free • Gross floor area, new building: 3000 m2
design of all interior and exterior areas • Unsealed ground: approx. 40% of plot
Plot Area of plot: compact construction, infill development for DBU site Open areas: differentiated open areas for • Ventilation: mechanical, 100% of floor area
high diversity of species; water features to regulate microclimate; water-permeable hardstanding for car • U-values, bldg. envelope: [W/m2K] roof
parking 0.20, ext. wall (timber studs) 0.23, ext. wall
(concrete) 0.20, grd. slab 0.25
Design Bldg. culture: striking landmark project for ecological & energy-efficient construction; timber structure stands
U-value dynamic calculation:
out due to coloured glaze finish; innovative roof visible from distance; building integrated into landscape
post-and-rail facade: N 0.53, E/W 0.11,
Well-being / Sound: good sound insulation Light: high daylight proportion, illumination via translucent roof glazing, S 0.34; opaque membrane roof 0.25
health good/even distribution of luminance Interior air: mechanical, demand-controlled ventilation system • Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
Interior climate: external, daylight-controlled sunshades, mechanical night-time ventilation 6.75M EUR
Building fabric Structure: durable timber frame construction; passive timber protection Building layout/fitting-out: room lay- • Building costs: 2250 EUR/m2 gross floor
out enables flexible usage within timber frame, conversion and partial deconstruction possible area
Building costs Investment costs: typical investment costs for this type of usage • Heating requirement: 29 kWh/m2a
Operating and Operation and maintenance: reduced costs for operation and maintenance due to efficient building services • Cooling requirement: 8 kWh/m2a
maintenance costs Repairs: conscious use of known, innovative, easy-to-replace elements • Electricity requirement: 18 kWh/m2a
• Active solar areas: solar thermal approx.
Building materials Raw materials (availability): high proportion of renewable raw materials with natural-based usage Environ-
5 m2, PV approx. 38 m2
mental impact: timber building materials with carbon-sink effect Deconstruction: deconstruction possible
due to modular construction; avoidance of composite materials
• Barrier-free
Operating energy Building heating: minimised transmission heat losses, thermal zoning, blower-door test; heated by CHP • Competition
(gas); heat output via warm-air inlets and underfloor heating; extract system with heat recovery Building • Rainwater/grey water usage
cooling: sunshades controlled by energy gains; mechanical night-time ventilation; activation of ground slab
for groundwater cooling Hot-water provision: solar thermal-assisted hot-water provision Air management:
minimised air change rate Lighting: sunshades for guaranteeing a supply of daylight to suit needs Coverage
of energy requirements: groundwater; gas-fired co-generation plant; photovoltaics; solar thermal energy
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage: collection in convenient waste depot, standard and special streams (e.g.
toner, batteries, pallets) Water: gravel-filled trenches to allow rainwater seepage
Process quality Sustainable building: DBU programme; compliance with energy benchmarks Building tradition: further • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
development of timber construction Integrated planning: interdisciplinary planning team Analyses: dynamic • Simulation method
simulation (e.g. heating, cooling load, comfort); heating plant comparison; roof study using 1:7 model • Monitoring
Monitoring: heating and air quality (e.g. CO2) Facility Management: by operator • FM concept

251
Example 19

Residential and commercial development

London, GB, 2002

Architects:
Bill Dunster architects, ZEDfactory, Surrey
Structural engineers:
Ellis & Moore, London
Energy concept:
Ove Arup & Partners, London

aa

“BedZED” – Beddington Zero Energy Develop-

ment – is located in a southern district of Lon-
don and its 82 apartments and offices form the
first zero-energy settlement in the UK. Eight
buildings were erected on the site of a former
sewage treatment plant whose layout, form and
usage are coordinated with the external climatic
conditions. The basic module is a three-storey
terrace house which tapers as it rises on the
north-west side and can be divided into hous-
ing units of different sizes as required. The
internal layout is made up of three zones: con-
servatories to the south-east, which act as a
thermal buffer, the adjoining accommodation
and offices, and special uses to the north-west.
The materials of these heavyweight buildings
were mainly obtained locally; renewable raw
materials such as timber and stone were pre-
ferred.
Optimum exploitation of the sun as a source of
heat and light is guaranteed by the fully glazed
south elevation. Triple glazing and external
walls with a U-value of 0.1 W/m2 K ensure good
insulation, a natural ventilation system with heat
recovery guarantees a permanent exchange of
air. More than 700 m2 of photovoltaic panels
provide the development with up to 11% of its
electricity requirements. The remaining electric-
ity is provided by a co-generation plant, which
is fired by waste wood from the region. The
plant also provides hot water. Waste water is
treated microbiologically in the development’s
own constructed wetland and afterwards used 4 4
for watering gardens and flushing toilets. Com-
pared to conventional housing, the energy
requirement could be cut by 60%. In order to
develop the underlying environmentally friendly
concept even further, the development was
given its own mini-infrastructure: kindergarten, a a
community centre, sports centre, cafés and
car-sharing scheme save the occupants some 1 4
long journeys. b b
3
º Architectural Review 11/2003 c c
A+U 8/2004 2

252
 Residential and commercial development

7
6

Section through complete development

Scale 1:500 bb
Plan of ground floor
Scale 1:1000
Sections through terrace house
Scale 1:200

1 Kindergarten
2 Sports centre
3 Café
4 Office

5 Roof construction:
extensive rooftop planting
substrate
drainage and filter mat
waterproofing, polymer-modified bitumen
300 mm rigid foam thermal insulation
vapour barrier, polymer-modified bitumen
225 mm precast concrete
paint finish
6 Wall construction:
102 mm facing brickwork
300 mm rock wool thermal insulation
100 mm concrete bricks
15 mm plaster
7 Ground floor construction:
60 mm screed plus floor finishes
200 mm reinforced concrete cc
300 mm rigid foam thermal insulation

253
Example 19

1 4

B
Energy scheme
A Building services electric cars
B Heating/cooling 3 Natural ventilation with heat
1 Rainwater collection recovery
2 Photovoltaic elements for 4 Co-generation plant

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Basic provisions/mixed uses: 82 housing units, 2400 m2 commercial, kindergarten, community centre, sports • Global radiation: approx. 800 kWh/m2a
centre, café, supermarket Integration: diverse range of housing: town houses, maisonettes, small and • Density: 787 persons/ha (metropolitan
medium-sized apartments; premises to let for small businesses Solidarity/justice: 23 apartments partly region; London/city 4784 persons/ha)
state-financed, 10 apartments with low rents, 15 apartments for socially disadvantaged persons Usage: in • Distance to local public transport: 100 m
conformity with location; good links to urban amenities Mobility: comprehensive mobility concept: number
of passenger km cut by 65%, car-sharing pool, charging point for 40 electric cars
Building quality
Access / Traffic: concentration of parking spaces, pedestrianised access to housing Social contact: high quality of • Bicycle parking: 115 m2
communication external and circulation zones, many common areas and meeting places, differentiated design of semi- • Exist. plot ratio: 0.6
public and private areas, joint homepage for all “BedZED” residents • Gross floor area, new building: 10 388 m2
Plot Area of plot: recycling of former sewage treatment plant site Open areas: private gardens, rooftop planting • Rooftop planting: approx. 20% of covered
area
Design Building culture: largest zero-carbon residential development in UK; distinctive ventilation chimneys Person-
• Ventilation: natural, 100% of floor area
alisation: ground-level gardens, conservatories and rooftop gardens offer individual design freedoms; high
• U-values, bldg. envelope1 [W / m2K]:
identification value for residents
R: 0.10, E: 0.11, W: 1.20, G: 0.10
Well-being / Safety/security: clear layout; social controls Light: daylight optimisation, business units lit from north Interior • Projected economic period of use: 120 a
health air: mech. supply/extract Interior climate: high passive thermal insulation, exposed thermal masses • Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
Building fabric Structure: selection of ageing-resistant and durable materials (e.g. facing bricks, untreated oak boards) 10.2M EUR
Building layout/fitting-out: flexible interior layouts and housing unit sizes possible • Building costs: 1620 EUR/m2 gross floor
Operating and Operation and maintenance: minimisation of plant, very low operating, maintenance and energy costs area
maintenance costs Repairs: building services readily accessible; easy-to-repair materials • Proportion of secondary raw materials:
Building materials Raw materials (availability): high proportion of recycled building materials and reused components; primarily 15% by vol.
building materials obtained locally (52% within 55 km radius); certified timber Environmental impact: no • Renew. energy coverage rate: 100%
basements; CO2 emissions cut to 675 kg/m2 (< 20–30% compared to similar structures) Dangerous sub- • Active solar areas: PV 777 m2
stances: all building materials checked individually Deconstruction: no composite materials
• Low- or zero-emissions building materials
Operating energy Building heating: orientation; thermal zoning; conservatory; storey-height south-facing glazing; high passive
• Register of building materials
thermal insulation; triple glazing; no conventional heating plant (preheated fresh air); extract system with
• Measurements of interior air
heat recovery Building cooling: east/west facades essentially closed; night-time cooling Air management:
• Rainwater/grey water usage
lobbies create overpressure, no fans Lighting: good level of daylight Coverage of energy requirements: co-
generation plant uses waste wood from municipal depots; 11% of electricity requirements from PV
Infrastructure Waste from operation and usage: target stipulation: 60% cut in household waste; central recycling depot
Water: grey water used for flushing toilets and watering rooftop gardens; consumption of drinking water cut
by 50% due to water-saving fittings and WCs, constructed wetland
Process quality Sustainable building: passive-house standard; reduction targets: passenger km 50%, heating 90%, hot • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
water 33%, electricity 33%, water consumption 33% Integrated planning: interdisciplinary planning involving • Simulation method
architects, engineers, local environmental organisation and housebuilding company Analyses: comprehen- • Monitoring
sive simulations Monitoring: 5-year monitoring concept, detailed project documentation
1
R: roof (average), E: external walls (average), W: windows, G: ground slab

254
 Federal Environment Agency offices

Federal Environment Agency offices

Dessau, D, 2005

Architects:
sauerbruch hutton, Berlin
Matthias Sauerbruch, Louisa Hutton,
Jens Ludloff, Juan Lucas Young
Project managers:
Andrew Kiel, René Lotz
Structural engineers:
Krebs & Kiefer, Berlin
Energy concept:
Zibell, Willner & Partner, Cologne/Berlin

As a model project for innovative building, the Sections • Plan of ground floor
460 m long Federal Environment Agency (UBA) 3rd floor
Scale 1:2000
building wends its way demonstrably, dynami-
cally and colourfully across the site of the former
Wörlitzer railway station not far from the centre
of Dessau. The large-scale format and continu-
ity of this four-storey office building for 800
aa
workers makes its mark on this area with its
heterogeneous, small-format developments.
The winding form is a response to the various
urban situations and leads to differentiated
qualities both internally and externally. A semi-
circular forum with a glass facade forms the
entrance. There is space for public events and
bb
exhibitions here. Behind the facade there is an
internal courtyard with planting, covered by a
fully glazed roof structure with integral sun-
shades. In terms of its materials and colouring,
the external facade emphasizes the concept of
the long building: 33 shades from seven basic
colours divide up the building in chromatic gra-
dations. Continuous, prefabricated spandrel
panel elements clad with larch boards alternate
with set-back windows and flush glass panels
with coloured printing. The window reveals are
clad with powder-coated steel sheet or fitted
with painted aluminium louvres. The night-time
ventilation of the offices is achieved via motor-
ised vents behind opaque glass. Besides
channelling daylight into the inner row of offic-
es, both atrium and forum help to optimise the
energy and climate household: the entire build-
ing is ventilated via the roof of the central fold-
ed-plate structure, the internal courtyard func-
b

tions as a thermal buffer zone. Thanks to highly

insulated external walls, photovoltaic installa-
tions for generating electricity and a large a
ground exchanger, this office building almost b
achieves the energy standard of a passive ?
house! The Federal Environment Agency build-
ing therefore fulfils the claim of amalgamating
environmentally compatible construction with
contemporary architecture.

º Architectural Review 02/1999

Intelligente Architektur 18, 1999
a

255
Example 20

c c

1 Tinned copper cover plate, 0.8 mm 9 Window reveal, wood-based board

waterproofing, 2 layers bitumen sheet. product, larch with glaze finish,
72 mm mineral-fibre insulation 340 x 25 mm
vapour barrier 10 Tough. safety glass, with coloured
200 x 650 mm reinforced concrete enamel finish, 10 mm, in
2 Larch boards, 20 x 150 mm 20 mm aluminium channel section
40 x 40 mm timber framework 52 mm ventilation cavity
40 mm ventilation cavity 11 Ventilation louvres, painted aluminium
3 Panel: gypsum fibreboard, 15 mm 12 Motorised vent: 9
100 x 160 mm glulam frame 14 mm coated plywood
160 mm cellulose fibres vapour barrier
29 mm cement fibreboard 70 mm cellulose
4 Tinned copper flashing, 1 mm 14 mm plywood with larch veneer
5 Anti-glare louvres, 25 mm 13 Gypsum fibreboard, 2 No. 12.5 mm 10
6 Double glazing in wooden frame 90 mm cellulose board insulation
larch with glaze finish, U = 0.8 W/m2K 27 mm resilient bar
4 mm tough. safety glass + 16 mm 63 mm timber framework
11 12
cavity + 4 mm tough. safety glass 14 Stainless steel L 240 x 500 x 20 mm
7 Powder-coated sheet steel, 1.5 mm 15 Lining, wood-based board product
8 Secondary glazing, 8 mm tough. larch with glaze finish, 23 mm
safety glass 40 mm cellulose board insulation

9
13

6 15

8 12
7 11

14

10 3
4
cc

256
 Federal Environment Agency offices

Sections through external

facade
Scale 1:20
Interior ventilation scheme
A Summer’s day
B Winter’s day

Theme Qualitative features Parameters/indicators

Location quality Energy availability: district heating CHP (partly landfill gas) Basic provisions/mixed uses: public amenities, • Global radiation: 1000 kWh/m2a
e.g. information centre, library, lecture theatre, cafeteria Usage: site chosen as a sign of structural change • Density: 423 persons/ha
in the region; revitalisation of city-centre areas Mobility: local public transport incentives system for employ- • Distance to local public transport: 100 m
ees Noise/vibration: secondary glazing; mechanical ventilation for offices exposed to noise (bus); 350 m (regional/inter-city trains)
Building quality
Access / Traffic: link between main entrance and park; visitor parking at rear of building with access to basement • Bicycle parking: 120 m2
communication garage; forum serves as foyer Social contact: park open to the public; atrium forms internal communication • Exist. plot ratio: 1.5
area – office areas well linked by bridges; distinctive direction system • Gross floor area, existing building: 522 m2
Plot Area of plot: recycling of former site – replacement of contaminated soil; use of building stock Open areas: • Gross floor area, new building: 39 265 m2
indigenous cultivated plants combined with exotic shrubs; water features; high diversity of species • Unsealed ground: 40% of plot
• Rooftop planting: 30% of covered area
Design Bldg. culture: ext. works design denotes former entrance to Wörlitzer Park; integration of indust. structures
• Ventilation: natural, 10% of floor area,
protected by preservation orders; high arch. quality & local identity; bldg. form generates diverse interior
mech., 90% of floor area
qualities; distinctive colour concept Personalisation: employees identify well with their surroundings
• U-values, bldg. envelope1 [W/m2K]:
Well-being / Safety/security: reception; security checks Light: window proportion optimised for daylight; daylight redirec- H’T: 0.49, R: 0.13, E: 0.23, W: 1.2, G: 0.35
health tion; reflective surfaces in atrium Int. air: ground exchanger; window ventilation possible in all offices • Operating hours > 26°C/a: 200 h
Int. climate: ext. sunshades; night-time ventilation; exposed thermal masses; loam walls in some areas • Building costs, cost groups 300–400:
Building fabric Structure: materials chosen taking into account high durability Building layout/fitting-out: flexible layout 56.5M EUR
zoning possible, access floors in some areas, separation between structure and fitting-out • Ratio of cost groups 300/400:
Operating and Operation and maintenance: low energy costs; investment and operating cost variants investigated during approx. 68/32
maintenance costs planning Repairs: choice of low-maintenance materials and surfaces • Building costs: 1420 EUR/m2 gross flr. area
Building materials Raw materials (availability): prefab. timber facade; cellulose insulation Environmental impact: LCA data con- • Heating requirement: 38.5 kWh/m2a
sidered; high degree of prefabrication in facade & roof Dangerous substances: avoidance of risky materials; • Primary energy rqmt., total: 76.6 kWh/m2a
individual checks of all bldg. materials during planning; very high interior hygiene level • Coverage rate, renewable energy2: 11 %
• Active solar areas: solar thermal 354 m2,
Operating energy Bldg. heating: compact building (A/V ratio 0.34); H'Tmax < 53%; atrium as climate buffer; extract system
PV 228 m2
w. heat recovery Bldg. cooling: effective sunshading; night-time cooling; high heat capacity; solar-assisted
adsorption-type (computer rooms) or compression-type (lecture theatre) refrigeration units Hot-water pro-
• Barrier-free
vision: decentral (tea kitchens, cleaners’ rooms) Lighting: daylight sensors; occupancy detectors Other
• Competition
elec. consumers: efficient appliances/systems Coverage of energy requirements: vacuum-tube collectors;
• Low- or zero-emissions building materials
PV in roof (forum); ground exchanger w. 86 000 kWh/a heating & 125 000 kWh/a cooling output
• Register of building materials
Infrastructure Waste from operation/usage: recyclable materials depot Water: green roof; tanks; gravel trenches • Interior air measurements
Process quality Sustainable building: model project; exemplary competition stipulations: 50% below 1995 Thermal Insulation • Sustainability-oriented benchmarks
Act, heating requirement < 30 kWh/m2a, ecological building materials selection Integrated planning: inter- • Simulation method
disciplinary team of experts during entire planning phase Analyses: flow, daylight and thermal-dynamic • Monitoring
simulations; LCA Monitoring: 3 years, participation in “SolarBau: MONITOR” scheme
1
H'T: average U-value, R: roof (average), E: external walls (average), W: windows (external facade), G: ground slab
2
During the first 5 years, the coverage rate for renewable energy sources is 20%; owing to depletion of landfill gas, the proportion reduces to 11% thereafter.

