Defensive adaptations of lepidopteran insects:

In the insect kingdom, there are 1,40,000 species of butterflies and moths, which are grouped
under the order Lepidoptera. These insects are an important component in the food chain because
of their stunning colors, joyful flight patterns, and lack of the ability to bite or sting. They are an
extremely appealing insects due to abundance and universality. Lepidopteran insects are
consumed by a numerous kind of insectivores at almost every stage of their life cycles.
Butterflies, moths, and caterpillars are incredibly nutrient-rich diets for them. The types of
organisms that destroy butterflies include parasitoids, parasites, and predators (Sulakhe, 2002).
Overtime, Lepidopteran insects developed defense systems as camouflage, mimicry, chemical
secretion, sonar-jamming, etc. to defend themselves against various parasitoids, parasites, and
predators.

 Camouflage:

In the natural world, being undetected can be the difference between life and death for both
predators and prey. Therefore, one of nature's most often utilized defenses against attack is
camouflage. (Stevens and Merilaita, 2009). One of the most popular and effective defenses is
camouflage, which is the art of blending into the environment in order to evade detection. The
majority of butterfly and moth species use it as their main form of defense against predators.
Numerous moths, butterflies, and caterpillars have patterns and colors that resemble the plants
they consume or the twigs, bark, or other substrates they rest on. Some cryptic specialists mimic
dead objects like bird droppings such as swallowtail butterfly caterpillars (Papilio spp.). Cryptic
insects often move very little throughout the day in order to retain their cover, and when they do,
it is slow and cautious in order to escape detection (Resh & Cardé, 2003). Here is a list of
lepidopteran insects that uses camouflage as defense mechanism.

Insect name Characteristics Image Reference

Dainty
Caterpillars that resemble
swallowtail
bird droppings in early (James, 2017)
(Papilio
instars
anactus)
 Schaus’
swallowtail Young caterpillars that
(James, 2017)
(Papilio resemble bird droppings
aristodemus)
Red helen
Caterpillars resemble bird
(Papilio (James, 2017)
droppings
helenus)
Western pine
Colored and striped
elfin
identically to the host (James, 2017)
(Callophrys
needles
eryphon)
Behr’s Color blends well with the
hairstreak pastel-green host plant,
(James, 2017)
(Satyrium providing excellent
behrii) camouflage
California sister
Bright green with many
(Adelpha (James, 2017)
tiny, white spots
californica)

Common glider
Camouflage among dead
(Neptis (James, 2017)
leaves
sappho)

Crescent moon Green caterpillars are well

(Marasmarcha camouflaged among the (James, 2017)
lunaedactyla) leaves and shoots.

Plum lappet
Camouflage on twigs and
(Odonestis (James, 2017)
branches
pruni)
 Red-and-white lateral lines
Honey locust
helping to break up the
(Syssphinx (James, 2017)
body shape and provide
bicolor)
countershading
Green pergesa Uses false eyespots as a
hawkmoth defensive strategy, to ward
(James, 2017)
(Pergesa off potential vertebrate
acteus) enemies
Eastern
Have a reddish-brown
carpenter bee
patch on their bodies that
hawkmoth (James, 2017)
resembles the necrotic area
(Sataspes
seen on diseased leaves
xylocoparis)

Laurel sphinx Feed on the underside of

(Sphinx leaves, where they are well (James, 2017)
kalmiae) camouflaged

Twiglike shape of the

Scarce umber caterpillars provides them
(Agriopis with perfect camouflage (James, 2017)
aurantiaria) among the leaves and
branches of the canopy.
Mottled form offers
camouflage when the moth
rests on bark covered with
Peppered moth lichens and mosses and
(Biston melanic or black form (James, 2017)
betularia) equips the moth with
camouflage when resting
on pollution-darkened
bark
Scorched wing
Resembling a piece of
(Plagodis (James, 2017)
burned paper
dolabraria)
Lunar marbled
brown Camouflaged on the
(James, 2017)
(Drymonia underside of a leaf
ruficornis)
Wavy-lined Rest on leaf edges, where
heterocampa an effective camouflage
(James, 2017)
(Heterocampa helps it to hide in plain
biundata) sight
Alpine
Provide good camouflage
prominent
when it rests along twigs (James, 2017)
(Rhegmatophil
and stems.
a alpina)
Melese
peruviana Camouflaged when resting
(James, 2017)
(Melese among the dead foliage
peruviana)
Andean Has a wing pattern
(eLife Sciences
butterfly combining colored
Publications
(Hypomenitis elements and transparent
Limited, 2021)
enigma) areas
(adrianhoskins
Orange Tip White and transparent
@hotmail.co.uk,
(Anthocharis spots helps to camouflage
n.d.)
cardamines) in flower

(adrianhoskins
Skeletonized
It camouflages as dead @hotmail.co.uk,
Leafwing
leaf n.d.)
(Zaretis itys)
 (adrianhoskins
Grayling
Perfectly camouflage on @hotmail.co.uk,
(Hipparchia
dead wood n.d.)
semele)

Skipper (adrianhoskins
(Hylephila Camouflage on dry grass @hotmail.co.uk,
peruana) n.d.)
Green (adrianhoskins
Hairstreak Due to its green color, it @hotmail.co.uk,
(Callophrys can blend to foliage n.d.)
rubi)
Common Avoid predation by
Lytrosis Moth blending in with their
(Schultz, 2018)
(Lytrosis environment as they look
unitaria) like a twig or branch.

