Elements of Computer Network

Computer Network is a system in which multiple nodes are connected to each other to share
information and resources. A computer network allows sharing of resources between different nodes
connected within it.
Computer Network Elements: The objects basically used in a computer network are known as
Computer Network Elements (CNEs). There are basically 4 computer networking elements:
1. Computers
2. Transmission medium (wired or wireless)
3. Protocols
4. Network software
All the elements of a computer network are described below:
1. Computers:
A computer is a digital device that is able to accept data as input, a process that data using predefined
algorithms and data structures, and perform tasks as output – that includes the transformation of raw
data into information, then knowledge, and finally insight about the data’s domain. The output also
takes the form of the performance of physical tasks along with data storage, data transformation, and
data retrieval. The network is also formed by computers for the purposes of data interchange and
leveraging a distributed programming model for parallel processing.
2. Transmission medium:
The means through which we send our data from one place to another is known as the Transmission
medium.
Signals are used to represent data by computers and other telecommunication devices. The signals (i.e.,
data or information) are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic energy from one device to another.
These signals travel through a vacuum, air, or other transmission mediums to move from one point to
another (from sender to receiver).
The transmission medium is of two types:
• (i) Wired or Guided: For example, Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, and Optical Fiber Cable.
• (i) Wireless or Unguided: For example, Radiowaves, Microwaves, and Infrared.
3. Protocols:
There are some defined rules and conventions for communication between network devices.
These are called Protocols. Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make
connections with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into sent and
received messages.
Protocols may be of 3 types:
1. Internet Protocols
2. Wireless Network Protocols
3. Network Routing Protocols
4. Network Software:
Network software is a foundational element for any network. This type of software helps administrators
deploy, manage and monitor a network. The traditional networks are made up of specialized hardware,
such as routers and switches, that bundle the networking software into the solution.
Such types of software encompasses a broad range of software used for the design, implementation,
and operation, and monitoring of computer networks. Traditional networks were hardware-based with
software embedded. When software like Defined Networking (SDN) emerged, the software is separated
from the hardware thus making it more adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the computer network.
Types of Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver is
referred to as network topology. The various network topologies are:

Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.

Figure 1: Every device is connected with another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as
links.

• Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected
to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. Total number of ports
required=N*(N-1).
• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5
devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of this topology:
• It is robust.
• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices through
dedicated channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.
Problems with this topology:
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.
Star Topology:
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an
intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an
active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN
protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
 Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.
Advantages of this topology:
• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
Problems with this topology:
• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash
down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a single
cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in a single direction. No bi-directional feature is in
bus topology. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by
LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via drop
lines.
Advantages of this topology:
• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to connect
them is 1, which is known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
• The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
Problems with this topology:
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various protocols are
used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
• Security is very low.

Ring Topology:
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to
pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between
each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing
protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The following operations take place in ring topology are :

1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility to perform the
operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is to
be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after
transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is
received from the receiver.
Advantages of this topology:
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.
Problems with this topology:
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
• Less secure.
Tree Topology :
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In
Tree Topology, SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) protocols like DHCP and SAC are used.

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the
devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-
point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

Advantages of this topology :

• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that is
traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
• It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
Problems with this topology :
• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of cabling.
Hybrid Topology :
This topology technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied
above. It is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as
Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each
individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a
combination of all different types of networks.

Common Network Services

Computer systems and computerized systems help human beings to work efficiently and explore the
unthinkable. When these devices are connected together to form a network, the capabilities are enhanced
multiple-times. Some basic services computer network can offer are.

Directory Services
These services are mapping between name and its value, which can be variable value or fixed. This
software system helps to store the information, organize it, and provides various means of accessing it.
• Accounting
In an organization, a number of users have their user names and passwords mapped to them.
Directory Services provide means of storing this information in cryptic form and make available
when requested.
• Authentication and Authorization
User credentials are checked to authenticate a user at the time of login and/or periodically. User
accounts can be set into hierarchical structure and their access to resources can be controlled using
authorization schemes.
 • Domain Name Services
DNS is widely used and one of the essential services on which internet works. This system maps IP
addresses to domain names, which are easier to remember and recall than IP addresses. Because
network operates with the help of IP addresses and humans tend to remember website names, the
DNS provides website’s IP address which is mapped to its name from the back-end on the request
of a website name from the user.