257
Parameters

Variable Unit of measurement Further units Conversion factors

Parameters
Energy joule [J] watt-second [Ws] 1 J = 1 Ws
kilowatt-hour [kWh] 1 J = 2.778 x 10-7 kWh
calorie [cal] 1 J = 0.239 cal
coal equivalent [SKE] 1 J = 3.412 • 10-7 SKE
Pressure pascal [Pa] bar [bar] 1 Pa = 10-5 bar
standard atmosphere [atm] 1 Pa = 9.87 • 10-6 atm
Volume [cm3] litre [l] 1000 cm3 = 1 l
US barrel [US bbl] 1 l = 0.008386 US bbl (liquid)
UK barrel [UK bbl] 1 l = 0.00611 UK bbl
US gallon [US gal] 1 l = 0.264 US gal (liquid)
UK gallon [UK gal] 1 l = 0.220 UK gal
Area [m2] square inch [in2] 1 m2 = 1550 in2
square foot [ft2] 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2
hectare [ha] 1 m2 = 0.0001 ha
Temperature degree Celsius [° C] kelvin [K] ° C = K - 273.15
degree Fahrenheit [° F] ° C = (° F - 32)/1.8

General energy terms hot water, lighting, etc.) for a building. The final energy other. A low value indicates a material with a high thermal
requirement Qe here is a theoretical value calculated insulation quality. As moisture has a negative influence on
Energy medium/energy source according to the Energy Conservation Act. It takes into the thermal conductivity, the value always refers to the
The term energy medium actually covers the raw materials account losses in the output, distribution, storage and material when dry.
provided by nature, which owing to the convertible chem- conversion in the building. It is specified for standard
ical or nuclear energy stored in them can be used to pro- conditions (e.g. defined user behaviour, interior tempera- Thermal transmittance U (U-value) [W/m2K]
duce energy (biomass, fossil and nuclear fuels). In every- ture, etc.) and separately according to the energy media The U-value is a measure of the heat flow through a build-
day use, however, energy sources such as solar energy, used. It is determined at the system boundary of the ing component. It specifies the quantity of heat
geothermal energy, wind power or water power, which building being assessed. exchanged per second between a surface of 1 m2 and
are the physical media of thermal, potential or kinetic the surrounding air during constant heating with a tem-
energy, are included under this heading. Final energy consumption [kWh/a] perature difference of 1 K between the surface and the
In contrast to the final energy requirement Qe, the final air. The U-value takes into account the thermal conductiv-
Primary energy [J] energy consumption designates an actual quantity of ities and thicknesses of the building materials plus the
Primary energy is the energy contained in the energy energy measured in the building. It also takes into account, thermal resistances between the components and the air.
media that occur naturally on the earth. Those energy for example, user behaviour and climatic fluctuations. In In the case of inhomogeneous components, individual
media include fossil fuels such as coal, crude oil, natural physical terms, however, this term is incorrect. According U-values must be calculated depending on the form of
gas or minerals like uranium ore and renewable energy to the law of conservation of energy, energy in a closed construction and then an average U-value worked out
media such as the sun, wind, water, biomass and geo- system is not consumed, but only converted into another depending on the ratio of the various areas. The lower the
thermal energy. Transforming the primary energy into the form of energy. U-value, the lower are the transmission heat losses.
net energy used by consumers at the end of the energy
chain leads to losses inherent in the conversion and Net energy [J] Ug-value of glazing [W/m2K]
transmission processes. The net energy is the energy used in the end by the end The Ug-value is a specific U-value that designates the
user. For this, the final energy has to be converted, which heat flow through one or more panes of glass. It takes
Primary energy factor fp [-] usually involves losses. Heating, cooling, illumination, into account the number of panes, the nature and number
The primary energy factor expresses the ratio of non-renew- motion or sound waves are forms of net energy. The net of coatings and the filling (e.g. noble gas) in any cavities
able primary energy input (including the losses during energy defines the starting point for calculating the pri- between the panes.
production, distribution and storage) to the final energy mary energy requirement according to the Energy Con-
output. Typical primary energy factors are, for example, servation Act. Uf-value of window frame [W/m2K]
1.1 for heating oil and natural gas, 2.7 for electricity and In addition to the Ug-value, there is also a specific U-value
0.2 for wood. The lower the primary energy factor, the Heating requirement QH [kWh/a] for the window frame, the Uf-value. Generally, the thermal
more efficient is the energy provision on the basis of the The heating requirement is the theoretical quantity of performance characteristics of the window frame are
corresponding primary energy medium. energy that must be fed into a building during the heating poorer than those of the glazing. The Uf-value can be
period in order to cover the heat losses for the desired improved through the choice of material, the material
Primary energy requirement Qp [kWh/a] interior temperature. It is calculated by subtracting the thickness and the quality of the seals.
When calculating the primary energy requirement for a solar and internal gains from the transmission and venti-
building according to the Energy Conservation Act, the lation heat losses Qv. UW-value of window [W/m2K]
final energy requirement is determined first. The conver- The parameter for assessing the heat flow through a win-
sion losses are taken into account by the primary energy Energy performance certificate dow is the Uw-value. It is made up of the Ug- and Uf-val-
factor fp. The relationship between final energy require- According to the Energy Conservation Act 2007, from ues, included in proportion to their areas, plus the losses
ment Qe, primary energy requirement Qp and primary July 2008 building owners in Germany will have to obtain due to the hermetic edge seal to the glazing and the
energy factor fp is expressed by the equation Qp = Qe • fp. energy performance certificates for their existing build- junction between the window and the surrounding con-
ings in order to present to new tenants and owners. The struction.
Secondary energy [J] consumption-based certificate is based on the measured
Secondary energy is the energy remaining after convert- energy consumption, which depends on the behaviour of Specific transmission heat loss HT [W/K]
ing the primary energy medium into so-called net energy the respective user and climatic fluctuations. The require- Transmission heat losses are caused by heat conduction
media such as electricity, heating oil, district heat or ments-based certificate is based on a calculated, theoret- through the surfaces enclosing a heated interior space
wood pellets. It is related to the source of the net energy ical energy requirement in order to be able to make (roof, external walls, windows, doors and floor over base-
medium. objective statements – suitable for making comparisons – ment) and by thermal bridges. This value therefore
regarding the quality and energy efficiency of a building describes the energy-efficiency quality of a thermal
Final energy [J] and its installed services. An energy performance certifi- enclosure. The geometry of the building and the U-values
Transporting the secondary energy to the consumer cate remains valid for 10 years, unless refurbishment of the building components have a considerable influ-
results in losses. The final energy designates the quantity work is carried out in the meantime. ence on the magnitude of the transmission heat losses.
of energy that is available to the end user at the place of
use, e.g. in the form of electricity, wood pellets, heating Specific transmission heat loss H'T[W/m2K]
oil or district heat, after deducting all conversion and dis- Insulating and sealing The Energy Conservation Act uses H'T to define a value
tribution losses. The final energy is usually the basis for for the transmission heat losses averaged over all the
the energy costs calculation. Thermal conductivity λ [W/mK] building envelope surfaces and related to 1 m2 of enclos-
The thermal conductivity is measured specifically for a ing area. This also enables a maximum permissible value
Final energy requirement Qe [kWh/a] material and specifies the quantity of heat passing to be identified depending on the volume of the building.
The final energy requirement is the quantity of energy through a 1 x 1 x 1 m cube of material per second for a
required to provide the net energy (e.g. space heating, temperature difference of 1 K between one side and the

258
 Parameters

SI prefixes Symbol Factor Equivalent U-value of windows [W/m2K] value of the fuel; in addition, the condensation heat of the
Solar energy gains during the heating period are includ- exhaust-gas flow (gross calorific value) is used in the
nano n 10-9 ed in the energy-efficiency assessment of windows by conversion process.
micro μ 10-6 way of the so-called equivalent U-value. Here, the g-value
of the glazing and the radiation gain are taken into Coefficient of performance COP [-]
milli m 10-3 account depending on the orientation. In the case of low The COP, like the degree of efficiency, is a parameter for
centi c 10-2 E glazing, a negative equivalent U-value is possible, i.e. evaluating the efficiency of energy conversion and is pri-
deci d 10-1 taken as a daily average, more energy enters the interior marily used for heat pumps and refrigeration plant. In the
deca da 10 in the form of solar radiation than is lost by transmission. heat pump process, this value describes the ratio of usa-
ble heat output to the driving energy (e.g. electrical)
hecto h 102
Light transmittance τ [-] input, including auxiliary energy, under standard condi-
kilo k 103 Depending on the material properties of a transparent tions. A COP of 2.0 means that the net energy output is
mega M 106 building component, radiation is either reflected at its twice the driving energy input. This figure should be
giga G 109 boundary surfaces, transmitted, or absorbed upon pass- understood as an evaluation of the efficiency of the
tera T 1012 ing through. The light transmittance specifies the ratio of device only; it does not provide an energy-efficiency
the amount of incident light with wavelengths 380–780 nm assessment of the entire installation
peta P 1015 to the amount of light passing through. The higher the
exa E 1018 value, the more daylight there is in the interior. This value Annual energy efficiency ratio (AEER) β [-]
zetta Z 1021 depends on the material, material thickness, coatings, etc. The annual energy efficiency ratio is used for assessing the
energy efficiency of heat pumps. It describes the ratio of
Daylight autonomy [%] heating or cooling energy output to the driving energy
Ventilation heat losses Qv [kWh/a] The daylight autonomy specifies the percentage of occu- (e.g. electrical) input for a heat pump over a period of
Exchanging the warm interior air for colder exterior air pied time for a room when the target illuminance for the one year. The AEER is therefore a measure of the total
leads to ventilation heat losses. This exchange of air is tasks to be carried out in a room can be maintained by degree of efficiency of a heat pump over the course of a
necessary for reasons of hygiene, for removing stale inte- daylight alone. During this time, no artificial light is neces- year.
rior air. Leaking joints and junctions can lead to addition- sary, e.g. for illuminating a workplace. The room geometry,
al, uncontrolled ventilation heat losses which increase the the proportion of opaque and transparent facade surfac- Seasonal performance factor (SPF) ep [-]
heating requirement considerably. Controlled ventilation es, the frame proportions of the windows and also the The seasonal performance factor describes the overall
and heat recovery can reduce the ventilation heat losses. type of glass have an influence on the daylight autonomy efficiency of building services installations (e.g. heating
system). It expresses the ratio of net energy output to
primary energy input. As renewable energy media are
Incident radiation and light Storage included in the calculation with their corresponding
primary energy factors, the SPF can drop below 1.
Global radiation [W/m²hor] Specific heat capacity c [J/kgK]
The global radiation is the quantity of solar energy inci- The specific heat capacity is a variable specific to each
dent on the earth’s surface – related to a horizontal sur- material. It designates the quantity of heat required to Material parameters
face. It consists of direct and diffuse, non-aligned radia- raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K. The
tion and depends on the solar altitude angle (which in specific heat capacity is particularly dependent on the Primary energy input PEI [MJ]
turn is dependent on latitude and time of year) and internal structure of a material. The primary energy input, also known as grey or embod-
atmospheric disturbances (clouds, particles). On very ied energy, is the energy required for the provision and
cloudy days it is practically only the diffuse component Heat (storage) capacity Qsp [Wh/m2K] use of a product. The figure includes all the energy quan-
that reaches the earth’s surface. In Central Europe the This value designates the ability of a building component tities necessary for production, transport and storage
global radiation drops below 100 W/m2 on such days. to store thermal energy. It is the product of the specific (including all intermediate states/products). It serves as
Under a cloudless sky, a value of about 700 W/m2 is heat capacity c, the density ρ and the thickness d of the an indicator of a potential environmental impact by the
reached. The global radiation can also be specified as an component being assessed: Qsp= c • ρ • d. product and can also be used to assess the technical
annual total [kWh/m2hora]. It is then suitable, for example, and ecological efficiency of the provision and usage
for calculating the energy yields of active solar energy Enthalpy of fusion [kJ/kg] processes. The lower the value, the better the material is
systems. In Germany the annual total lies between 900 The enthalpy of fusion (or heat of fusion) designates the in ecological terms. The PEI is specified according to the
and 1200 kWh/m2a. quantity of heat required for a substance to change from energy sources used for the production – separately for
the solid to the liquid state. Enthalpy of fusion is exploited renewable and non-renewable energy media. It can be
Total energy transmittance g (g-value) [-] by phase change materials (PCM), which upon changing expressed for materials related to weight or volume, but
The total energy transmittance defines the flow of energy between states can store energy without undergoing a also for building components or complete structures.
through transparent building components. It is related to change in temperature themselves. The potential energy
the entire radiation spectrum, i.e. the range of wave- absorption of the enthalpy of fusion over a temperature Global warming potential (GWP 100) [kg CO2-eq]
lengths from 300 to 2500 nm. When radiation strikes a range of 4°K for 90 kg PCM, for example, corresponds to The accumulation of greenhouse gases in the tropo-
transparent building component, one part of the energy 1 m3 concrete. sphere leads to a temperature rise on the earth due to the
reaches the interior immediately through transmission increased reflection of infrared radiation. The global
(primary energy transmittance). The other part is warming potential groups together all greenhouse gases
absorbed by the building components and subsequently Building services in relationship to the effect of carbon dioxide (CO2). As
re-emitted as infrared radiation (secondary energy trans- the damaging gases remain in the troposphere for differ-
mittance). The g-value is obtained by adding together the Heat load φhl [kW] ent lengths of time, the time horizon considered must be
primary and secondary energy transmittance values. With The heat load is the output required to maintain the identified; a period of 100 years is normally considered.
a combination of glazing and sunshades, reciprocal influ- desired interior temperature under the most unfavourable
ences must be considered. conditions and is specific to the building. The heat load Durability of building components [a]
calculation is normally carried out for each room of the The durability describes the potential for a building mate-
Solar gains Qs [kWh/a] building separately. To do this, the transmission heat rial to maintain the function allocated to it, e.g. loadbear-
Heat that contributes to heating up the interior of the requirement (losses via the enclosing surfaces of the ing, serviceability, for a certain period of time. This is usu-
building and to reducing the heating requirement – due to building) and the ventilation heat requirement are deter- ally specified in the form of a timespan where the lower
the incidence of solar energy on transparent and opaque mined. Internal and solar heat gains are not included in value represents the durability with normal usage and the
building components – is designated a solar gain. The the calculation. The heat load forms the basis for sizing higher value presumes optimised planning.
location of the building, its orientation, the inclination and the radiators and the heating plant.
size of the building components and the amount of radia- Calorific value [J/kg or J/m³]
tion absorbed by the facade material all influence this Degree of efficiency [-] The calorific value is the unit of measurement for the ther-
energy input. Solar gains take place at all building com- The degree of efficiency designates the ratio of output mal energy released upon the combustion of a sub-
ponents, but they are very much higher with transparent (benefits) to input (work/costs) under standard condi- stance. Only the usable thermal energy is considered
components than with other components. High solar tions. It is therefore the measure for the efficiency of ener- here, i.e. without the enthalpy of condensation (or heat of
gains can make a major contribution to reducing the gy conversion and energy transmission, and for energy condensation) of the ensuing water vapour. To enable a
heating requirement QH, but in summer can also lead to production systems specifies the relationship between comparison with the calorific values of building materials,
overheating in the building. usable and used energy. Whereas in theory only degrees the following values for fuels can be used: wood 7–16 MJ/
of efficiency < 100% are possible, in practice degrees of kg, lignite 29.9 MJ/kg, crude oil (at 25°C) 42.8 MJ/kg and
efficiency > 100% have been measured, e.g. gas-fired natural gas (at 25°C) 3 –45 MJ/m3. If the enthalpy of con-
condensing boilers. The input is related to the calorific densation is included in the equation, this results in the
gross calorific value of a material.

259
Climate data

Climate data

• Berlin
• Chicago
• Tokyo
• Cairo

• Dakar
Equator
•
Jakarta

• Rio de Janeiro
Moist, warm
Dry, hot • Sydney
Temperate
Cold
Temperature [°C]

30 125 Chicago Min. Month Max. Month Yearly average

Precipitation [mm]

Air temperature [°C] - 3.3 Jan 27.3 Jul 10.5

Mean daily max. temperature [°C] 0 Jan 27.2 Jul 13.9
20 100 Mean daily min. temperature [°C] - 7.7 Jan 18.9 Jul 5.6
Absolute max. temperature [°C] 18.3 Jan 40.6 Jul 40.6
Absolute min. temperature [°C] - 30.6 Dez 9.4 Jul - 30.6
10 75 Mean relative air humidity [%] 66.0 May 76.0 Dec 71.0
Mean precipitation [mm] 41.0 Feb 103.0 Jun 843.0
Max. precipitation [mm] 85.0 Feb 228.0 Jul no data
Min. precipitation [mm] 8.0 Feb 34.0 Jul no data
0 50
Max. daily precipitation [mm] 39.0 Feb 159.0 Jul 159.0
No. of precipitation days [d] 7.0 Oct 13.0 Apr 120.0
Evaporation [mm] 118.0 Dec 333.0 Jul 2611.0
-10 25
Mean No. of sunshine hours [h] 76.0 Dec 473.0 Jul 273.0
Radiation 1 [Wh/m2d] 884.0 Dec 5501.0 Jul 3175.0
Mean wind speed [m/s] 3.0 Jul, Aug 5.0 Nov–May 4.0
-20 0
1
J F M A M J J A S O N D Annual total of incoming radiation (horizontal) 1158 kWh/m2a
Temperature [°C]

30 125 Dakar Min. Month Max. Month Yearly average

Precipitation [mm]

Air temperature [°C] 21.3 Jan 28.0 Oct 24.7

Mean daily max. temperature [°C] 26.0 Jan 32.0 Oct 29.0
20 100 Mean daily min. temperature [°C] 17.0 Feb 26.0 May 21.0
Absolute max. temperature [°C] 37.0 Jul 43.0 Mar 43.0
Absolute min. temperature [°C] 12.0 Dec 21.0 Jul 12.0
10 75 Mean relative air humidity [%] 64.0 Dec 82.0 Sept 76.0
Mean precipitation [mm] < 1.0 Apr 254.0 Aug 540.0
Max. precipitation [mm] 6.0 Mar 476.0 Aug 901.0
Min. precipitation [mm] 0 Jan 56.0 Sept 273.0
0 50
Max. daily precipitation [mm] 2.0 Jan 213.0 Aug 213.0
No. of precipitation days [d] 0 Jan 13.0 Aug 38.0
Evaporation [mm] 58.0 Jan 164.0 Jul 1370.0
-10 25
Mean No. of sunshine hours [h] 181.0 Aug 295.0 Apr 2719.0
Radiation 1 [Wh/m2d] 4931.0 Dec 7164.0 Apr 5815.0
Mean wind speed [m/s] 1.9 Jan 6.1 Apr 3.9
-20 0
1
J F M A M J J A S O N D Annual total of incoming radiation (horizontal) 2122 kWh/m2a
Temperature [°C]

Precipitation [mm]

30 125 Jakarta Min. Month Max. Month Yearly average

Air temperature [°C] 26,1 Jan 27.2 May 26.8
Mean daily max. temperature [°C] 28.9 Jan, Feb 31.1 Sept 30.0
20 100 Mean daily min. temperature [°C] 22.8 Jul, Aug 23.9 Apr, May 23.3
Absolute max. temperature [°C] 33.3 Feb, Mar, Jul 36.7 Okt 36.7
Absolute min. temperature [°C] 18.9 Sept 20.6 Jan 18.9
10 75 Mean relative air humidity [%] 71.0 Sept 85.0 Jan 80.0
Mean precipitation [mm] 43.0 Aug 300.0 Jan 1799.0
Max. precipitation [mm] 135.0 Jul 779.0 Jan no data
Min. precipitation [mm] 0 Jun–Sept 91.0 Feb no data
0 50
Max. daily precipitation [mm] 20.0 Aug 71.0 Feb 71.0
No. of precipitation days [d] 4.0 Aug 18.0 Jan 125.0
Evaporation [mm] 115.0 Feb 144.0 Oct 1590.0
-10 25 Mean No. of sunshine hours [h] 182.0 Feb 295.0 Aug 2975.0
Radiation [Wh/m2d] no data no data no data no data no data
Mean wind speed [m/s] 1.5 Mar 1.8 Jul 1.6
-20 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D

260
 Climate data
Temperature [°C]

Precipitation [mm]
30 125 Cairo Min. Month Max. Month Yearly average
Air temperature [°C] 13.3 Jan 28.3 Jul, Aug 21.7
Mean daily max. temperature [°C] 19.0 Jan 35.0 Jun, Aug 28.0
20 100 Mean daily min. temperature [°C] 9.0 Jan, Feb 22.0 Jul, Aug 16.0
Absolute max. temperature [°C] 30.0 Jan 47.0 May 47.0
Absolute min. temperature [°C] 1.0 Feb 18.0 Jul 1.0
10 75 Mean relative air humidity [%] 34.0 May 56.0 Dec 47.0
Mean precipitation [mm] 0 Jun–Sept 8.0 Dec 24.0
Max. precipitation [mm] 0 Jun, Jul, Sept 54.0 Dec 63.0
Min. precipitation [mm] 0 Jan, Dec no data no data 3.0
0 50
Max. daily precipitation [mm] 0 Jun, Jul, Sept 44.0 Dec 44.0
No. of precipitation days [d] 0 Jul–Sept 3.0 Jan, Dec 10.0
Evaporation [mm] 22.0 Jan 184.0 Jul 1170.0
-10 25
Mean No. of sunshine hours [h] 236.0 Dec, Jan 391.0 Jul 3717.0
Radiation 1 [Wh/m2d] no data no data no data no data 5592.0
Mean wind speed [m/s] 3.0 Jun–Dec 4.0 Jan–May 3.0
-20 0
1
J F M A M J J A S O N D Annual total of incoming radiation (horizontal) 2041 kWh/m2a
Temperature [°C]

Precipitation [mm]

30 125 Rio de Janeiro Min. Month Max. Month Yearly average

Air temperature [°C] 20.2 Jul 256 Feb 22.7
Mean daily max. temperature [°C] 23.9 Jul, Sept 29.4 Feb 26.1
20 100 Mean daily min. temperature [°C] 17.2 Jul 22.8 Jan, Feb 20.0
Absolute max. temperature [°C] 32.6 Jun 39.1 Jan 39.1
Absolute min. temperature [°C] 10.2 Sept 17.6 Mar 10.2
10 75 Mean relative air humidity [%] 75.0 Aug 81.0 Mar 78.0
Mean precipitation [mm] 40.0 Aug 157.0 Jan 1039.0
Max. precipitation [mm] 91.0 Jul 318.0 Jan no data
Min. precipitation [mm] 2.0 Aug 41.0 Nov, Dec no data
0 50
Max. daily precipitation [mm] 51.0 Aug 223.0 Apr 223.0
No. of precipitation days [d] 7.0 Jul 14.0 Nov, Dec 131.0
Evaporation [mm] 61.0 Jul 137.0 Jan 1130.0
-10 25
Mean No. of sunshine hours [h] 151.0 Oct 222.0 Jan 2350.0
Radiation 1 [Wh/m2d] no data no data no data no data 4630.0
Mean wind speed [m/s] 2.7 Apr, Jun, Jul 3.9 Oct 3.2
-20 0
1
J F M A M J J A S O N D Annual total of incoming radiation (horizontal) 1690 kWh/m2a
Temperature [°C]

Precipitation [mm]

30 125 Sydney Min. Month Max. Month Yearly average

Air temperature [°C] 11.8 Jul 22.0 Jan 17.4
Mean daily max. temperature [°C] 15.6 Jul 25.6 Jan, Feb 21.1
20 100 Mean daily min. temperature [°C] 7.8 Jul 18.3 Jan, Feb 13.3
Absolute max. temperature [°C] 25.7 Jul 45.3 Jan 45.3
Absolute min. temperature [°C] 2.1 Jun 10.6 Jan 2.1
10 75 Mean relative air humidity [%] 62.0 Oct 76.0 Jun 69.0
Mean precipitation [mm] 72.0 Sept 141.0 Jun 1205.0
Max. precipitation [mm] 282.0 Oct 643.0 Jun 2102.0
Min. precipitation [mm] 1.0 Aug 11.0 Mar 546.0
0 50
Max. daily precipitation [mm] 121.0 Dec 281.0 Mar 281.0
No. of precipitation days [d] 11.0 Aug 14.0 Jan, Mar, Apr 152.0
Evaporation [mm] 25.0 Jul 122.0 Jan 838.0
-10 25
Mean No. of sunshine hours [h] 180.0 May 229.0 Oct, Dec 2463.0
Radiation 1 [Wh/m2d] 2919.0 Jul 6792.0 Nov 4675.0
Mean wind speed [m/s] 3.2 Apr, May 4.1 Jan 3.7
-20 0
1
J F M A M J J A S O N D Annual total of incoming radiation (horizontal) 1706 kWh/m2a
Temperature [°C]

30 125 Tokyo Min. Month Max. Month Yearly average

Precipitation [mm]

Air temperature [°C] 3.7 Jan 26.4 Aug 14.7

Mean daily max. temperature [°C] 8.3 Jan 30.0 Aug 18.9
20 100 Mean daily min. temperature [°C] - 1.7 Jan 22.2 Aug 10.0
Absolute max. temperature [°C] 21.3 Jul 384 Aug 38.4
Absolute min. temperature [°C] - 9.2 Dec, Jan 15.4 Aug - 9.2
10 75 Mean relative air humidity [%] 60.0 Feb 80.0 Jul, Sept 72.0
Mean precipitation [mm] 48.0 Jan 217.0 Sept 1562.0
Max. precipitation [mm] no data no data no data no data no data
Min. precipitation [mm] no data no data no data no data no data
0 50
Max. daily precipitation [mm] 48.0 Jan 393.0 Sept 393.0
No. of precipitation days [d] 5.0 Dec 13.0 Sept 115.0
Evaporation [mm] 4.0 Jan 161.0 Jul 809.0
-10 25
Mean No. of sunshine hours [h] 136.0 Sept, Oct 204.0 Aug 2020.0
Radiation [Wh/m2d] no data no data no data no data no data
Mean wind speed [m/s] 3.0 Dec 4.3 Mar, Apr 3.7
-20 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
For the data for Berlin, please see Fig. B 1.50, p. 55.

261
LCA data

External cladding per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability

LCA data Layers primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
non-renewable renewable gases
[MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a]
Stone
stone slabs bedded in mortar, limestone 71 3.5 5.4 80–100
limestone slab, cut, 20 mm
lime-cement mortar, MG II, 15 mm
suspended stone slabs, limestone 168 17 10 80–100
limestone slab, cut, 30 mm
stainless steel fasteners (V4A), 140 mm

Materials with mineral binders

fibre-cement sheets 88 38 3.4 40–60
fibre-cement sheets, 8 mm
timber supporting construction, 30 mm
calcium silicate units, with ventilation cavity 320 10 33 60–80
External cladding CS units (KS Vb 20/1.8), MG II mortar, 115 mm
wall ties, steel, 80 mm
The outer skin of a building characterises its external
appearance. It performs diverse exchange functions in situ concrete 680 36 55 ≥ 80
between inside and outside and provides protection, in situ conc., 2% steel reinft. (FE 360 B), 100 mm
especially against the weather. Included in this functional concrete anchor, high-alloy steel, 120 mm
building component layer alongside the protective surfaces
are also the necessary mounting constructions. High Ceramic materials
demands are placed on the safety and durability of the
entire construction. External cladding forms exhibit signif- ceramic panels, with ventilation cavity 285 50 21 ≥ 80
icant differences in terms of their embodied energy and VFH ceramic panels, 30 mm
the resulting environmental impacts (see “Materials”, p. aluminium sections, 60 mm
162, Fig. B 5.56). Considered in the context of the entire
building, the proportion of embodied energy in the facing masonry, with ventilation cavity 400 9 51 60–80
facade (see “Materials”, p. 162, Fig. B 5.55) and its share solid clay bricks (VMz 28/1.8), MG II mortar, 115 mm
of the costs are generally very high; the external cladding wall ties, steel, 80 mm
should therefore be given due attention during the plan-
ning. Metal
Heavyweight external cladding forms in particular tie up a titanium-zinc sheet 416 43 25 70–100
large proportion of the embodied energy in their support-
ing construction and fixings (see “Materials”, p. 163, Fig. titanium-zinc w. double welt stand. seams, 0.7 mm
B 5.60). Optimising the material thickness and the weight particleboard (P5), 22 mm
will reduce the primary energy input in such components. corrugated aluminium sheeting 832 168 55 70–100
Increased durability can justify the use of low-energy met-
als if necessary. Timber constructions act as carbon corrugated aluminium sheeting, 1 mm
sinks and thus reduce undesirable climatic effects. aluminium supporting construction, 30 mm

Timber
wooden shingles/shakes 41 226 - 21 40–70
red cedar shakes, single-lap tiling, 16 mm
timber supporting construction, 48 mm
plywood 189 613 - 29 40–70
building-grade veneer plywood, 16 mm
timber supporting construction, 30 mm

Transparent components Transparent components per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability

Layers primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
Transparent components consist of a transparent element non-renewable renewable gases
and a support or bearing that does not cause any restraint. [MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a]
In terms of area, they represent the most costly functional Glass
layer with respect to energy efficiency (see “Materials”,
p. 162, Fig. B 5.56). They should therefore provide addi- insulating glass Ug = 1.1 547 65 29 50
tional functions whenever possible, e.g. better daylight double glazing, argon filling, 24 mm
provision or the exploitation of solar energy media (see patent glazing bar, aluminium, EPDM gasket, 40 mm
“Building envelope”, p. 83, Fig. B 3.2).
Only seldom is glass designed as self-supporting, or to insulating glass Ug = 0.7 837 70 40 50
carry loads or function as bracing; but then the impor- triple glazing, argon filling, 36 mm
tance of the supporting construction increases. A high patent glazing bar, aluminium, EPDM gasket, 40 mm
density plus higher demands regarding insulation and
sealing have additional negative effects. glass double facade 2162 353 131 50
toughened safety glass, 6 mm
aluminium supporting framework, 250 mm
double glazing, argon filling, 24 mm

Synthetic materials
plastic sheet 1099 63 52 25
4-wall sheet, polycarbonate, 40 mm
patent glazing bar, aluminium, EPDM gasket

262
 LCA data

Plaster, render and thermal insulation PEI PEI GWP Durability Plaster, render and thermal insulation composite
composite systems per m2 primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse systems
Layers non-renewable renewable gases
[MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a] Plaster, render and thermal insulation composite systems
represent a special group among the external wall solu-
Lime-cement plaster, internal, 2 coats 110 1.8 7.2 80 tions. Depending on the specification, they can comprise
lime-cement plaster, MG P II, scraped, 15 mm a number of individual layers.
primer Plasters (internal) and renders (external) are efficient
alternatives to external cladding. Insulating plaster/render
gypsum plaster, internal, 2 coats 97 1.5 5.9 80 and thermal insulation composite systems fulfil the func-
gypsum plaster, smooth, 15 mm tions of external cladding and insulation in one compo-
primer nent. The addition of both layers make them comparable
with other forms of construction. Their composite nature,
insulating plaster 237 3.4 16 60 however, results in certain disadvantages with respect to
lime-cmt. plaster w. expanded perlite agg., 50 mm maintenance.
primer
thermal insulation composite system 561 24 31 30
lime-cmt. plaster w. glass fleece reinft., 3 mm
EPS, ¬ = 0.035 W/m2K, ρ = 30 kg/m3, 100 mm
UF-based adhesive, 3.2 mm
loam plaster, internal, 2 coats 61 0,9 3.8 80
loam undercoat, 10 mm
loam finish coat, 5 mm

Insulation per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability Insulation

Layers primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
non-renewable renewable gases Layers of insulation consist of an insulating material and
[MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a] its fixings to a substrate (e.g. adhesives or mechanical
fasteners). The embodied energy of insulating materials
Boards
can differ by a factor of more than 10 for the same insu-
expanded polystyrene (EPS) 511 17 28 30 lating performance. However, the use of insulation gener-
EPS board, ¬ = 0.040 W/m2K, ρ = 25 kg/m3, 120 mm ally reduces the cost of energy for operating a building
polyvinyl acetate (PVAC) adhesive and increases the comfort for users. All insulating materi-
als installed with typical thicknesses therefore recoup
extruded polystyrene (XPS) 405 12 21 30 their costs in the form of energy-savings within a short
XPS board, ¬ = 0.040 W/m2K, ρ = 20 kg/m3, 120 mm period (see “Materials”, p. 152).
polyvinyl acetate (PVAC) adhesive The choice of an insulating material is also determined by
the other requirements it has to fulfil (e.g. compressive
polyurethane PUR 349 13 17 30 strength below ground level). Although, for example,
PUR board, ¬ = 0.035 W/m2K, ρ = 20 kg/m3, 100 mm extruded polystyrene (XPS) generally appears to have a
polyvinyl acetate (PVAC) adhesive high energy content, in the group of compression-resist-
ant insulating materials, for the tasks it has to fulfil it rep-
insulation cork board ICB 15 0.24 1.1 40–60 resents a comparatively good solution in terms of energy.
ICB, ¬ = 0.040 W/m2K, 120 mm
mortar-based adhesive
wood-wool comp. board WW-C, permanent formwork 89 68 0.8 30–50
WW-C board, ¬ = 0.040 W/m2K, ρ = 30 kg/m3, 125 mm
magnesite-bonded, mineral fibres on inside
wood fibre insulating board WF 436 79 19 20–50
WF board, ¬ = 0.040 W/m2K, ρ = 160 kg/m3, 120 mm
mortar-based adhesive

cellular glass CG, external basement insulation 1030 29 49 100

cellular glass, ¬ = 0.040 W/m2K, ρ = 100 kg/m3, 120 mm
bitumen compound
calcium silicate board 96 3.7 16 40
CS board, ¬ = 0.045 W/m2K, ρ = 20 kg/m3, 120 mm
polyamide fixings

Fleeces
mineral wool fleece 74 1.4 5.4 30–50
MW fleece, ¬ = 0.040 W/m2K, ρ = 20 kg/m3, 120 mm
polyamide fixings

Loose fill
perlite fill 187 2.1 11 no data
exp. perlite, ¬ = 0.065 W/m2K, ρ = 100 kg/m3, 160 mm
(on ground slab)
cellulose fill 33 1.7 1.8 35–50
cellulose, ¬ = 0.040 W/m2K, ρ = 50 kg/m3, 120 mm
(between TJI timber beams)

263
LCA data

Roof coverings Roof coverings per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability

Layers primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
The functional layer of the roof covering consists of the non-renewable renewable gases
roof skin (covering or waterproofing) and the supporting [MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a]
structure required for this. As part of the building enve- Roof coverings
lope, the energy requirements of roof coverings are simi-
lar to those of facades. Owing to the high demands flat plan tiles, titanium-zinc flashings 331 180 11 50
placed on weather protection, good durability should be clay flat pan tiles, 20 mm
given high priority, otherwise the renewal and repair proc- timber battens, 24 x 48 mm, PE-HD sheathing, 0.5 mm
esses over the life cycle will increase the energy require-
ments and the costs. In the case of complex roof forms, concrete tiles, titanium-zinc flashings 288 155 4 50
large amounts of energy are tied up in the junctions; sim- concrete tiles, 20 mm
ple geometric structures reduce this embodied energy. timber battens, 24 x 48 mm, PE-HD sheathing, 0.5 mm
The layers of wood used beneath metal roof coverings in
particular cannot compensate for the CO2 emissions titanium-zinc sheet 458 143 17 70
associated with the layer of metal, but they do benefit titanium-zinc with double-welt standing seams, 0.7 mm
from a comparatively high durability. On flat roofs, green timber boards, 24 mm
roof solutions with extensive planting and PVC or EPDM
waterproof sheeting generally involve less embodied copper sheet 830 130 35 80
energy than bitumen sheeting and at the same time copper sheet with double-welt standing seams, 0.7 mm
exhibit better durability. timber boards, 24 mm
fibre-cement sheets, titanium-zinc flashings 689 197 26 40
corrugated fibre-cement sheets, 8 mm
timber battens, 24 x 48 mm, PE-HD sheathing, 0.5 mm
MDF board, 18 mm
natural slates, copper flashings 999 138 24 70
natural slates, Old German slating, 5 mm
flexible bitumen sheeting type V 13.5 mm
timber boards, 24 mm
wooden shingles, copper flashings 501 708 - 44 40
wooden shingles, double-lap tiling, 24 mm
timber battens, 24 x 48 mm, PE-HD sheathing, 0.3 mm
timber boards, 24 mm

Roof waterproofing systems

flexible bitumen sheeting, with gravel 1355 38 40 25–30
gravel, 50 mm
polyester fleece (PES), 2 mm
flexible bitumen sheeting (PYE PY200 S5), 5 mm
flexible bitumen sheeting (G200 S4), 4 mm
EPDM sheeting, with gravel 394 28 17 25–35
gravel, 50 mm
flexible EPDM sheeting, 1.2 mm
perf. glass fleece, 3 mm, PE-HD vapour barrier, 0.4 mm

Walls
Walls per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability
The functional layer of the wall is the wall itself without its Layers primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
surface finishes. In terms of the overall balance, the walls non-renewable renewable gases
tie up the second-highest amount of embodied energy, [MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a]
after the loadbearing structure (see “Materials”, p. 162, Solid homogeneous walls
Fig. B 5.55). The primary energy input essentially corre-
reinforced concrete 650 83 45 70–100
sponds to the weight introduced into the building. Light-
weight constructions should be preferred, provided these reinforced concrete (grade C 25/35)
satisfy the other requirements placed on the wall (e.g. 2% steel content (FE 360 B), 200 mm
sound insulation).
loam bricks 96 1.2 4.2 70–90
Timber and metal stud walls involve less embodied
energy, are easier to repair and renew, and enable sim- air-dried loam bricks, ρ = 1400 kg/m3, 240 mm
ple integration of building services. Compared to timber loam mortar
stud walls, metal stud walls have a lower embodied energy
aerated concrete bricks 410 14 65 70–90
(320 MJ/m2), but most of this is covered by non-renewable
sources (307 MJ/m2). Timber stud walls, on the other aerated concrete bricks (PPW 4-0.6 t&g), 240 mm
hand, act as a carbon sink. masonry mortar, MG III
lightweight concrete bricks with pumice aggregate 247 5.1 26 80–90
lightwt. conc. bricks w. pumice agg. (VBL 2), 240 mm
masonry mortar, MG III
calcium silicate bricks 517 14 56 90–100
calcium silicate bricks (KSL 12/1.4), 240 mm
masonry mortar, MG II
gypsum wallboard 186 2.5 8.9 90
gypsum wallboard, 100 mm
gypsum mortar, MG IV

264
 LCA data

Walls per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability

(contd.) primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
Layers non-renewable renewable gases
[MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a]
Solid homogeneous walls (contd.)
vertically perforated clay bricks 599 12 79 90–100
vertically perforated clay bricks (HLz 12/1.2), 240 mm
masonry mortar, MG II

Stud walls
timber stud wall 182 179 - 5,9 40–60
plasterboard (type A), 12.5 mm
timber studs, 80 x 40 mm, mineral wool, 40 mm
plasterboard (type A), 12.5 mm

Wall linings per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability Wall linings

Layers primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
non-renewable renewable gases With respect to their embodied energy, wall linings vary
[MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a] less than other building component groups, although the
fixings necessary must always be taken into account
Mineral linings
together with the lining. Common materials such as
plasterboard 97 50 1.2 40–60 wood-based board products or plasterboard represent
particularly favourable options from the point of view of
plasterboard (type A), 12.5 mm
embodied energy. The perceived value of the material
screw fixings, edge detail with softwood battens
generally matches up with the embodied energy; how-
loam building board 84 2 - 0.2 no data ever, better-quality surfaces are mostly also longer-last-
ing.
fine loam plaster, jute fabric, 4 mm
loam building board, 20 mm
timber framework, screwed, 24 mm

Timber linings
timber boards 40 281 - 26 50–90
timber boards (spruce, t&g) 19.5 mm
screwed
veneer plywood 177 540 - 23 50–90
veneer plywood, 22 mm
screwed
particleboard (comparable with OSB) 40 87 - 9.7 50–60
particleboard P1, 19 mm
screwed

Ceilings per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability Ceilings

Layers primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
non-renewable renewable gases The embodied energy of ceilings and soffit finishes is
[MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a] mainly affected by their supporting construction as well
as their surface finish. In contrast to wall linings, different
wood-wool board 110 381 - 28 30–50
systems and specifications result in very different embod-
wood-wool board with mineral binder, 25 mm ied energy figures. Classical materials for interior finishes
framework of timber battens, 24 mm such as plaster represent efficient options in terms of
their primary energy.
Pressed particleboard 136 109 - 5.8 50
Owing to the greater use of materials, suspended ceilings
pressed particleboard with oak veneer, 19 mm generally result in a much higher primary energy input
framework of steel channels, galvanised, 40 mm than ceiling types applied or attached directly to the
mineral-fibre fleece, 40 mm soffit.
Calcium silicate board 56 1.3 4.5 40
calcium silicate board, 20 mm
framework of steel channels, 50 mm
gypsum fibreboard 97 50 1.2 40–60
gypsum fibreboard, 12.5 mm
framework of timber battens, 24 mm
Plastered ceiling 56 0.8 3.3 80
gypsum plaster, 15 mm
mat of reeds as background, 5 mm
Panel ceiling, steel 375 14 22 40–70
sheet steel pans, perforated, 0.88 mm
steel beams, channel sections, 840 mm grid, 7.5 mm
mineral fibreboard, 40 mm
PE film facing

265
LCA data

Screeds and subfloors Screeds and subfloors per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability
Layers primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
The distribution of imposed loads and sound insulation non-renewable renewable gases
are the governing criteria for the functional layer of the [MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a]
screed or subfloor, which also include a separating layer Mortar screeds and wet subfloors
and impact sound insulation. The durability of the impact
sound insulation is generally less than that of the load- cement screed 203 3.8 18 50–80 1
bearing layer.
cement screed (CT 20-S 50), 50 mm
The use of cement screeds, mastic asphalt or oriented
building paper, 0.2 mm
strand boards (OSB) can result in a functional added-
mineral-fibre insulation, 20/15 mm
value if these also serve as ready-to-use surfaces or, like
mastic asphalt, exhibit sound insulation advantages. calcium sulphate screed 71 2.2 5.8 40–60 1
calcium sulphate screed (CA 20-S 50), 50 mm
building paper, 0.2 mm
mineral-fibre insulation, 20/15 mm
mastic asphalt 443 5.1 11 no data 1
mastic asphalt, 25 mm
building paper, 0.2 mm
coconut board, 10 mm

Dry subfloors
gypsum fibreboard 138 10 8.2 no data 1
gypsum fibreboard, 2 layers, 20 mm
mineral-fibre insulation, 25/20 mm
particleboard 71 88 - 8.3 no data 1
particleboard (P1), glued, 19 mm
mineral-fibre insulation, 20/15 mm
polyethylene (PE) fleece, 1 mm
1
The durability of impact sound insulation is about 50 years.