File Services
File services include sharing and transferring files over the network.
• File Sharing
One of the reasons which gave birth to networking was file sharing. File sharing enables its users to
share their data with other users. User can upload the file to a specific server, which is accessible by
all intended users. As an alternative, user can make its file shared on its own computer and provides
access to intended users.
• File Transfer
This is an activity to copy or move file from one computer to another computer or to multiple
computers, with help of underlying network. Network enables its user to locate other users in the
network and transfers files.

Communication Services
• Email
Electronic mail is a communication method and something a computer user cannot work without.
This is the basis of today’s internet features. Email system has one or more email servers. All its
users are provided with unique IDs. When a user sends email to other user, it is actually transferred
between users with help of email server.
• Social Networking
Recent technologies have made technical life social. The computer savvy peoples, can find other
known peoples or friends, can connect with them, and can share thoughts, pictures, and videos.
• Internet Chat
Internet chat provides instant text transfer services between two hosts. Two or more people can
communicate with each other using text based Internet Relay Chat services. These days, voice chat
and video chat are very common.
• Discussion Boards
Discussion boards provide a mechanism to connect multiple peoples with same interests.It enables
the users to put queries, questions, suggestions etc. which can be seen by all other users. Other may
respond as well.
• Remote Access
This service enables user to access the data residing on the remote computer. This feature is known
as Remote desktop. This can be done via some remote device, e.g. mobile phone or home
computer.

Application Services
These are nothing but providing network based services to the users such as web services, database
managing, and resource sharing.
• Resource Sharing
To use resources efficiently and economically, network provides a mean to share them. This may
include Servers, Printers, and Storage Media etc.
• Databases
 This application service is one of the most important services. It stores data and information,
processes it, and enables the users to retrieve it efficiently by using queries. Databases help
organizations to make decisions based on statistics.
• Web Services
World Wide Web has become the synonym for internet.It is used to connect to the internet, and
access files and information services provided by the internet servers.

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size.

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)
o SAN(Storage Area Network)
o VAN(Virtual Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations.
There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For example,
a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network connection and
then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as
a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers, computer,
television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a corporate
network using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting
a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL,
etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical
area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in
hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
 o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is
made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the
branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The
internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to
buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get
the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application like
Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other
resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high bandwidth.
The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of our
company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN
network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be
changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the
virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the purchasing
of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

Storage Area Network (SAN)

o A Storage Area Network (SAN) is a specialized, high-speed network that provides network
access to storage devices. SANs are typically composed of hosts, switches, storage elements, and
 storage devices that are interconnected using a variety of technologies, topologies, and protocols.
SANs may span multiple sites.
o A SAN presents storage devices to a host such that the storage appears to be locally attached.
This simplified presentation of storage to a host is accomplished through the use of different
types of virtualization.

SANs are often used to:

• Improve application availability (e.g., multiple data paths),

• Enhance application performance (e.g., off-load storage functions, segregate or zone networks,
etc.),
• Increase storage utilization and effectiveness (e.g., consolidate storage resources, provide tiered
storage, etc.), and improve data protection and security.

SANs perform an important role in an organization's Business Continuity Management (BCM) activities
(e.g., by spanning multiple sites).
SANs are commonly based on a switched fabric technology. Examples include Fibre Channel (FC),
Ethernet, and InfiniBand. Gateways may be used to move data between different SAN technologies.

Fibre Channel is commonly used in enterprise environments. Fibre Channel may be used to transport
SCSI, NVMe, FICON, and other protocols.

Ethernet is commonly used in small and medium sized organizations. Ethernet infrastructure can be used
for SANs to converge storage and IP protocols onto the same network. Ethernet may be used to transport
SCSI, FCoE, NVMe, RDMA, and other protocols.
InfiniBand is commonly used in high performance computing environments. InfiniBand may be used to
transport SRP, NVMe, RDMA, and other protocols.

Virtual area network (VAN)

A virtual area network (VAN) is a network on which users are enabled to share a more visual sense of
community through high band-width connections. As conceived by PennWell Media Online, an online
directory for specialized networking products, a virtual area network is something like a metropolitan area
network (MAN) or extended local areanetwork (LAN) in which all users can meet over high-bandwidth
connections, enabling "face-to-face" online "coffeehouses," remote medical diagnosis and legal
consultation, and online corporate or extracorporate workgroups, focus groups, and conferences. A VAN
requires multi-megabyte data flow and can be implemented through the use of Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber Line but more likely through the installation of cable modem. Since the high-bandwidth
connections imply a common infrastructure, the first VANs are likely to be local or regional. However, a
VAN can also be national or international in geographic scope, assuming all users share similar
capabilities.