Floor coverings
Floor coverings per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability
Floor coverings consist of the actual wearing course plus Layers primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
their attachment to the substrate. Heavy loads and fre- non-renewable renewable gases
quent cleaning processes (see “Materials”, p. 172) place [MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a]
an intensive load on the floor covering and can lead to a Tiles
high primary energy consumption. But even the embodied
limestone 16 0.7 1 70–100
energy figures of the floor coverings themselves differ
considerably, and can quickly accumulate in the case of limest. flags, 305 x 305 mm, MG III mortar joints, 10 mm
poor durability. Stone floor finishes offer the highest dura- thin-bed mortar, 3 mm
bility and at the same time the lowest embodied energy.
slate 43 1.1 3.5 70–100
The way the floor coverings are fixed within the building is
also decisive for the embodied energy. This is especially slate flags, 300 x 300 mm, MG III mortar joints, 20 mm
evident with resilient floor coverings and carpeting, which MG II mortar bed, 12 mm
exhibit very high embodied energy figures owing to the terracotta 137 3.2 14 40–80
use of synthetic rubber.
Solid timber products (e.g. wood-block or mosaic parquet terra. tiles, oiled, 300x300 mm, MG III mort. jts., 15 mm
flooring) demonstrate that a multitude of work operations MG II mortar bed, 12 mm
and the associated increased wastage have a noticeable
effect on the CO2 balance. Solid timber and wood-based products
wood-block flooring 66 447 - 42 20–50
wood-block flooring, beech, oiled, 22 mm
alkyd resin adhesive
mosaic parquet 79 174 - 13 20–50
mosaic parquet, oak, sealed, 8 mm
alkyd resin adhesive
real wood parquet laminate flooring 74 311 - 27 20–50
real wood parquet laminate flooring, beech, 15 mm
polyurethane adhesive
laminated flooring 91 54 - 2.6 10–15
laminated flooring with melamine resin coating, 8 mm
polyurethane adhesive
polyethylene (PE) fleece

Resilient floor coverings

linoleum 24 29 - 0.4 15–40
linoleum (roll), 2.5 mm
polyvinyl acetate (PVAC) adhesive
rubber 702 15 21 15–40
rubber (roll) without inlay, synthetic, 4.5 mm
polyurethane adhesive

266
 LCA data

Floor coverings per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability

(contd.) primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
Layers non-renewable renewable gases
[MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a]
Resilient floor coverings (contd.)
cork, waxed 22 54 - 5.2 15–40
cork tiles, waxed, 6 mm
latex adhesive

PVC 118 23 9.9 15–30

PVC (roll), 2 mm
polyvinyl acetate (PVAC) adhesive

Textile floor coverings

carpet, natural sisal 164 33 3.3 5–15
carpet, natural sisal, natural latex backing, 6 mm
alkyd resin adhesive
carpet, new wool 39 27 - 1.1 5–12
carpet, new wool, looped-pile, 6 mm
jute felt
polyvinyl acetate (PVAC) adhesive
carpet, fully synthetic 225 5.2 7.3 5–12
carpet, cut-pile, foam backing, 7 mm
MG II mortar bed, 12 mm

Coatings per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability Coatings

Layers primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
non-renewable renewable gases Coatings consist of the actual coating itself plus in most
[MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a] cases the preliminary treatment of the substrate. The en-
ergy-related effects of coatings are determined, in partic-
Mineral coatings, external ular, by their durability. As a “zero option”, avoiding coat-
ings altogether is an extremely efficient optimisation
lime coating 2 0,01 0.22 5
measure. Further optimisation options exist in the realm of
hydrated lime coating health risks (see “Materials”, p. 171).
primer On the other hand, coatings can improve the durability of
building components or make them suitable for taking on
silicate coating, 1-part 7.3 1.4 0.26 20–25
additional functions (e.g. sound insulation, fire protec-
1-part silicate dispersion tion). For example, sealing a screed represents an energy-
primer efficiency alternative to providing a floor finish.

Organic coatings, external

alkyd resin coating 4.8 1.4 0.13 15
alkyd resin lacquer
primer
acrylic coating 4.6 0.14 0.15 10
acrylic-based high-build glaze coat
primer
polyurethane coating (screed sealing) 36 1.5 1.9 15–35
2-part polyurethane coating (PUR)
primer

Waterproofing per m2 PEI PEI GWP Durability Waterproofing

Layers primary energy, primary energy, greenhouse
non-renewable renewable gases As a functional component consisting of waterproofing
[MJ] [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [a] layer plus preliminary treatment of substrate, waterproo-
fing systems, exhibiting great differences in terms of their
reaction resin waterproofing 94 3.4 5.8 80
embodied energy, offer various chances to optimise the
epoxy mortar, 2 mm energy efficiency. However, these depend very much on
epoxy undercoat the specification (e.g. hydrostatic pressure).
plastic-modified thick bitumen coating 373 1.1 6.4 80
embossed synthetic sheeting for protection (HDPE)
bitumen emulsion, 3 mm
mineral waterproofing 10 0.2 0.8 no data
cement-based waterproofing, 2 mm
water glass undercoat
bitumen sheeting,1 layer 294 5.6 7.4 80
bitumen sheeting (G200 S4), 4 mm
bitumen undercoat

267
Statutory instruments, directives, standards

Part A Positions required to maintain the performance of each type of

Statutory instruments, heat exchanger. 1998-12
directives, standards DIN EN ISO 9000:2000 Quality management systems –
Fundamentals and vocabulary. 2005-12
DIN EN 1264 Floor heating – Systems and components.
1997-11
DIN EN 12097 Ventilation for buildings – Ductwork –
Requirements for ductwork components to facilitate
Part B Planning maintenance of ductwork systems. 2006-11
DIN EN 12098 Controls for heating systems. 1996-09
Fundamentals DIN EN 12464 Light and lighting – Lighting of work places.
DIN EN 1946-2 Thermal performance of building products 2003-03
and components – Specific criteria for the assessment DIN EN 12665 Light and lighting – Basic terms and crite-
of laboratories measuring heat transfer properties – ria for specifying lighting requirements. 2002-09
Part 2: Measurements by the guarded hot plate method. DIN EN 12792 Ventilation for buildings – Symbols, termi-
1999-04 nology and graphical symbols. 2004-01
The EU has issued directives for a number of products, CEN-Bericht CR 1752 Ventilation for Buildings: Design DIN EN 12828 Heating systems in buildings – Design of
the particular aim of which is to ensure the safety and Criteria for the Indoor Environment. 1998 water-based heating systems. 2003-06
health of users. These directives must be implemented in DIN EN ISO 7730 Ergonomics of the thermal environment DIN EN 12831 Heating systems in buildings – Method for
the EU member states in the form of compulsory legis- – Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal calculation of the design heat load. 2003-08
lation and regulations. comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices DIN EN 13141 Ventilation for buildings – Performance
The directives themselves do not contain any technical and local thermal comfort criteria. 2007-06 testing of components/products for residential ventila-
details, but instead only lay down the mandatory underly- Arbeitsplatzgrenzwert (AGW) (workplace limit value). tion. 2004-09
ing requirements. The corresponding technical values are 2005 DIN EN 13465 Ventilation for buildings – Calculation
specified in associated sets of technical rules (e.g. codes Biologischer Grenzwert (BGW) (biological limit value). methods for the determination of air flow rates in dwell-
of practice) and in the form of EN standards harmonised 2005 ings. 2004-05
throughout Europe. DIN EN 200 Sanitary tapware. General technical specifi- DIN EN 13779 Ventilation for non-residential buildings –
Generally, the technical rules provide advice and informa- cations for single taps and mixer taps (nominal size 1/2) Performance requirements for ventilation and room-
tion for everyday activities. They are not statutory instru- PN 10. Minimum flow pressure of 0.05 MPa (0.5 bar). conditioning systems. 2007-09
ments, but rather give users decision-making aids, guide- 2005-06 DIN EN 14134 Ventilation for buildings – Performance
lines for implementing technical procedures correctly and/ DIN 4261 Small sewage treatment plants. 2002-12 testing and installation checks of residential ventilation
or practical information for turning legislation into practice. systems. 2004-04
The use of the technical rules is not compulsory; only when Urban space and infrastructure DIN EN 14336 Heating systems in buildings – Installation
they have been included in government legislation or other DIN 1986 Drainage systems on private ground. 2004-11 and commissioning of water-based heating systems.
statutory instruments do they become mandatory, or when 2005-01
the parties to a contract include them in their conditions. Building envelope DIN EN 14337 Heating systems in buildings – Design and
In Germany the technical rules include DIN standards, DIN 4108 Thermal insulation and energy economy in installation of direct electrical room heating systems.
VDI directives and other publications such as the Techni- buildings. 2006-03 2006-02
cal Rules for Hazardous Substances. Energy-Savings Act (EnEG). 2005-09 DIN EN 14511 Air conditioners, liquid chilling packages
The standards are divided into product, application and VDI 2067 Economic efficiency of building installations. and heat pumps with electrically driven compressors
testing standards. They often relate to just one specific 2000-09 for space heating and cooling. 2004-07
group of materials or products, and are based on the DIN 5034 Daylight in interiors. 1999-10 DIN EN 14706 Thermal insulation products for building
corresponding testing and calculation methods for the Places of Work Directive (ASR), in accordance with: equipment and industrial installations. 2006-03
respective materials and components. The latest edition Places of Work Act (ArbStättV). 2004-12 DIN 51731 Testing of solid fuels – Compressed untreated
of a standard – which should correspond with the state of wood – Requirements and testing. 1996-10
the art – always applies. A new or revised standard is first Building services VDI 3803 Air-conditioning systems – Structural and tech-
published as a draft for public discussion before (proba- DIN 1946 Ventilation systems. 1999-03 nical principles. 2002-10
bly with revisions) it is finally adopted as a valid standard. DIN 1988 Codes of practice for drinking water installa-
The origin and area of influence of a standard can be tions (TRWI). 1988-12 Materials
gleaned from its designation: DIN V 4701 Energy efficiency of heating and ventilation DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and build-
• DIN plus number (e.g. DIN 4108) is essentially a systems in buildings. 2003-08 ing components. 1998-05
national document (drafts are designated with “E” and DIN 4702 Boilers for central heating. 1990-03 DIN EN ISO 6946 Building components and building ele-
preliminary standards with “V”). DIN 4703 Heating appliances. 1999-12 ments – Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance –
• DIN EN plus number (e.g. DIN EN 572) is a German DIN 4708 Central heat-water installations. 1994-04 Calculation method. 2003-10
edition of a European standard – drawn up by the DIN 4725 Floor heating, systems and components. 2001- DIN EN 10077 Thermal performance of windows, doors
European Standardisation Organisation CEN – that has 03 and shutters – Calculation of thermal transmittance.
been adopted without amendments. DIN 4726 Warm water floor heating systems and radiator 2006-12
• DIN EN ISO (e.g. DIN EN ISO 18064) is a standard pipe connecting. 2000-01 DIN EN 410 Glass in building – Determination of luminous
with national, European and worldwide influence. DIN 4747 Heating plants for district heating. 2003-11 and solar characteristics of glazing. 1998-12
Based on a standard from the International Standardi- DIN V 4759 Heating installations for different sources of DIN 4108-2 Thermal protection and energy economy in
sation Organisation ISO, a European standard was energy. 1986-05 buildings – Part 2: Minimum requirements to thermal
drawn up, which was then adopted as a DIN standard. DIN 5035 Artificial lighting. 2004-2007 insulation. 2003-07
• DIN ISO (e.g. DIN ISO 21930) is a German edition of an DIN 6280-13 Generating sets – Reciprocating internal Industrial Waste Act (GewAbfV). 2003-01
ISO standard that has been adopted without amend- combustion engines driven generating sets – Part 13: Cradle-to-Grave Economy Act (KrW/AbfG). 1996-10
ments. For emergency power supply in hospitals and public DIN EN ISO 14024 Environmental labels and declarations
The following compilation represents a selection of statu- buildings. 1994-12 – Type I environmental labelling – Principles and proce-
tory instruments, directives and standards that reflects DIN 8901 Refrigerating systems and heat pumps – dures. 2001-02
the state of the art regarding building materials and build- Protection of soil, ground and surface water – Safety DIN EN ISO 14021 Environmental labels and declarations
ing material applications as of August 2007. and environmental requirements and testing. 2002-12 – Self-declared environmental claims (Type II environ-
DIN 18012 House service connections facilities – mental labelling). 2001-12
Principles for planning. 2000-11 DIN EN ISO 14040 Environmental management – Life
DIN 18015 Electrical installations in residential buildings. cycle assessment – Principles and framework. 2006-10
General 2004-08 DIN 4109 Sound insulation in buildings; requirements and
DIN 18017 Ventilation of bathrooms and WCs without out- testing. 1989-11
Energy Conservation Act (EnEV) – statutory instrument side windows. 1987-02 DIN 18230 Structural fire protection in industrial buildings.
dealing with energy-saving thermal performance and DIN V 18160 Chimneys. 2006-01 1998-05
energy-saving installations for buildings. 2004-12 DIN V 18599 Energy efficiency of buildings – Calculation DIN EN 13501 Fire classification of construction products
Renewable Energy Act (EEG) 2002 – legislation dealing of the net, final and primary energy demand for heating, and building elements. 2007-05
with the restructuring of the legal side of renewable cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and lighting. DIN EN 12354 Building acoustics – Estimation of acoustic
energy in the electricity sector. 2004-07 2007-02 performance of buildings from the performance of prod-
Thermal Insulation Act (WSVO) – statutory instrument DIN 44576 Electric room heating; thermal storage floor ucts. 2007-06
dealing with energy-saving thermal performance. 1987 heating; characteristics of performance. 1987-03 DIN EN 13162 Thermal insulation products for buildings –
Revised Thermal Insulation Act. 1984 DIN EN 307 Heat exchangers – Guidelines to prepare Factory made mineral wool (MW) products. 2001-10
Revised Thermal Insulation Act. 1995 installation, operating and maintenance instructions DIN EN 13167 Thermal insulation products for buildings –

268
 Statutory instruments, directives, standards/bibliography

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The authors and publishers would like to express their
B 2.13 fabuloussavers.com B 4.37 Matthias Weissengruber, Kennelbach
sincere gratitude to all those who have assisted in the
B 2.21 Hervé Abbadie, Paris B 4.41 Viessmann Werke GmbH & Co. KG, Allendorf
production of this book, be it through providing photos or
B 2.23 Rupert Steiner, Vienna B 4.46 Viessmann Werke GmbH & Co. KG, Allendorf
artwork or granting permission to reproduce their docu-
B 2.37 Isbrand Penner, Ettlingen B 4.55 Wagner & Co Solartechnik GmbH, Cölbe
ments or providing other information. All the drawings in
B 2.57 Darmstadt TU, FG EE picture archives B 4.76 Christian Kandzia, Stuttgart
this book were specially commissioned. Photographs not
B 2.58 Thomas Ott, Mühltal B 4.91 Denis Gilbert/VIEW/artur, Essen
specifically credited were taken by the architects or are
B 2.62 Der Grüne Punkt B 4.92 Darmstadt TU, FG EE picture archives
works photographs or were supplied from the archives of
B 2.69 Atelier 5, Bern B 4.96 Wolf GmbH, Mainburg
the magazine DETAIL. Despite intensive endeavours we
B 2.70 a–c Jan Gerrit Schäfer, Hanover B 4.104 Thomas Mayer/www.erco.com, Lüdenscheid
were unable to establish copyright ownership in just a few
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cases; however, copyright is assured. Please notify us
B 2.76 Alex S. MacLean, Cambridge B 4.110 a–b Nigel Young, London
accordingly in such instances.
The numbers refer to the figures. B 4.110 c SCHOTT Solar GmbH, Alzenau
Building envelope B 4.110 d Zentrum für Sonnenergie- und Wasserstoff-
B 3.1 Sunways AG, Constance Forschung Baden Würtemberg
B 3.4 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich B 4.110 e First Solar GmbH, Berlin
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Photographs B 4.115–117 Michael Bender, Darmstadt
B 3.6 Ruedi Walti, Basel
B 3.16 Thomas Dix/archenova, Düsseldorf B 4.118 Andreas Keller, Altdorf
Part A Positions B 3.17 Lukas Roth, Cologne B 4.124 SenerTec GmbH, Schweinfurt
B 3.18 Corinne Rose, Berlin B 4.126 Viessmann Werke GmbH & Co. KG, Allendorf
A NASA, Houston B 3.19 Roger Frei, Zurich B 4.131 Volker Quaschning, Berlin
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Global change B 3.21 Thomas Dix, Grenzach-Wyhlen B 4.133 Peter Grell, Rheinfelden
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B 2.63 according to data from infas Institut für ange- die künstliche Beleuchtung von Räumen spe- B 4.75 see B 4.67, p. 63
wandte Sozialwissenschaft GmbH; German ziell für die frühe Gebäudeplanungsphase. B 4.79 based on Eicker, Ursula; Stuttgart University of
Institute for Economic Research: Mobilität in Braunschweig, 2002, p. 7 Applied Sciences (ed.): Entwicklungstendenzen
Deutschland – Ergebnisbericht. Bonn/Berlin, B 3.91 see B 1.66 und Wirtschaftlichkeit solarthermischer Kühlung.
2004; see also B 1.47 B 3.95 see B 3.31 vol. 74 – symposium, Solares Kühlen in der
B 2.64 see B 1.47 B 3.96 see B 1.66, p. 497 Praxis. Stuttgart, 2006, p. 11
B 2.65 according to data from Federal Statistical B 3.97–98 see B 2.26, K 97–98 B 4.80 Eicker, Ursula: Solare Technologien für
Office: destatis database. Wiesbaden, 2007 B 3.99 see B 1.29, p. 198 Gebäude. Stuttgart/Leipzig/Wiesbaden, 2001
B 2.66 according to data from Steierwald, Gerd; B 3.102 see B 1.29 B 4.81 see B 2.26, L 59
Künne, Hans Dieter; Vogt, Walter: Stadtverkehrs- B 3.103 Stark, Thomas; Baden-Württemberg Ministry B 4.84 see B 4.67 p. 103
planung. Berlin/Heidelberg/New York, 2005 of Economic Affairs (ed.): Architektonische B 4.86–87 see B 2.26, L 14 & 16
B 2.67 according to data from Grünwald, Reinhard; Integration von Photovoltaik-Anlagen. Stuttgart, B 4.88 Paul Wärmerückgewinnung GmbH. Mülsen,
Oertel, Dagmar; Paschen, Herbert: Maßnahmen 2005, p. 21 2007
für eine nachhaltige Energieversorgung im B 3.110 see B 1.29 B 4.90 see B 2.26, L 59, 79, 80
Bereich Mobilität. Status report. TAB report B 4.95 NILAN Deutschland GmbH. Rödental, 2007
No. 79. Berlin, 2002 B 4.97 see B 2.26, L 99
Building services
B 2.68 Weeber, Hannes et al.: Besser wohnen in der B 4.99 see B 2.26, K 7
B 4.2 Treberspurg, Martin: Neues Bauen mit der
Stadt. Konzepte und Beispiele für Familien- B 4.100 based on DIN EN 12464-1 Light and lighting –
Sonne. Ansätze zu einer klimagerechten
wohnungen. Stuttgart, 2005 Lighting of work places – Part 1: Indoor work
Architektur. Vienna/New York, 1999
B 2.72 –73 see B 1.47 places. Berlin 2003
B 4.13 see B 2.26, H 41
B 2.74 see B 1.66 B 4.101 based on Bavarian Environment Agency (ed.):
B 4.15 according to data from BINE Informationsdienst
B 2.77 see B 1.66 Effiziente Lichtsysteme. Energie sparen. Klima
(ed.): Projektinfo – Evaluierung energieeffizienter
B 2.78 Otto Wöhr GmbH: Produktinformation. schützen. Kosten senken! Augsburg, 2004, p. 4
Wohngebäude, 5/2005. Bonn, 2005, p. 2
Friolzheim, 2006 B 4.102 based on Hörner, Michael; Institut Wohnen &
B 4.16 Kaltschmitt, Martin (ed.): Energie aus Biomasse:
Umwelt GmbH (ed.): Kurzverfahren: Strom für
Grundlagen, Techniken und Verfahren. Berlin,
Beleuchtung – Berechnungsansätze und
Building envelope 2001
Anwendung. In: proceedings, 41st Energy
B 3.9 based on Energy Conservation Act (EnEV). B 4.18 see B 2.26, H 144
Study Group: Stromverbrauch in Bürogebäuden.
Berlin, 2007 B 4.19 a VIGAS Holzvergaser, RS ImmoPro GmbH. Darmstadt, 2004, p. 27
B 3.12 based on DIN EN ISO Building components Rhede, 2007 B 4.103 see B 4.67
and building elements – Thermal resistance B 4.19 b Rennergy Systems AG. Buchenberg, 2007 B 4.106 see B 4.67, p. 33
and thermal transmittance – Calculation method. B 4.19 c ÖkoFEN. Bühl, 2007 B 4.108 see B 1.29, p. 66
Berlin, 2003 B 4.24 based on BINE Informationsdienst (ed.): Basis B 4.109 –113 see B 3.103, pp. 8, 10, 20–21
B 3.13 see B 3.9 Energie 1: Holz – Energie aus Biomasse. Bonn, B 4.120 –123 based on BINE Informationsdienst (ed.):
B 3.14 Hegger, Manfred et al.: Construction Materials 2002, p. 2 Basis Energie 21: Kraft und Wärme koppeln.
Manual. Munich, 2006 B 4.31 Fisch, Manfred Norbert: lecture manuscript, Bonn, 2006, pp. 2–3
B 3.15 based on Sto AG. Stühlingen, 2007 Solartechnik I, ITW University of Stuttgart. B 4.125 see B 4.120, p. 3
B 3.31 based on Balkow, Dieter; Schittich, Christian et Stuttgart, 2007 B 4.126 a based on die Entwicklungs- und Vertriebs-
al.: Glass Construction Manual, 1st ed. Munich, B 4.32 see B 1.29 gesellschaft Brennstoffzelle mbH (EBZ).
1999 B 4.34 see B 2.26, H 256 Dresden, 2007
B 3.32 Langer, Heinz: tec21, No. 29-30/2001. Zurich, B 4.36 see B 4.31 B 4.127 see B 4.58
2001, p. 13 B 4.40 Hilz, Wolfgang; Sonnenhaus-Institut e.V. (ed.): B 4.128 see B 3.85, p. 143
B 3.38 GLASSX AG. Zurich, 2007 Heizkonzept im Sonnenhaus. Straubing, 2007, B 4.129 based on Pitz-Paal, Rober: Solarthermische
B 3.45 based on Bergmann, Irene; Weiß, Werner: p. 2 Kraftwerke. Wie die Sonne ins Kraftwerk kommt.
Fassadenintegration von thermischen Sonnen- B 4.42 see B 2.26, H 230 In: Physik in unserer Zeit, Spezial: Solarenergie,
kollektoren ohne Hinterlüftung. Vienna, 2002, B 4.45 see B 2.26, H 231 No. 1/2004, p. 13
p. 10 B 4.47 based on BINE Informationsdienst (ed.): Basis B 4.130 based on Weinrebe, Gerhard: Das Aufwind-
B 3.50 based on Association of Swiss Engineers & Energie 10: Wärmepumpen. Bonn, 2001, p. 2 kraftwerk. In: Nova Acta Leopoldina NF 91,
Architects (SIA) (ed.): SIA 382/1: Ventilation and B 4.48 Quaschning, Volker: Renaissance der No. 339/2001, pp. 117–141
air-conditioning systems – General principles Wärmepumpe. In: Sonne Wind & Wärme; B 4.134 see B 4.51, p. 3
and requirements. Zurich, 2006 No. 09/2006. pp. 28-31 based on Hamelmann, Roland: Stromspeicher
B 3.54 DIN 4108-2 Thermal protection and energy B 4.49 see B 4.47 Wasserstoff. In: proceedings, 6th Flensburg
economy in buildings – Part 2: Minimum B 4.51 based on BINE Informationsdienst (ed.): Basis Wind Energy Forum. 2006
requirements to thermal insulation. Berlin, 2003 Energie 19: Wärme und Strom speichern. Bonn,
B 3.58–59 see B 2.26, L 65 2005, p. 2 Materials
B 3.64–66 DIN 4108 Thermal protection and energy B 4.53 based on BINE Informationsdienst (ed.): B 5.6 based on Zürcher, Christoph; Frank, Thomas:
economy in buildings. Berlin, 2003 Themeninfo – Latentwärmespeicher, 4/2002. Bauphysik – Bau und Energie. Zurich, 2004
B 3.68–69 Hausladen, Gerhard: Bonn, 2002, p. 2 B 5.11 see B 5.6
Climate Design: Solutions for Buildings that Can B 4.54 based on BINE Informationsdienst (ed.): B 5.12 DIN 4108 Thermal insulation and energy economy
Do More with Less Technology. Munich, 2006, Projektinfo – Thermochemische Speicher, in buildings . Berlin, 2003
pp. 41 and 56 2/2001. Bonn, 2001, p. 2 B 5.14 DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials
B 3.70 see B 2.26, L 38 B 4.56 BINE Informationsdienst (ed.): Profi-Info – and building components. Berlin, 1998
B 3.71 based on Arbeitsstätten-Richtlinien ASR 5: Langzeit-Wärmespeicher und solare Nah- B 5.15 Hegger, Manfred et al.: Construction Materials
Lüftung. Berlin, 1979 wärme, 1/2001. Bonn, 2001 Manual. Munich, 2006, p. 140
B 3.81 see B 1.46 B 4.57 based on Lutz, Hans-Peter; Baden-Württem- B 5.16 see B 3.14
B 3.82 based on Franzke, Uwe et al.; Institut für Luft- & berg Factory Inspectorate – Energy Information B 5.17 Gieseler, U.; Heidt, F.D.: Bewertung der Energie-
Kältetechnik (ILK) (ed.): Wirtschaftlichkeit der Centre (ed.): Solaranlagen zur Warmwasser- effizienz verschiedener Maßnahmen für
dezentralen Klimatisierung im Vergleich zu bereitung und Heizungsunterstützung im Eigen- Gebäude mit sehr geringem Energiebedarf.
zentralen RLT-Anlagen. Dresden, 2003, p. 11 heim. Stuttgart, 2003, p. 12 Stuttgart, 2005

274
 Picture credits

B 5.18 DETAIL 2005/5, p. 524 B 5.87 IFederal Ministry of Transport, Building & Urban
B 5.20 DIN 4108-10 Thermal insulation and energy Affairs: Leitfaden Nachhaltiges Bauen. Berlin,
economy in buildings – Part 10: Application- 2001
related requirements for thermal insulation B 5.88 Isee B 5.85
materials – Factory made products. Berlin, 2007 B 5.91 Isee B 5.87
B 5.22 see B 5.20 B 5.92–93 see B 1.47
B 5.23 see B 3.14
B 5.24–25 based on Schittich, Christian et al.:
Strategies
Glass Construction Manual, 2nd ed. Munich, 2007
B 6.3–5 based on Association of Swiss Engineers &
B 5.28 see B 3.14
Architects (SIA) (ed.): SIA D 0216. SIA Effizienz-
B 5.29–30 see B 5.24
pfad Energie. Zurich, 2006
B 5.33–36 see B 5.24
B 6.11 Voss, Karsten et al.: Bürogebäude mit Zukunft.
B 5.40 according to data from Sukopp, Herbert (ed.);
Konzepte, Analysen, Erfahrungen. Berlin, 2006,
Blume, Hans-Peter: Urban Ecology. Stuttgart/
p. 40
Jena/New York, 1998
B 6.28 Löhnert, Günter: Der Integrale Planungsprozess.
B 5.41 see B 5.6
Eine Serie in vier Teilen. Teil I: Grundlagen.
B 5.44–45 Ziegert, Christof: In Balance –
Berlin, 2007, p. 2
Das Feuchteabsorptionsvermögen von Lehm-
B 6.30 based on Diederichs, Claus Jürgen; Getto,
baustoffen. Viersen-Boisheim, 2004
Petra; Streck, Stefanie: Entwicklung eines
B 5.46 DIN 4108-6 Thermal protection and energy
Bewertungssystems für ökonomisches und
economy in buildings – Part 6: Calculation of
ökologisches Bauen und gesundes Wohnen.
annual heat and energy use. Berlin, 2003
Stuttgart, 2003
B 5.47 Schmidt-Bleek, Friedrich: Wieviel Umwelt
B 6.31– 32 see B 6.11, pp. 154 and 164
braucht der Mensch? Faktor 10 – das Maß für
B 6.33 Lützkendorf, Thomas et al.: Nachhaltigkeits-
ökologisches Wirtschaften. 1997
orientierte Investments im Immobilienbereich.
B 5.49 see B 3.14
Trends, Theorie und Typologie. Karlsruhe, 2005
B 5.50 based on Kohler, Nikolaus; et al.: Bürogebäude
B 6.34 according to data from Renner, Alexander:
mit Zukunft. Konzepte, Analysen, Erfahrungen.
Energie und Ökoeffizienz von Wohngebäuden.
Berlin, 2006
Entwicklung eines Verfahrens zur lebenszyklus-
B 5.52–53 according to data from Hegger, Manfred;
orientierten Bewertung der Umweltwirkungen
Fuchs, Matthias; Zeumer, Martin: research
unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Nut-
report, Vergleichende Nachhaltigkeitskenn-
zungsphase. Darmstadt, 2007
werte von Baustoffen und Bauteilschichten.
B 6.35 Association of Swiss Engineers & Architects
Darmstadt, 2005
(SIA) (ed.): Empfehlung SIA 112/1. Nachhaltiges
B 5.54 based on Nebel, Barbara: Ökobilanzierung von
Bauen – Hochbau. Zurich, 2006
Holzfußböden. A representative study accord-
B 6.37 Lützkendorf, Thomas et al.: Nachhaltiges
ing to ISO 14040–43 for the German wooden
Planen, Bauen und Bewirtschaften von Bau-
flooring industry. Munich, 2003
werken. Ziele, Grundlagen, Stand und Trends.
B 5.55 based on die EAWAG: Forum Chriesbach – Ein
Bewertungsmethoden und -hilfsmittel. Brief
Neubau für die Wasserforschung. Dübendorf,
study for the BMVBW. Karlsruhe, 2002
2006
B 5.56 see B 5.52
B 5.57 see B 3.14
B 5.59 Gesellschaft f. ökologische Bautechnik mbh:
The Department of Architecture of Darmstadt Technical
Instrumente für eine qualitätsabhängige University has taken every effort to ensure that the infor-
Abschätzung der Dauerhaftigkeit von Materia- mation provided in this book is correct and up to date.
lien und Konstruktionen. Berlin, 2005 The content of this book was prepared with the utmost
B 5.60 based on Austrian Institute for Healthy & Eco- care. Nevertheless, errors and ambiguities cannot be
logical Building (IBO): IBO database. Vienna, entirely ruled out. The Department of Architecture of
2005 Darmstadt Technical University therefore offers no guar-
B 5.61 according to data from Graubner, Carl-Alexander; antee as to the relevance, correctness, completeness or
Hüske, Katja: Nachhaltigkeit im Bauwesen. quality of the information provided herein. The Depart-
Berlin, 2003 ment of Architecture of Darmstadt Technical University
B 5.63 according to data from Darmstadt TU, Energy cannot be held liable for material or non-material damages
Efficient Building Design Unit: e-life – Lebens- of any kind caused directly or indirectly by the use or dis-
zyklusbetrachtung und Optimierung von use of the information given here or by the use of errone-
Instandsetzungsprozessen im Wohnungsbau. ous or incomplete information unless it can be proved
Darmstadt, 2007 that the Department of Architecture of Darmstadt Techni-
B 5.72 see B 5.47 cal University has acted with intent or gross negligence.
B 5.77 based on Preisig, Hansruedi: Massivoder
Leichtbauweise? Zurich, 2002
B 5.78 see B 1.47
B 5.79 see B 5.59
B 5.80 Industrial Waste Act (GewAbfV). 2003
B 5.81 Cradle-to-Grave Economy Act (KrW/AbfG). The authors and publishers would like to express their
1996 thanks to the following persons who kindly provided
B 5.83 Iaccording to data from Zwiener, Gerd; Mötzl, advice and assistance:
Hildegund: Ökologisches Baustoff-Lexikon.
Bauprodukte, Chemikalien, Schadstoffe, Jens Hornung, Darmstadt
Ökologie, Innenraum. Heidelberg, 2006 Martin Huber, Stuttgart
B 5.84 Iaccording to data from North Rhine-Westfalia Verena Klar, Tübingen
Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conserva- Jörg Lange, Freiburg
tion, Agriculture & Consumer Protection. North Dirk Mangold, Stuttgart
Rhine-Westfalia Environment & Health Campaign. Thomas Rühle, Munich
Umweltzeichen für Bauprodukte. Bauprodukte Jürgen Schreiber, Ulm
gezielt auswählen – eine Entscheidungshilfe.
Düsseldorf, 2004
B 5.85 Iaccording to data from Sigg, René; Kälin,
Werner; Plattner, Hugo: LUKRETIA – Lebens-
zyklus – Ressourcen – Technisierung. Zurich,
2006

275
Subject index

automated parking systems ∫ 81 chemical treatment ∫ 75 200, 203, 208, 209, 210, 215–217, 219,
Subject index auxiliary power ∫ 74, 110 chiller ∫ 129, 130 221, 223–225, 227, 237–244, 249, 251,
award of contract ∫ 180, 189 Chriesbach Forum ∫ 162, 163, 177 253, 256
B circulation zone ∫ 105, 224 condensing-boiler technology ∫ 115
balcony ∫ 69, 90, 91, 212, 222, 234, classroom ∫ 59, 132, 233 conduction ∫ 55, 56, 83, 84, 94, 118,
235, 242 cleaning ∫ 33, 76, 82, 99, 117, 129, 126, 138, 149, 152, 154, 155
barrier-free ∫ 64, 194, 204, 218, 221, 134, 147, 165, 169, 171–174, 191, 195, conservatory ∫ 87, 92, 158, 222, 237,
230, 236, 239, 242, 245, 248, 251, 257 202, 210, 215, 221 252, 254
basement ∫ 80, 81, 91, 152, 153, 162, cleaning costs ∫ 172, 173 constructed wetland ∫ 76, 77, 252, 254
172, 202, 209, 210, 212, 216, 224, 225, client ∫ 172, 178, 187–189, 197, 202, construction management ∫ 180, 189
227, 230, 235, 239, 248, 257 204, 224 contractors ∫ 180, 187, 189, 242
basement car parks ∫ 80, 81 climate ∫ 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, 26, contrast ∫ 43, 44, 47–49, 55, 58, 71, 76,
basic load ∫ 70, 123, 143, 227 28, 29, 34, 38–42, 45, 50–58, 60, 61, 83, 93, 102, 106, 123, 124, 136, 141,
battery ∫ 77, 102, 113, 114, 125, 130– 62, 64–69, 74, 77, 78, 82, 83, 85, 87, 154, 162, 163, 167, 174, 191
132, 140, 145, 169, 179, 212, 230, 251 90, 92, 93, 100–112, 114, 128–130, controlled ventilation ∫ 122, 133, 202
bicycle parking ∫ 207, 227, 230, 239, 132, 133, 151, 159, 162, 166, 169, 171, convection ∫ 43, 55, 56, 69, 84, 118,
242, 245, 248, 251, 254, 257 172, 176–179, 181, 186, 187, 191–195, 119, 126, 127, 149, 150, 153–155, 231
2000 Watt Society ∫ 176, 177, 242 biogas ∫ 71–73, 75–77, 115, 116, 142 197, 201, 204, 207, 209, 212, 215, 218, convection losses ∫ 118
A biogenic energy ∫ 43, 63, 115–117 221, 224, 227, 228, 230, 231, 233, 236, convectors ∫ 85, 113, 126, 127, 132,
A/V ratio ∫ 65, 70, 86, 114, 180, 257 biogenic energy media ∫ 43, 116, 117 239, 240, 242, 245, 246, 248, 251, 254, 238, 243
absolute humidity ∫ 54, 130 biological limit value ∫ 59 255, 257 convector fans -> i132
absorber ∫ 93, 94, 95, 101, 118, 119, biological treatment ∫ 75–77 climate change ∫ 18, 28, 38, 39, 40, 41, conversion ∫ 12, 14, 16, 17, 23, 34, 35,
120 ,121, 122, 124, 129, 144, 150, 171 biomass ∫ 15–17, 43–47, 50, 60, 71, 76, 42, 45, 61, 78, 114, 166, 171 43–47, 49, 50, 59, 64, 72, 80, 110, 114,
accessibility ∫ 64, 78–80, 163, 173, 77, 110, 113, 115, 116, 117, 143, 162, climate data ∫ 29, 54, 83, 194, 212, 233 115, 118, 119, 141, 143, 145, 164, 166,
191–194, 196, 201, 204, 207, 209, 215, 184, 213, 215, 221, 233 climate elements -> 52, 53 173, 177, 179, 184, 189, 207, 208, 215,
218, 221, 224, 227, 230, 236, 242, 248, Blauer Engel ∫ 170 climate factors ∫ 52, 65 236, 251
251 blower-door test ∫ 93, 180, 251 climate system ∫ 26, 40, 41, 52, 74 conversion losses ∫ 43, 50, 114, 119
achievable potential ∫ 46, 47 body temperature ∫ 55 climate zones ∫ 51–53, 60, 64, 65, 68, cooling capacity ∫ 68, 102, 103, 128–
acidification potential ∫ 163, 167 boiler ∫ 20, 43, 112–117, 123, 126, 142, 82, 83, 90, 110, 128, 130 133, 145
acoustic comfort ∫ 59 143, 179, 180, 183, 185, 208, 209, 212, climatic boundary conditions ∫ 60, 61, cooling fin ∫ 132
activation of building component -> 113, 215, 218, 224 85, 111, 113, 128, 177 cooling load ∫ 95, 98, 99, 128, 131,
128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 179, 239 borehole ∫ 74, 121–125, 129, 231, 141, Club of Rome ∫ 38 132, 135, 179, 182, 183, 251
active solar thermal energy system -> 118 178, 179 CO2 concentration ∫ 38, 40, 41, 59 cooling network ∫ 74, 75, 239, 242
adaptability ∫ 20, 27, 103, 188 borehole thermal storage ∫ 74 CO2 emissions ∫ 41, 42, 44–47, 49, cooling output ∫ 132, 183, 227, 257
adiabatic cooling ∫ 66, 68, 113, 128– BREEAM ∫ 191, 192 114, 123, 148, 161, 177, 196, 227, 245, cooling requirement ∫ 73, 128, 131,
130, 132, 178 brine/water heat pump ∫ 124 254 196, 251
air change rate ∫ 60, 65, 82, 83, 85, 86, buffer tank ∫ 124, 125, 179 CO2 reduction ∫ 191 Cork logo ∫ 170
93, 99, 100, 102, 131–135, 178, 182, building automation ∫ 113, 172, 188 CO2 sequestration ∫ 45, 64 counter-flow heat exchanger ∫ 135
185, 186, 190, 227, 237, 239, 242, 251 building component groups ∫ 162, 163 CO2-neutral ∫ 115 coupled window ∫ 91, 97, 100, 103, 155
air collector ∫ 93, 94, 119, 120, building envelope ∫ 26–29, 38, 47, 51, coal ∫ 14, 15, 16, 17, 40, 41, 44, 45, Cradle-to-Grave Economy Act ∫ 169, 174
237, 239 57, 59–61, 64, 65, 68, 82–114, 118, 47–49, 70, 111, 114, 123, 159, 169, 185 cross-flow heat exchanger ∫ 135
air conditioning ∫ 61, 104, 112, 125, 119, 126–128, 133, 134, 136, 138, 140, coefficient of performance ∫ 123, 130, cross-ventilation ∫ 100, 218, 227, 231,
133, 186 142, 147, 151, 153, 156, 157, 160, 168, 145 233, 245
air cooling ∫ 129, 132, 251 177, 178, 180, 181, 183, 185, 186, 197, co-generation plant ∫ 72, 131, 143, crude oil ∫ 40, 41, 44–46, 71, 78, 116,
air flow rate ∫ 128, 132–134 204, 209, 219, 222, 228, 234, 246 144, 179, 194, 210, 212, 228, 230, 249, 117, 159, 179, 185
air management ∫ 110, 113, 132–134, building labels ∫ 191, 192 251, 252, 254 crude oil price ∫ 41
193, 197, 204, 227, 230, 236, 239, 242, building materials classes ∫ 150 co-generation plants ∫ 61, 125, 131, crystalline cells ∫ 138, 139, 140, 142
248, 251, 254 building permission application 143 D
air temperature ∫ 52, 54–60, 83, 96, 101, ∫ 180, 189 coil heating ∫ 57, 113, 123, 126 dangerous substances ∫ 166, 169–171,
114, 128, 129, 153, 219, 251 building physics ∫ 31, 83, 84, 87, 88, cold-water tanks ∫ 131 174, 191–193, 196, 201, 204, 207, 209,
air traffic ∫ 78 90, 94, 95, 146, 168, 180, 195, 201, collector area ∫ 16, 17, 74, 120, 121 212, 215, 218, 224, 230, 236, 242, 248,
air/air heat pump ∫ 124 210, 218 colour ∫ 55, 58, 77, 83, 94, 97, 118, 254, 257
aircraft ∫ 78 building plot ∫ 79 136, 137, 140, 154, 155, 157, 257 daylight ∫ 27, 28, 31, 38, 52, 58, 60–62,
airtightness ∫ 85, 93, 99, 179–181, 212 building stock ∫ 20, 39, 62, 63, 70, 85, colour distortion ∫ 97, 136, 154 68, 69, 82–86, 90, 91, 92, 96, 97, 99,
albedo ∫ 66, 67 160, 171, 175, 183, 191, 209, 236, 257 colour rendering ∫ 55, 58, 83, 154, 157 102–108, 136–138, 141, 150–155, 179,
aluminium ∫ 25, 77, 105, 150, 154–161, building typologies ∫ 64, 65, 69, 71 combined cooling, heating and 183, 188, 195, 209, 212, 227, 228, 230,
172, 211, 217, 218, 221, 223, 235, 238, building volume ∫ 70, 86, 94, 103, 178, power ∫ 144 233, 239, 240, 242, 246, 248, 249–251,
246, 250, 255, 256 204, 207 combined heat and power ∫ 47, 71, 72, 254, 255, 257
ambient climates ∫ 57 built environment ∫ 10, 11, 13, 16, 38, 73, 74, 81, 113, 114, 116, 131, 138, 142, daylight autonomy ∫ 83, 102–105, 136,
ambient conditions ∫ 51, 55, 57, 82 66, 70, 146, 190 143, 144, 185, 186, 239, 242, 248, 251, 227, 248
ambient heat ∫ 113, 114, 121, 123, 127 bunker ∫ 116, 117, 179 257 daylight factor ∫ 83, 102–105, 136
amenity lighting ∫ 137 bus ∫ 78, 201, 204, 207, 209, 212, 215, combustibility ∫ 150, 151 daylight utilisation ∫ 90, 104, 105, 108,
anergy ∫ 43, 121, 122 218, 221, 224, 227, 230, 233, 239, 251, combustion ∫ 43, 78, 114–117, 143, 161 212
apartment block ∫ 31, 38, 64, 70, 72, 257 comfort range ∫ 57, 158 daylighting systems ∫ 85, 104–106
73, 86, 91, 92, 94, 120, 126, 133 C compactness ∫ 65, 85–87, 103, 109, decentralised underfloor ventilation
aquifer thermal storage ∫ 74 calorific value ∫ 71, 114, 115, 117, 160, 180, 181, 188, 212, 221, 242 unit ∫ 133
architectural boundary conditions ∫ 178 161, 174 competition ∫ 14, 25, 32, 180, 183, 195, decentralised ventilation ∫ 85, 99, 103,
architectural evaluation ∫ 181 car ∫ 12, 13, 19, 20, 25, 30, 31, 78–81, 205, 207, 213, 215, 221, 227, 230, 239, 127, 134
argon ∫ 59, 149, 154, 155, 211 134, 167, 177, 194, 209, 221, 242, 248, 242, 245, 248, 251, 257 decorative lighting ∫ 137
artificial light ∫ 28, 58, 136, 137, 227 251, 254 composite materials -> 156, 196, 204, degree of efficiency ∫ 25, 46, 68, 81,
artificial lighting ∫ 58, 60, 61, 81, 102, car parking ∫ 80, 194, 209, 221, 242, 251, 254 114, 117–119, 135, 136, 137, 139, 141–
104, 105, 113, 136, 137, 153, 182, 185, 251 composting ∫ 75, 174, 204, 207, 143, 145, 150
195, 209, 221, 224, 227, 233, 249 carbon dioxide ∫ 39, 40, 45, 55, 59, 218, 233 degree of reflection ∫ 59, 97, 98,
as-built condition ∫ 148, 162, 165, 192 115, 123, 161, 174, 181 compressed-air storage ∫ 145, 179 136, 227
Athens Charter ∫ 30, 62 carbon dioxide sequestration ∫ 45 compression heat pump ∫ 123 dehumidification ∫ 60, 103, 113, 130,
atmosphere ∫ 14, 25, 39, 40, 41, 43–45, carbon sinks -> 161, 174, 251 compressor-type refrigeration plant 131, 178, 179, 251
48, 50–54, 66, 67, 137, 158, 159, 191, cavity floor ∫ 102 ∫ 130 dematerialisation ∫ 26
200 cavity insulation ∫ 87–89, 153, 208, 209 computer programs ∫ 61, 136, 182, desiccant ∫ 131, 155, 156
atomic energy ∫ 15, 45 ceiling ∫ 57–59, 102, 105, 124, 126, 186, 191 design brief ∫ 179, 180, 189, 197, 249
atrium ∫ 60, 65, 66, 87, 92, 101, 103– 127, 131–133, 136, 153, 156, 225, 227, concentrating collectors ∫ 119 development scenario ∫ 46
105, 127, 130, 134, 135, 158, 179, 183, 245, 251 concrete ∫ 30, 33, 68, 87–91, 98, 121, diagnosis system for sustainable building
188, 219, 221, 240, 242, 246–248, 255, CFC ∫ 123 124, 126–128, 133, 147, 148, 155, 158– quality ∫ 192, 193
257 chemical energy ∫ 43, 55, 124, 158 161, 164, 168, 169, 172, 174, 175, 191, diffuse radiation ∫ 52, 53, 54, 102–105

276
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DIN 18599 ∫ 178, 184–187 22, 25, 32, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, ∫ 83, 102, 134 grey water ∫ 74–76, 197, 233, 236, 254
direct lighting ∫ 79, 137 46, 47, 49, 50, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 62, facility management ∫ 33, 166, 189, grid-connected system ∫ 141
direct radiation ∫ 52–54, 67, 68, 83, 63, 64, 78, 79, 82, 84, 93, 99, 110, 123, 193, 197, 215, 230, 236, 251 gross calorific value ∫ 115
102, 105, 106, 119, 144 134, 137, 148, 159, 160, 162, 165, 166, fan ∫ 58, 93, 94, 113, 115, 116, 120, gross domestic product ∫ 12, 13, 40,
displacement ventilation ∫ 59, 113, 132, 170, 172, 176, 177, 178, 181, 182, 185, 121, 127, 132, 135, 204, 213, 227, 237, 48– 51, 70
134, 179, 219, 221, 227 187, 188, 192, 195, 196, 208, 221, 236 239, 246, 248, 254 ground coupling ∫ 47, 48, 99, 113, 121,
district heating ∫ 43, 48, 71–74, 77, 80, energy crops -> 115 Federal Immissions Protection Act 122, 124, 178, 183
81, 122, 131, 143, 178, 179, 194, 200, energy density ∫ 121, 124, 129, 145 ∫ 183, 184, 185 ground exchanger ∫ 128, 129, 133,
213, 215, 219, 221, 239, 242, 248, 257 energy efficiency ∫ 15, 26, 35, 38, 39, final energy ∫ 44, 47, 50, 81, 123, 185, 134, 178, 183, 202, 204, 219, 221, 225,
diversity of species ∫ 62, 194, 245, 41, 60, 63, 81, 82, 109, 110, 121, 123, 186, 196, 197, 224, 237 227, 237, 239, 240, 242, 255, 257
251, 257 124, 128, 133, 137, 138, 146, 147, 150, final energy requirement ∫ 47, 81, 196, ground sealing ∫ 67, 179, 194, 201,
double glazing ∫ 90, 97, 149, 153, 154, 153, 154, 160, 163, 177, 180, 181, 183, 197, 224, 236 207, 209, 212, 218, 221, 224, 239, 242
155, 156, 237, 250, 256 184–186, 188, 190, 192, 204 fire protection ∫ 87, 146, 147, 150, 169, groundwater ∫ 45, 48, 49, 60, 66, 67,
double-leaf facade ∫ 60, 84, 92, 98, energy efficiency ratio ∫ 123, 124 171, 179, 188, 195 68, 74, 75, 121, 122, 123, 124, 129,
100, 101, 103, 134, 237, 246, 248 energy flow ∫ 86, 115, 143, 154, 182, fitting-out ∫ 110, 112, 134, 162–165, 130, 178, 179, 194, 233, 249, 250, 251
downcycling ∫ 35, 75, 174 183 168, 169, 174, 175, 195, 197, 207, 215, group heating ∫ 47, 72, 73, 74, 75, 94,
draughts ∫ 57, 65, 90, 100, 132 energy industry ∫ 45, 50 218, 227, 230, 257 120, 125, 179, 225, 227, 230
drinking water ∫ 60, 67, 70, 73–75, 179, energy infrastructure ∫ 42, 71, 251 fixing ∫ 88, 152, 163, 235, 244 GuT mark -> 270
197, 210, 212, 254 energy integration ∫ 64 flat radiant panel ∫ 126, 127 H
drinking water consumption ∫ 75 energy losses ∫ 15, 49, 65, 68, 71, 72, flat roof ∫ 88, 91, 107, 150, 225 habitable rooms ∫ 60, 62, 99, 104, 158
driving energy ∫ 101, 113, 122, 123, 148, 149, 151, 153, 155, 156 flat-plate collectors ∫ 74, 94, 95, hazardous waste ∫ 77
130, 131, 132, 134 energy media ∫ 38, 41, 43–47, 49, 64, 119, 120 health hazards ∫ 171
dry-composting toilet ∫ 231 71, 110, 115–117, 131, 143, 149, 167, flexible photovoltaic modules ∫ 30, 141 health risks ∫ 45, 115, 147, 169
dry-composting toilets ∫ 210, 211, 212 184, 185 float glass ∫ 150, 154, 155, 160, 161, heat absorption degree ∫ 158
durability ∫ 20, 30, 33, 82, 151, 163, energy mix ∫ 44 223, 241, 250 heat balance ∫ 55, 57, 87, 96, 195, 240
164–166, 168, 169, 173, 174, 195, 224, energy parameters ∫ 160, 163, 181 floor covering ∫ 127, 163, 173, 201 heat distribution ∫ 125, 126
239, 257 energy performance certificate flow temperature ∫ 73, 123, 126, 131 heat exchanger ∫ 48, 93, 94, 113, 115,
dynamic simulation ∫ 95, 251 ∫ 166, 180, 185, 186 fluorocarbons -> 123, 167 116, 121, 123, 125, 128–133, 135, 136,
dynamic U-value ∫ 92, 154 energy provision chain ∫ 49, 184 flywheel energy storage ∫ 145, 179 142, 143, 179, 225, 227, 239, 249, 251
E energy service ∫ 43, 49, 50, 60, 128, footprint ∫ 117, 194, 204, 209, 212, heat flow ∫ 84, 87, 90, 94, 96, 111, 118,
Earth Summit ∫ 42 179, 183 215, 227, 228 121, 135, 148–151, 157, 158, 185
Earth’s atmosphere ∫ 14, 40, 43, 53 energy sources ∫ 12, 14, 16, 17, 26, 40, formaldehyde ∫ 170, 201, 218 heat gains ∫ 61, 83, 84, 86, 92, 96–98,
Earth’s surface ∫ 38, 39, 43, 52, 53, 66, 41, 44–61, 63, 64, 70, 71, 110, 111, fossil fuel ∫ 14, 15, 113 102, 120, 185, 220, 249, 251
74, 121 114–116, 128, 133, 141, 143–145, 161, frame construction ∫ 87, 88, 108, 239, heat load ∫ 87, 94, 96, 102, 113–115,
earthquakes ∫ 231 177–181, 183, 186, 188, 194, 207, 221, 242, 248, 251 117, 118, 124, 125, 128, 129, 132, 136,
easy-care facades ∫ 173 237, 257 fresh-air supply ∫ 60, 129, 240, 248 157, 196
easy-care floor coverings ∫ 172, 173, energy themes ∫ 60, 61, 85, 113 FSC certificate ∫ 170 heat of condensation ∫ 123
224, 248 energy yield ∫ 70, 74, 95, 106, 107, fuel cell ∫ 12, 112, 113, 142, 143, heat output ∫ 56, 72, 87, 114, 118, 123–
easy-care surfaces ∫ 172, 209, 221 118, 141, 182 145, 179 128, 132, 251
Eco-Certificate for low-emissions energy-efficiency upgrade ∫ 34, 152, full-load hours ∫ 135, 137 heat pump ∫ 43, 48, 60, 68, 94, 111,
products -> 170 183, 209, 236 functional equivalent ∫ 160 113, 114, 119–126, 129, 130, 135, 141,
ecological evaluation ∫ 77, 181 energy-efficiency upgrading ∫ 191 further use ∫ 77, 174, 175 179, 182, 183, 202, 204, 210, 212, 215,
ecological rucksack ∫ 158, 166, 167 energy-efficient building G 221, 227, 230, 237, 239, 240, 242, 251,
ecologists ∫ 189 envelopes ∫ 85 garage ∫ 81, 202, 204, 209, 224, 257 252, 254, 257
economic evaluation ∫ 49, 181 energy-saving ∫ 22, 26, 27, 32, 102, garden ∫ 62, 69, 202, 204, 208, 246 heat recovery ∫ 19, 60, 85, 93,100, 102,
electric cars ∫ 78, 248, 254 153, 162, 169, 184, 201, 204, 212, 237 gas network ∫ 71, 75, 77, 130 120, 122, 130, 131, 133, 135, 136, 178,
electrical cooling ∫ 113, 130, 133, enthalpy of fusion ∫ 159 gaseous biomass -> 47 179, 183, 202, 204, 210, 212, 215, 221,
143, 144 entropy ∫ 21, 22, 43, 159, 160, 168 gas-fired condensing boiler ∫ 43, 123, 227, 230, 236, 237, 239, 240, 242, 251,
electrical energy ∫ 43, 123, 130, 136, environmental damage ∫ 14, 19, 24, 208, 209, 218, 224 252, 254, 257
143, 145, 249 25, 49 gasochromic glasses ∫ 157 heat sink ∫ 113, 122, 128, 129, 148
electrical heating ∫ 113, 114, 207 Environmental Product Declaration geothermal energy ∫ 43, 44, 46–48, heat source ∫ 73, 86, 94, 114, 119–125,
electricity consumption ∫ 16, 133, 138, ∫ 160, 167 110, 123, 197 128, 129, 178, 179, 185, 186
177, 236 equilibrium moisture content ∫ 159 geothermal heat ∫ 123, 128, 179 heat storage ∫ 73, 75, 92, 113, 118–
electricity from biomass ∫ 143 EU ∫ 11, 12, 16, 26, 38, 41, 42, 71, 74, glare ∫ 55, 58, 83, 90, 102, 104–106, 120, 124–126, 131, 143, 179
electricity from hydrogen ∫ 143 110, 156, 164, 170, 175, 181, 183, 184, 108, 136, 137, 153, 156, 157, 178, 179, heat transfer ∫ 72, 73, 82, 85–88, 94,
electricity generation ∫ 14, 44–48, 61, 186 188, 195, 227, 242 96, 118, 121, 126, 129, 135, 136, 149,
70, 72, 78, 81, 107, 113, 114, 119, 123, EU “Flower” -> 170 glare protection ∫ 58, 83, 108, 153, 150, 179
138, 141, 143–145, 178, 184 eutrophication potential -> 161, 167, 185 157, 178, 179, 188, 227, 242 heat transfer medium ∫ 72, 73, 118,
electricity grid ∫ 71–73, 138, 141–143, evaporation ∫ 43, 52, 55, 56, 65, 67, 69, glass ∫ 10, 17, 22, 28–30, 77, 83–85, 121, 126, 129
145, 181, 184 111, 119, 125, 129, 130, 133 87, 89–98, 100, 104–106, 108, 111, heated volume ∫ 86, 87, 184
electrochromic glass ∫ 106, 156, 157 evaporative cooling ∫ 66, 96, 99, 128, 118, 119, 139–142, 144, 147–174, 202, heating circuit ∫ 114, 118, 120, 122–
electrosmog ∫ 194 129, 130, 131, 178, 179, 245 205, 210, 217–219, 221–223, 227–229, 125, 143, 179
embodied energy ∫ 159–163, 165, 167, exergy ∫ 43, 121, 122 237–242, 243, 246, 250, 255, 256 heating installation ∫ 123
168, 196, 233, 242 exhaust air ∫ 60, 101, 102, 120, 130, global climate ∫ 39, 40, 52, 114 heating period ∫ 57, 92, 95, 100, 114,
EMI Code ∫ 170 132, 133, 134, 135, 212, 225, 234, 248 global radiation ∫ 44, 47, 51, 53, 54, 66, 115, 117, 120, 122, 125, 127, 129, 135,
emissivity ∫ 98, 149, 150, 153, 154 exhaust-air ducts ∫ 99, 101 67, 118, 201, 204, 207, 209, 212, 215, 144, 151, 185, 186
enclosing surfaces temperature expelled air ∫ 120, 121, 122, 130–133, 218, 221, 224, 227, 230, 233, 236, 239, heating plant ∫ 73, 74, 114, 117, 120,
∫ 55–57, 59 135, 183, 212, 221, 242 242, 245, 248, 251, 254, 257 123–126, 131, 143, 161, 180, 182, 184,
energy balance ∫ 42, 43, 78, 79, 84, external air temperature ∫ 57, 59, global temperature ∫ 40, 41 185, 186, 200, 213, 215, 242, 251, 254
114, 123, 130, 135, 158, 182, 234 128, 129 global warming ∫ 38, 42, 46, 48, 77, 95, heating requirement ∫ 48, 58, 69, 73,
energy concept ∫ 82, 85, 94, 110, 113, external cladding ∫ 94, 162, 200 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167 74, 81, 86, 87, 90–92, 113, 114, 115,
141, 143, 177–183, 188, 189, 194, 197, external costs ∫ 40, 46, 48, 49, 191, global warming potential ∫ 77, 161–167 118–122, 125, 128, 143, 181–183, 185,
210, 225, 227, 228, 231, 237, 240, 243, 192 glulam ∫ 221, 229, 244, 256 196, 204, 209, 212, 218, 221, 224, 227,
249, 252, 255 external insulation ∫ 87, 88, 91, 152, 153 goods traffic ∫ 78, 79 230, 239, 242, 245, 251, 257
Energy Conservation Act ∫ 63, 73, 83, external wall ∫ 68, 83, 84, 87, 88, 92, gravel/water thermal storage ∫ 74 heavyweight buildings ∫ 65, 146, 252
86, 87, 95, 109, 113, 114, 150–152, 94, 100, 108, 150, 152, 161, 162, 178, gravitation ∫ 43, 44 heliostat ∫ 107, 246
178, 180–‚186, 189, 192, 193, 243 179, 201, 205, 209, 213, 225, 227, 231, green electricity ∫ 181, 239, 248 hermetic edge seal ∫ 153, 154, 155
EnEV ∫ 25, 63, 73, 83, 86, 109, 113, 242, 245, 252, 254, 255, 257 green roof ∫ 67, 68, 90, 179, 194, 223, high-rise building ∫ 70, 99, 100, 134,
151, 180–185 external works ∫ 194, 195, 197 240, 242, 246, 257 135, 144
Energy Conservation Directive ∫ 83, 84 extract system ∫ 100, 134, 135, 212, greenhouse effect ∫ 91, 152, 177 high-tech ∫ 61, 75, 233
EnEG ∫ 83, 84, 184 227, 239, 242, 251, 254, 257 greenhouse gas -> 38, 39, 40, 42, 114 holographic optical element
energy consultant ∫ 186, 188, 249 F grey energy ∫ 160, 162, 163, 165, 168, ∫ 105–107,156
energy consumption ∫ 12, 13, 16, 17, facade-mounted ventilation units 175, 177 horizon angle ∫ 103–105, 157

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horizontal constructed wetland ∫ 76, 77 lamps ∫ 113, 136, 137, 227, 248 MINERGIE ∫ 181, 192, 218 overheating ∫ 27, 52, 54, 60, 61, 65,
hospital ∫ 73, 120, 132, 185, 187, 237, land use ∫ 30, 62, 63, 78, 80, 81, MINERGIE-ECO ∫ 192 67–69, 85, 91, 92, 95, 96, 98, 157, 158,
239 178, 191 MIPS concept ∫ 166, 167 195, 196, 219, 222
hotel ∫ 132, 163, 165, 200, 230, 234–236 landfill ∫ 77, 115, 168, 174, 175, 257 mixing ventilation ∫ 132, 134 oxygen ∫ 56, 59, 75–77
hot-water heating ∫ 124, 125 landfill quota ∫ 77 mobility ∫ 19, 20, 24, 25, 62, 77–81, ozone depletion potential ∫ 167
hot-water provision ∫ 48, 71, 74, 113, landfilling ∫ 174 177, 188, 191–194, 201, 204, 209, 212, P
114, 119–121, 123, 184–186, 193, 196, landscape architect ∫ 189, 209 215, 221, 224, 227, 230, 233, 236, 239, parabolic dish ∫ 144
204, 207, 215, 230, 239, 251, 257 laser-cut panel ∫ 105, 107, 156 242, 248, 251, 254, 257 parabolic trough collector ∫ 144
hot-water thermal storage ∫ 74 latent heat storage ∫ 92, 124, 125, 179 modernisation ∫ 63, 64, 164–166, 189 partial shading coefficient ∫ 157
hours of sunshine ∫ 53, 54, 67, 96, 100 lateral shade angle ∫ 103, 104, 105, 157 moisture content ∫ 117, 121, 130, 159 partitions ∫ 103, 172, 231, 242
housing ∫ 16, 18, 20, 21, 26, 30, 31, 34, LCA parameters ∫ 166 moisture control ∫ 83, 88, 146, 147, passive cooling ∫ 129, 178, 188
38, 39, 62–64, 68, 69, 73, 74, 82–84, LEED ∫ 191, 192, 248 150, 171, 195 passive house ∫ 84–87, 93, 111, 114,
88, 91, 92, 107, 112, 120, 126, 177, level of illumination ∫ 82, 102–104, moisture damage ∫ 90 122, 151, 156, 160, 168, 181, 182, 185,
190, 194, 201, 204, 205, 207, 209, 218, 106, 137 moisture recovery ∫ 133, 136 187, 204, 219, 255
224, 243, 252, 254 life cycle ∫ 9, 27, 32–35, 45, 63, 110, monitoring ∫ 93, 193, 197, 212, 213, passive-energy house ∫ 25, 63, 79
human heat balance ∫ 55, 195 113, 115, 145, 147, 148, 163–166, 168, 215, 236, 239, 242, 248, 251, 254, 257 passive solar gains ∫ 84, 86, 204,
humidification ∫ 60, 103, 113, 130, 133, 169–176, 178, 181, 185, 187, 188, 190– mould growth ∫ 57, 59, 149, 171 224, 239
178, 179 193, 196, 197, 209 movement detectors ∫ 137 passive use of solar radiation ∫ 85, 86,
humidity ∫ 52, 54–57, 59, 60, 83, 130, life cycle assessment ∫ 166, 196 multi-leaf arrangements ∫ 91 91, 92
133, 134, 158, 159, 171, 173, 178, 181, LCA ∫ 27, 166, 167, 182, 230, 257 multi-storey car parks ∫ 80, 81 payback time ∫ 142, 152
239, 251 life-cycle costing ∫ 239, 248 museum ∫ 63, 82, 132, 154, 156 peak load ∫ 70, 143
HVAC installations ∫ 57, 59 life-cycle costs -> 27, 32, 171 N peak oil ∫ 26, 41
HVAC systems ∫ 54, 60 light fitting ∫ 137 natural cooling ∫ 128, 177, 178 peat ∫ 115
hybrid vehicles ∫ 13 light shelf ∫ 105, 107 natural gas ∫ 14, 17, 40, 41, 43–46, 48, perception ∫ 43, 55–59, 82, 102, 146,
hydroelectric power ∫ 43, 47, 48, 138, light transmittance (τ-value) ∫ 104, 141 70, 71, 113, 114, 123, 142, 143, 179, 147, 195, 204
144, 145, 207, 236 lighting automation ∫ 113, 136, 137 184, 185, 209, 218, 224, 236 phase change material ∫ 92, 124,
hydrogen ∫ 16, 53, 59, 71, 113, 142, lighting concept ∫ 113, 136, 137, natural ventilation ∫ 54, 57, 58, 60, 61, 158, 159
143, 145, 157, 179 197, 227 68, 85, 91, 93, 99–101, 102, 104, 112, phase lag ∫ 85, 96, 128, 135, 157, 158
hydrological cycle ∫ 67 lighting technology ∫ 113, 136, 137 133, 178, 179, 180, 183, 188, 197, 230, photochemical ozone creation potential
hygiene ∫ 60, 62, 129, 132–134, 146, lightpipe ∫ 107 237, 239, 243, 245, 252, 254 ∫ 167
172, 230, 257 light-redirecting glasses ∫ 105, 106, Natureplus ∫ 170 photoelectric effect ∫ 111, 138
I 140, 156, 242 Naturland ∫ 170 photothermic effect ∫ 119
IBR test mark ∫ 170 light-scattering glasses ∫ 105–107 negawatt ∫ 50 photovoltaic effect ∫ 111, 138
illuminance ∫ 58, 60, 83, 102–104, lightweight building ∫ 146 net energy ∫ 50, 73, 84, 121, 185, 186 photovoltaic elements ∫ 106, 112, 142,
136, 137 lignite ∫ 44, 48, 49, 70, 74, 159, 167, network ∫ 13, 62, 67, 70–75, 77–79, 94, 241, 254
indirect lighting ∫ 137 185 120, 125, 130–132, 142, 143, 181, 194, photovoltaic facade ∫ 85, 107, 111, 227
induced energy ∫ 194 line losses ∫ 50, 72, 114, 119, 126 201, 213, 225, 230, 239, 240, 242 photovoltaic facades ∫ 107, 227
Industrial Revolution ∫ 15, 26, 39, 146 lining ∫ 89, 98, 106, 162, 172, 200, networks ∫ 16, 24, 25, 48, 70–73, 75, photovoltaic installation ∫ 44, 47, 107,
Industrial Waste Act ∫ 168 215, 256 77, 78, 116, 120, 138, 181, 194 108, 112, 141, 142, 178, 240, 249, 255
infill development ∫ 62, 64, 251 liquid biomass ∫ 46 newly industrialised countries ∫ 26, 38, photovoltaic modules ∫ 30, 90, 105–
infrared radiation ∫ 91, 150, 154 liquid crystal glass -> 42, 45 108, 111–113, 138, 140, 141, 142, 156,
infrastructure ∫ 11–14, 18, 20, 27, 30, loadbearing structure ∫ 26, 34, 83, 108, night purging ∫ 68, 113, 133 210, 229
38, 42, 62–81, 85, 86, 120, 125, 143– 162, 174, 195, 209, 213, 227, 228, 245 night-time cooling ∫ 54, 83, 125, 128, photovoltaic panels ∫ 85, 106–108, 210,
145, 168, 174, 175, 177, 178, 181, 188, loam ∫ 65, 158, 159, 160, 161, 231, 129, 150, 158, 195, 196, 230, 239, 242, 211, 252
191, 193, 194, 197, 204, 207, 212, 215, 233, 240, 242, 257 245, 248, 254, 257 photovoltaic roofs ∫ 85, 107
218, 221, 230, 233, 234, 236, 239, 242, local public transport ∫ 27, 78–80, 194, noble gas ∫ 59, 119, 149, 153, 155 photovoltaic systems ∫ 15, 16, 18, 47,
245, 248, 251, 254, 257 201, 204, 207, 209, 212, 215, 218, 221, noise ∫ 55, 59, 78, 80, 83, 91, 100, 102, 107, 130, 138, 141–143, 179, 182, 183,
installed capacity ∫ 47, 136 224, 227, 230, 236, 239, 242, 245, 248, 103, 106, 108, 121, 123, 127, 144, 173, 230
insulating glazing ∫ 84, 90, 97, 111, 251, 254, 257 192, 194, 195, 212, 224, 227, 230, 236, pitched roofs ∫ 88, 95, 107, 150, 174
141, 153, 206, 208, 231 local wind ∫ 66 243, 245, 257 Places of Work Directive ∫ 100, 104
integrated planning ∫ 187, 188, 193, loggia ∫ 221, 246 noise pollution ∫ 59, 78, 100, 195 planning aids ∫ 182, 183, 193
197, 201, 204, 209, 212, 215, 221, 227, logs ∫ 113, 116, 117, 202 no-mix WCs ∫ 242 plant room ∫ 114, 235
230, 233, 237, 239, 242, 245, 248, 251, long-term heat storage ∫ 73, 75, 120, non-renewable energy ∫ 41, 160, 161 plaster ∫ 33, 90, 127, 158, 159, 162,
254, 257 125, 126, 179 non-residential buildings ∫ 57, 61, 134, 164, 170, 223, 231, 253
interior air humidity ∫ 55, 57 louvre blind ∫ 97, 99 135, 138, 181, 183–186 plastic ∫ 77, 106, 121, 127, 128, 139,
interior air movements -> 57,182 louvres ∫ 29, 91, 97, 99, 100, 103, 105– nuclear energy ∫ 15, 16, 40, 43–47, 49, 140, 148, 150, 152, 154–156, 169,
interior air temperature ∫ 55–59, 83, 107, 240, 242, 246, 248, 249, 250, 255, 50, 110, 113, 114, 138 170, 202
153, 251 256 nuclear fusion ∫ 44, 45 plutonium ∫ 45
interior climate ∫ 51, 55–58, 83, 85, 87, low E glazing ∫ 152, 155, 246 nuclear power ∫ 14, 15, 43–45, 114 polar zone ∫ 51, 52, 65
93, 111, 133, 172, 177, 181, 186, 187, low-tech ∫ 61, 146, 147, 165, 233 O political goals ∫ 42
191–193, 195, 197, 201, 204, 207, 209, luminance ∫ 55, 58, 83, 103–105, 136, ocean currents ∫ 44, 48 pollutants ∫ 48, 59, 60, 67, 115, 117,
212, 215, 218, 221, 224, 227, 230, 233, 137, 182, 183, 249, 251 oceanic thermal energy ∫ 49 167, 174, 182, 196, 240
236, 239, 242, 245, 248, 251, 254 luminous efficacy ∫ 136, 137 office ∫ 18, 20, 26–28, 31–35, 56, 57, polluter pays principle ∫ 40
interior surface ∫ 102, 137, 218 luminous flux ∫ 58, 136, 137 59, 69, 81, 83, 88, 96, 99, 100, 102– pollution ∫ 26, 31, 39, 42, 59, 78, 100,
internal cooling loads ∫ 128 luminous intensity ∫ 136, 137, 182 105, 107, 108, 114, 120, 123, 128, 129, 167, 170, 176, 189, 191, 192, 195, 215
internal gains ∫ 86 M 130, 132, 133, 135, 137, 138, 152, 154, population ∫ 11–13, 17, 27, 34, 38, 39,
internal insulation ∫ 87–89, 91, 151– macroclimate ∫ 52, 65, 99 171, 178, 191, 192, 200, 202, 204, 237, 41, 42, 44, 45, 51, 63, 64, 189, 194,
152, 153, 178, 213, 215 mains electricity ∫ 179 240, 242, 243, 245–249, 251, 253, 255, 195, 201, 251
internal walls ∫ 161, 162, 179, 208, 222, maintenance cycles ∫ 164 257 population growth ∫ 41, 44
224 masonry ∫ 83, 87–89, 158, 160, 161, office building ∫ 27, 28, 31–34, 81, 83, potential energy ∫ 48
interstitial condensation ∫ 151 172, 200, 222, 223, 231 88, 96, 99, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107, power station ∫ 10, 12, 15, 25, 43,
inverter ∫ 141, 229 means of transport ∫ 31, 78, 79, 80 108, 114, 120, 123, 128, 129, 130, 132, 47–50, 64, 71, 72, 123
investment costs ∫ 22, 32, 70, 172, 173, mechanical energy -> 43 133, 135, 137, 138, 154, 171, 191, 200, power-to-heat ratio ∫ 142, 143
179, 187, 190, 193, 195, 201, 204, 207, mechanical treatment ∫ 75, 76 240, 243, 245–247, 249, 255 precipitation ∫ 40, 51, 52, 55, 65–67,
209, 212, 215, 218, 221, 224, 230, 233, mechanical ventilation ∫ 61, 63, 81, 85, oil crisis ∫ 39, 49, 112 74, 82, 83, 171, 178
236, 239, 245, 248, 251 93, 99, 101, 102, 113, 128, 130, 132– olfactory comfort ∫ 59, 181 Predicted Mean Vote ∫ 57, 61
IPCC Report ∫ 39, 42 135, 178, 184, 204, 237, 245, 251, 257 open space -> 62-64, 66, 67, 79, 80, Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
K membrane ∫ 59, 76, 88, 92, 106, 107, 194, 195 ∫ 57, 61
Kondratiev cycles ∫ 25 163, 170, 211, 249, 251 operating costs ∫ 22, 39, 49, 81, 99, prefabrication ∫ 95, 146, 148, 160, 168,
krypton ∫ 154, 155 mesoclimate ∫ 52, 66 147, 168, 179, 196, 197, 227, 230, 237, 175, 201, 204, 207, 218, 221, 236, 257
Kyoto Protocol ∫ 42, 184, 185, 188 methane ∫ 40, 71, 77, 116, 167, 228, 230 239, 242, 248 primary energy ∫ 16, 28, 38, 40, 41,
L microclimate ∫ 52, 67–69, 99, 189, operational safety ∫ 171 43–51, 70, 71, 73, 78, 83, 86, 87, 92,
laminated glass ∫ 105, 106, 140, 141, 155 245, 251 overhead glazing ∫ 105, 224, 227 110, 114, 115, 117, 123, 130, 131, 138,

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 Subject index

148, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165–167, 177, 178, 179, 180, 188, 194, 200–202, 204, 131, 135, 144 ∫ 83, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 125, 157,
178, 181–186, 190, 193, 196, 197, 204, 206, 209–212, 215–219, 221–231, 233, solar coverage ∫ 95, 118, 119, 120, 178, 191, 192
225, 239, 242, 257 237, 238, 240, 242–249, 251, 253–255, 121, 125, 131, 141, 142 sun’s trajectory ∫ 54, 91, 96, 103, 178,
primary energy balance ∫ 78, 114, 257 solar coverage component ∫ 118 210, 212
123, 130 roof covering ∫ 95, 107, 108, 153, 211, solar electricity ∫ 46, 141, 144 sunshade ∫ 94, 97, 99, 100, 221, 250
primary energy consumption ∫ 40, 41, 212, 217, 246 solar energy yield ∫ 74 sunshading ∫ 69, 83, 85, 94, 96–99,
43, 44, 47, 123, 166, 177, 178 rooftop planting ∫ 88, 91, 96, 194, 222, solar exposure ∫ 67 104–106, 108, 153, 155–157, 179, 183,
primary energy demand ∫ 48–51 224, 227, 239, 242, 248, 253, 254, 257 solar facades ∫ 94, 225 195, 196, 222, 228, 246, 248, 249, 257
primary energy factor ∫ 71, 114, 184, 185 room temperature ∫ 57, 95–98, 114, solar gains ∫ 28, 53, 65, 68, 84, 86, 92, sunspaces -> 92
primary energy input ∫ 115, 123, 131, 126, 128, 129, 131, 158, 159, 178, 183, 95, 97, 98, 99, 114, 131, 150–154, 156, supply structures ∫ 47, 64, 70, 73
148, 160–‚167, 169, 196 186, 212 180, 189, 204, 221, 222, 224, 233, 239, surface resistance ∫ 150
primary energy requirement ∫ 73, 86, rotary heat exchanger ∫ 113, 135, 136 245, 248 surface water ∫ 74, 124, 130
87, 92, 110, 138, 181–186, 190, 193, RugMark ∫ 170 solar gain index ∫ 98, 99 suspended ceiling ∫ 98, 102, 103, 127,
204, 239, 242, 257 run-around coil ∫ 136, 227 solar gain systems ∫ 150 128, 132, 134, 153
privacy ∫ 82, 83, 106, 108, 171, 200 run-off coefficient ∫ 68 solar house ∫ 16, 111, 112 suspended floor ∫ 33, 88, 127, 133, 153,
process cooling ∫ 60, 179 rural climate ∫ 67 solar radiation ∫ 16, 17, 21, 29, 43, 44, 158, 162, 163, 165, 179, 185, 202, 203,
process heat ∫ 60, 119, 179 S 46–48, 52–54, 65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 206, 212, 238
productivity ∫ 11, 12, 27, 56–59, 161, safety ∫ 26, 27, 45, 49, 50, 58, 61, 77, 81–83, 85, 86, 91–94, 96, 97, 98, 102, sustainability ∫ 9, 14, 18–27, 33, 34, 35,
162, 167, 190, 195 79–81, 94, 110, 139, 143, 164, 168, 106–109, 115, 118, 119, 121, 128, 130, 38, 65, 78, 82, 99, 110, 114, 146, 148,
proportion of glazing ∫ 85, 86, 90–92, 169, 171, 175, 180, 186, 194, 195, 200, 131, 135, 139, 141–145, 150, 154, 178– 169, 177, 178, 183, 185, 187–193, 197,
95, 96, 97, 99, 103, 104, 218, 221, 217, 218, 221, 227, 229, 235, 238, 241, 180, 182, 188, 194, 251 205, 233, 242
224, 237 250, 256 solar roof ∫ 95, 106 sustainable building ∫ 18–22, 27, 34,
prosperity ∫ 11–13, 20, 25, 39, 165, 177 sanitary facilities ∫ 136, 137, 207, 212, solar shading ∫ 85, 108 110, 173, 180, 187–190, 192, 193, 197,
public private partnership -> 32, 187 231, 233 solar storage tank ∫ 179 201, 204, 207, 209, 212, 215, 218, 221,
Q sawtooth model ∫ 163, 164 solar technology ∫ 85, 108, 109, 224, 230, 233, 239, 248, 251, 254, 257
quadruple glazing ∫ 91, 155 school ∫ 17, 23, 33, 76, 79, 132, 134, 180, 197 sustainable development ∫ 19, 25, 63,
quality of life ∫ 20, 27, 63, 67 136, 171, 177, 187, 191, 192, 200, 225, solar thermal collector ∫ 22, 211 64, 70, 81, 128, 176, 183, 189, 233
quantity of light ∫ 136 231, 233, 235 solar thermal cooling ∫ 130, 131 swimming pool ∫ 63, 119, 120, 127,
R screed ∫ 33, 127, 152, 153, 163, 164, solar thermal electricity generation 132, 185, 187, 225, 227
radiation balance for glazing ∫ 156 203, 209, 216, 217, 221, 223, 227, 238, ∫ 14, 113, 119, 144 switchable glasses ∫ 97, 106
radiator ∫ 29, 112, 126, 127 253 solar thermal energy ∫ 16, 46, 85, 86, T
radioactive waste ∫ 45, 114 sea breeze ∫ 66 93, 95, 106, 110, 118, 119, 120, 125, take-back obligation ∫ 175
rail traffic ∫ 78 seasonal storage ∫ 120, 125 126, 197, 204, 251 target emissions ∫ 42
rapeseed oil ∫ 116, 212 secondary energy ∫ 16, 49, 50, 114, solar thermal heating systems ∫ 118 task lighting ∫ 113, 137
raw materials ∫ 12, 16, 26, 27, 35, 38, 115, 148 solar thermal installation ∫ 119, 120 technical and legal boundary
39, 41, 43, 44, 50, 62, 75, 77, 114, 115, security ∫ 12, 25, 27, 33, 45, 50, 58, solar thermal power ∫ 17, 46, 47, 111 conditions ∫ 178
117, 146, 156, 158, 159, 161, 162, 165– 108, 114, 128, 143, 164, 186, 194, 195, solar thermal systems ∫ 60, 86, 106, technical generation potential ∫ 46
168, 170, 174, 175, 182, 191–193, 196, 243, 257 108, 112, 113, 119, 125, 131, 178, 179, technical potential ∫ 46–48, 50
201, 204, 207, 209, 212, 215, 218, 221, seepage ∫ 67, 68, 69, 212, 230, 231, 182, 183, 202, 204 technical substitution potential ∫ 46
224, 230, 233, 239, 242, 245, 248, 251, 233, 251 solar-control glass ∫ 84, 97, 155, temperate zone ∫ 51, 52, 65, 128
252, 254, 257 self-sufficient building ∫ 112 157, 227 temperature amplitude ratio
recirculating pumps ∫ 126, 213 semiconductor ∫ 138, 139 solid absorber ∫ 121, 124, 129 ∫ 96, 97, 169
Recommendation SIA 112/1 ∫ 18, 21, service cores ∫ 225 solid biomass ∫ 46, 71 temperature correction factor ∫ 87
167, 190, 192, 193 service lives ∫ 32, 33, 38, 83, 110, 136, sorption capacity ∫ 158 temperature difference ∫ 48, 49, 88,
recycling ∫ 25, 35, 77, 156, 162, 166, 137, 145, 160, 163–165, 168 sorption wheel ∫ 130, 131 100, 101, 118–120, 123, 126, 131,
169, 170, 174, 175, 187, 194, 196, 197, shading ∫ 52, 54, 66, 68, 82, 85, 96–98, sorption-type refrigeration plant 149, 151, 178
212, 221, 230, 236, 248, 254, 257 100, 103, 105, 106, 108, 110, 140, 141, ∫ 130, 131 temperature gradient ∫ 83, 84, 111,
reflection ∫ 29, 43, 58, 59, 62, 66, 68, 142, 146, 156, 157, 180, 182, 189, 219, sound insulation ∫ 82, 91, 102, 103, 135, 231
92, 97, 98, 103, 105, 106, 118, 136, 231, 233, 240, 245, 249, 251 108, 127, 146, 147, 148, 150, 152, 153, temperature perception ∫ 58
137, 153, 154, 157, 179, 189, 227, 246 shading coefficient ∫ 157 169, 171, 179, 188, 194, 195, 201, 204, temperature rise ∫ 40, 41, 44, 96
refurbishment ∫ 32, 34, 39, 63, 83, 88, shading factors ∫ 156, 180 207, 212, 218, 221, 223, 227, 241, 251 temporary thermal insulation ∫ 91
90–92, 94, 102, 154, 164, 166, 170, ship ∫ 78, 160, 176, 189 sound pressure level ∫ 59 tender ∫ 169, 171, 180, 187, 188, 189,
184–186, 191, 192, 200, 208, 209, 236 shutters ∫ 90, 91, 92, 99, 200 space heating ∫ 47, 48, 50, 73, 84, 104, 192, 196
rehabilitation ∫ 167, 169, 242 SIA Energy Efficiency Path ∫ 177, 192 110, 112–114, 119, 120, 121, 123, 125, theatre ∫ 82, 128, 132, 136, 240,
relative humidity ∫ 52, 54, 57, 59, 159, sick building syndrome ∫ 27, 38, 39, 127, 141, 179, 182, 183, 185, 202, 207, 246, 257
171, 178, 239, 251 58, 170, 190 239, 242 theoretical potential ∫ 16, 46, 81
render ∫ 60, 62, 67, 72, 87–89, 99, 152, simulation ∫ 32, 92, 93, 95, 130, 180, spandrel panel ∫ 85, 88, 102, 104, 105, theory of grand supercycles ∫ 38
153, 158, 162, 170, 175, 194, 209 182, 183, 187, 195, 197, 204, 212, 215, 237, 255 thermal activation ∫ 95, 98, 125, 126,
renewable energy ∫ 12–14, 17, 26, 40, 218, 221, 227, 230, 233, 236, 237, 239, specific heat capacity ∫ 134, 157, 127, 128, 179
41, 44–50, 60, 61, 64, 70, 71, 110, 111, 242, 245, 248, 251, 254, 257 158, 159 thermal balance ∫ 60, 84, 86
113, 114, 128, 131, 133, 138, 141, 143– single glazing ∫ 90, 92, 153, 154, 155, specific transmission heat loss ∫ 184 thermal break ∫ 88, 153, 155, 156,
145, 161, 177, 180, 181, 184, 185, 197, 229, 237 stand-alone system ∫ 141 157, 235
207, 210, 237, 257 smart glazing ∫ 157 standard of living ∫ 11, 38, 42, 49, 64, thermal bridges ∫ 85, 86, 90, 91, 94,
renewable raw materials ∫ 27, 115, 161, social effects ∫ 27, 40, 42 80, 167, 176, 190 109, 151, 152, 154, 155, 168, 180, 184
162, 167, 196, 218, 251, 252 social evaluation ∫ 181 static simulations ∫ 182 thermal buffer ∫ 87, 179, 246, 252, 255
residential building ∫ 30, 33, 34, 63, 69, social integration ∫ 64 steel ∫ 25, 87, 88, 90, 91, 125, 146, thermal comfort ∫ 35, 55, 56, 58, 61, 84,
72, 73, 90, 92, 102–104, 108, 114, 115, soffits ∫ 98, 127, 128, 132, 162, 172, 147, 154, 156, 160, 161, 163, 167, 169, 126, 128, 132, 151, 153, 157, 171, 181,
119, 123, 126, 133–135, 138, 153, 158, 179, 195, 201, 207, 222, 233 172, 205, 211, 212, 213, 215, 217, 218, 195, 207, 221, 236, 245
165, 171, 175, 177, 184, 186, 190, 192 soiling ∫ 97, 172 221, 223, 225, 227, 229, 233, 235, 236, thermal conductivity ∫ 83, 84, 86, 87,
restoration ∫ 23, 67, 167 solar altitude angle ∫ 54, 68, 96, 105 241, 245, 246, 248, 250, 255, 256 102, 111, 127, 148, 149, 150–152, 156,
restoration of unsealed ground ∫ 67 solar altitude diagram ∫ 54 STEEP ∫ 10, 13, 65, 93, 104, 105, 119 158, 159
return temperature ∫ 126 solar architecture ∫ 9, 28, 29, 30, 31, Stirling engine ∫ 113, 142, 143 thermal conductivity design value ∫ 149
reuse ∫ 77, 147, 159, 168, 174, 196 84, 91, 109, 111, 147 stone ∫ 65, 107, 146, 158, 159, 161, thermal conductivity groups -> 149
reverberation time ∫ 59 solar cells ∫ 12, 16, 82, 106, 108, 138, 164, 167, 168, 169, 172–174, 200, 224, thermal cooling ∫ 113, 130, 131, 143
reversible heat pump ∫ 113, 130 139, 140, 141, 142 231, 233, 252 thermal current ∫ 127
risk of condensation ∫ 57, 90, 151 solar chimney ∫ 47, 48, 101, 102, 113, storage density ∫ 124, 131, 145 thermal diffusivity ∫ 158, 159
river ∫ rivers ∫ 44, 66, 67, 78, 134, 135, 144 stored solar energy ∫ 115, 121 thermal energy ∫ 16, 17, 29, 43, 46, 48,
143, 225 solar chimney power plant ∫ 144 straw ∫ 115, 152, 200, 216, 217, 218 49, 74, 81, 85, 86, 93, 95, 98, 106, 110,
road network ∫ 78, 79 solar chimney power stations ∫ 47, 48 structural stability ∫ 171 118–126, 158, 197, 204, 210, 251
roof ∫ 17, 18, 24, 28, 47, 64–68, 70, 84, solar collectors ∫ 17, 43, 47, 95, 118, stud wall ∫ 88, 92, 151 thermal insulation ∫ 17, 18, 22, 27, 28,
85, 88, 90–92, 94–96, 101, 103–108, 120, 144, 184, 210 subfloor ∫ 163 47, 57, 58, 63, 73, 84–92, 94–96, 105,
111, 112, 120, 144, 147, 148, 150, 152, solar constant ∫ 43, 53 subtropical zone ∫ 51, 52, 65 112, 114, 125, 127, 147–151, 153, 154,
153, 156, 158, 162, 169, 170, 172–174, solar cooling ∫ 28, 111, 113, 119, 130, summertime thermal performance 156, 160, 162, 173, 179, 180, 184–186,

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 188, 195, 196, 201, 203, 208, 209, 211, United Nations ∫ 12, 13, 42 wind direction ∫ 54, 67–70, 83
213, 215, 216, 221, 223, 227, 235, 238, upcycling ∫ 75, 174 wind exposure ∫ 68
241, 250, 253, 254, 257 uranium ∫ 14, 15, 17, 41, 45, 114, 123 wind power ∫ 15, 16, 26, 44–46, 48, 70,
Thermal Insulation Act ∫ 63, 84, 114, urban atmosphere ∫ 66 138, 144, 178
184, 185, 186, 257 urban climate ∫ 66, 67 wind speed ∫ 54, 55, 69, 70
WSVO ∫ 184, 185 urban ecology ∫ 18 wind tunnel ∫ 68, 183, 230
thermal insulation composite system urban planning ∫ 13, 18, 20, 22, 29, 61, wind turbine ∫ 15
∫ 87, 88, 89, 91, 208, 209 120, 176, 246, 248 window ∫ 29, 42, 68, 90, 97, 99, 100,
thermal insulation materials ∫ 153 urban space ∫ 23, 38, 62–81, 85, 86, 103–105, 137, 148, 150, 153–156, 175,
thermal load ∫ 73, 91, 95, 96, 97, 98, 120, 125, 168, 174, 175 180, 200–204, 209, 212, 213, 217, 218,
99, 101, 152 urban traffic ∫ 79 221, 224, 230, 236, 238, 241, 245, 255,
thermal losses ∫ 70, 72, 119, 156, 210 usable floor space ∫ 114, 137, 178, 185 256, 257
thermal masses ∫ 57, 65, 66, 69, 71, usage integration ∫ 64 window frame ∫ 155, 156
83–85, 88, 91–93, 96, 98, 118, 124, usage orientation ∫ 69 wintertime thermal performance
125, 127–129, 133, 135, 136, 147, 150, user behaviour ∫ 93, 110, 186, 190, ∫ 83, 102, 103
157, 158, 179, 188, 196, 200, 201, 209, 195, 196, 197 wood ∫ 43, 44, 46, 47, 55, 65, 71, 113,
224, 227, 230, 233, 239, 242, 243, 245, use-related boundary conditions ∫ 178 115–117, 142, 143, 146, 151, 152, 156,
254, 257 U-value ∫ 28, 29, 58, 59, 83, 84, 87, 88, 158, 159, 161, 162, 170–172, 179, 184,
thermal optimisation ∫ 87, 88 90–93, 96, 97, 111, 150, 151, 152, 154– 185, 192, 196, 200–202, 212, 213, 215,
thermal performance ∫ 83, 86–88, 90, 157, 180, 184, 195, 196, 201, 204, 205, 221, 224, 233, 239, 248, 252, 254
94–97, 99, 100, 102, 103, 125, 143, 207, 208, 212, 215, 218, 221, 224, 227, wood chippings ∫ 115, 117, 179,
148, 157, 169, 178, 180, 191, 192 239, 242, 245, 251, 252, 254, 257 213, 215
thermal potential ∫ 121 V wood pellets ∫ 113, 115, 117, 143,
thermal profile ∫ 57 vacuum insulation panels ∫ 29, 87, 88, 179, 184
thermal recycling ∫ 162, 174 89, 148, 149, 151–153, 203 working drawings ∫ 169, 180, 189
thermal resistance ∫ 86, 87, 149 VIP ∫ 29, 88, 148, 149, 150, 151, 227 workplace limit value ∫ 59
thermal transmittance ∫ 28, 84, 86, 87, vacuum-tube collectors ∫ 74, 94, 95, World Climate Council ∫ 39, 40, 177
90, 96, 111, 150, 151, 154, 155, 156, 157 113, 119, 120, 242, 257 World Energy Council ∫ 44, 45, 48
thermal zoning ∫ 22, 69, 86, 91, 242, vapour barrier ∫ 88, 90, 149, 151, 201, World Trade Organisation ∫ 12
245, 251, 254 203, 206, 211, 221, 223, 227, 241, 244, world population ∫ 13, 17, 27, 41, 42,
thermochemical storage ∫ 125 253, 256 44, 45
thermodynamics ∫ 18, 21, 43, 111, 245 vapour diffusion ∫ 83, 150, 151 X
thermotropic glass ∫ 29 vapour diffusion resistance -> 83 xenon ∫ 154, 155
thin-film cells ∫ 138, 140, 141 vegetable oil ∫ 131, 142, 143, 179, Y
tidal energy ∫ 44 210, 212 yield ∫ 16, 17, 32, 70, 74, 95, 106, 107,
tides ∫ 43, 44, 48 vegetation ∫ 40, 52, 67, 68, 83, 103, 118, 119, 139, 141, 142, 182, 227, 239
timber ∫ 55, 65, 87–89, 92–94, 148, 218, 233, 238, 242, 245, 248 Z
150, 151, 158–163, 168, 169, 172, 200– ventilation cavity ∫ 88, 94–96, 99, 206, zero-carbon ∫ 45, 181, 254
207, 210–213, 215, 217, 219, 221, 228– 223, 224, 241, 243, 245, 256 zero-carbon building ∫ 181
230, 231, 238, 240, 242–245, 249, 251, ventilation heat losses ∫ 54, 84–86, 93, zero-CFC ∫ 123
252, 254, 256, 257 100, 102, 111, 114, 135, 180, 185 zero-maintenance ∫ 105, 201, 204,
tipping points ∫ 40, 41 vertical constructed wetland ∫ 76, 77 212, 218, 224
total costs ∫ 32, 33, 187 vertical shade angle ∫ 103–105, 157
total energy transmittance ∫ 28, 83, 92, visual comfort ∫ 58, 102
96, 99, 149, 150, 153, 154, 157 volume of traffic ∫ 27, 78, 79
g-value ∫ 92, 96–99, 104, 108, 150, W
154–157, 218 waste code ∫ 169
Toxproof ∫ 170 waste collection ∫ 77, 239
tracking systems ∫ 97, 106 waste heat ∫ 43, 74, 86, 96, 113, 121–
traffic ∫ 10, 12, 18–20, 25, 27, 30, 59, 124, 130, 131, 143, 144, 242, 246
62–64, 66, 67, 77–81, 191, 192–194, waste streams ∫ 77, 168, 169
204, 207, 209, 218, 221, 224, 227, 230, waste treatment ∫ 77, 174
236, 239, 242, 245, 248, 251, 254, 257 waste water ∫ 67, 70, 74–76, 80, 121,
traffic infrastructure ∫ 78, 80 159, 171, 197, 210, 248, 252
trains ∫ 78, 160, 215, 218, 221, 224, waste-water drainage ∫ 75
227, 236, 242, 248, 251, 257 waste-water treatment ∫ 75–77, 212
transmission heat losses ∫ 58, 64, 65, waste-water usage ∫ 75
84, 86, 87, 90, 92, 96, 114, 126, 148, water cooling ∫ 126, 132
153, 180, 184, 185, 219, 242, 251 water flows in buildings ∫ 75
transmission losses ∫ 12, 153 water power ∫ 44, 46–48, 145
transparency ∫ 83, 97, 99, 146, 153, water retention ∫ 67, 68
154, 157, 184, 185, 187, 188, 221, 236 water table ∫ 66, 69, 74, 121, 167,
transparent components ∫ 85, 86, 90, 197, 251
91, 104, 106, 150, 153, 155, 162 water treatment ∫ 74
transparent thermal insulation ∫ 85, 92, water vapour ∫ 54, 56, 66, 78, 88, 114,
94, 148, 150, 151, 156 115, 125, 149, 150, 158, 159
transpiration ∫ 52, 55, 56, 129 waterless urinals ∫ 239, 242, 248
transport ∫ 15, 27, 30, 31, 38, 50, 70, waterproofing ∫ 90, 107, 147, 149, 152,
71, 73, 75, 78–80, 88, 116, 118, 119, 153, 162, 163, 169, 179, 204, 206, 209,
123, 125, 126, 128, 160, 161, 166, 167, 215, 221, 227, 238, 253, 256
168, 169, 172–174, 184, 190–194, 201, water-saving fittings ∫ 197, 230, 254
204, 207, 209, 212, 213, 215, 218, 221, waves ∫ 17, 24, 44, 46, 48, 72
224, 227, 230, 236, 239, 242, 245, 248, weather ∫ 24, 28, 35, 38, 40, 46, 51, 52,
251, 254, 257 66, 82, 88, 91, 94, 106, 108, 140, 153,
transport losses ∫ 71 171, 177, 179, 200, 201, 209, 225, 228,
triple glazing ∫ 91, 153–156, 203, 211, 239, 242, 244, 249, 251
241, 250, 252, 254 weather protection ∫ 88, 94, 108, 201,
Trombe wall ∫ 84, 111, 112, 150, 233 209, 242, 244, 249
tropical zone ∫ 51, 52, 65 wind ∫ 12, 15–17, 26, 44–48, 52, 54,
U 55, 65–72, 81–83, 85, 97, 99–101, 103,
underfloor heating ∫ 126, 127, 132, 111, 114, 134, 135, 138, 144, 145, 171,
179, 183, 218, 224, 243, 245, 249, 251 178, 179, 182, 183, 185, 189, 194, 212,
unglazed collectors ∫ 119, 120, 131 229, 230, 233

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