 Mimicry:

Mimicry is another excellent defense strategy used by lepidoptera. By mimicking the other
undesirable model species, a certain group of insects in this narrative are able to avoid predatory
attacks. Similarities in looks, habits, behavior, sound, flying techniques, and smell
etc. sometimes make the fraud seem more real (Wikiwand - Mimicry, n.d. & Sulakhe, 2002).
There are two types of mimicry can be seen. One is referred to as Batesian mimicry. the insects
that adopt this mimicry don't have any toxic or hazardous characteristics like those of the models
they resemble. They deceive predators into thinking they are offensive and unpleasant. Müllerian
mimicry is another one. Since the mimicking insects themselves are poisonous or deadly and
resemble other poisonous or noxious insects, their portrayals are truthful (Resh & Cardé, 2003).
Here is a list of lepidopteran insects that uses mimicry as defense mechanism.
 Insect name Characteristics Image Reference

Red helen Larvae take on the typical

(James, 2017)
(Papilio helenus) snake’s head mimicry

Two-tailed tiger Caterpillar with menacing

swallowtail eyespots, exhibiting
(James, 2017)
(Papilio classic mimicry of
multicaudata) swallowtail larvae
Employs mimicry to avoid
Spicebush
predation by closely
swallowtail (James, 2017)
imitating the Pipevine
(Papilio troilus)
Swallowtail
Gain orange spots and
Apollo
become similar in
(Parnassius (James, 2017)
appearance to a millipede
apollo)
found in the same habitat.
Identical in shape and
color to a dead bamboo
leaf, and the white spots
Orcus great-satyr
on the thorax are very (James, 2017)
(Pronophila orcus)
similar to a type of white
fungus that frequently
attacks dead leaves.
Both the caterpillar and
adult mimic separate
Cyclosia midama species of butterfies
(James, 2017)
(Cyclosia midama) Troidini papilionid
swallowtail larvae and
Euploea mulciber adults
Spotted apatelodes Caterpillar resemble more
(Apatelodes harmful larvae that do use (James, 2017)
torrefacta) irritant hairs as a defense.

Curve-lined owlet
moth
Resemble withered leaves (James, 2017)
(Phyprosopus
callitrichoides)
Use of bright colors as a (Schultz,
Monarch Butterfly
warning to predators that 2018)
(Danaus plexippus)
they are foul tasting

Uses bright colors and (Schultz,

Viceroy Butterfly 2018)
patterns to warn predators
(Limentis spp.)
that it is unpalatable

Due to their robust fuzzy (Schultz,

Snowberry body and black and 2018)
Clearwing Moth yellow/ green marking
(Hemaris diffinis) they resembles as
bumblebees
(Schultz,
American Hornet
Resemblance to wasps and 2018)
Moth
hornets
(Sesia spp.)

The eyed hawk-

moth Mimic owl eyes very
(Howse, 2013)
(Smerinthus efficientl
ocellata)
  Chemical Defense:

Animals frequently produce defensive secretions, which can be used to repel predators by biting,
smearing, stinging, spraying, or spitting at them. The physiological, locomotory, digestive, or
neurological systems of predators, as well as pathogens, may be adversely affected by defensive
chemicals, which can be made up of a variety of different components, such as secondary
metabolites, peptides, and proteins (Pentzold et al., 2016). overtime with adaptations,
Lepidopteran insects also possess various chemical defense method to protect themselves from
enemies. Here is a list of lepidopteran insects with chemicals they use for protection.

Insect name Chemicals/ How it works Reference

Aristolochic acid is used to defend
Pipevine swallowtail (James, 2017)
themselves
Aliphatic acids, esters, monoterpene
Schaus’ swallowtail hydrocarbons, and sesquiterpenes (James, 2017)
etc. Secrete from osmeterium
Emitting chemicals and a pungent
Black swallowtail odor that repel predators such as (James, 2017)
ants.
Emit a bad-smelling chemical from
Mountain parnassian (James, 2017)
their yellow osmeterium
Silver-spotted skipper Emitting repellent chemicals (James, 2017)
Emit chemicals from a ventral gland
Dainty sulphur (James, 2017)
and setae
Disperse noxious defensive
Spangled cupid (James, 2017)
chemicals from setae
Gain a protective toxic chemical
Atala (James, 2017)
cycasin from the plants
Chemical protection from the bad
Mormon fritillary odor produced by a ventral “neck” (James, 2017)
gland
Astarte fritillary Chemicals produced from a ventral (James, 2017)
 gland to defend themselves
Chemicals produced from a ventral
Sagebrush checkerspot (James, 2017)
gland to defend themselves
Providing a chemical defense against
Zebra longwing predators as they feed on passion (James, 2017)
vine
Emission of repellent chemicals
Mourning cloak from a ventral “neck” is main forms (James, 2017)
of defense.
Protected by the toxic chemicals it
Pale crescent (James, 2017)
ingests
Poisonous to birds and mice because
Arachne checkerspot of iridoid glycoside chemicals they (James, 2017)
ingest
Chemicals emitted from a small
Hoary comma ventral gland near the head may also (James, 2017)
repel some attackers.
Accumulate chemicals that provide
Blue tiger (James, 2017)
protection from bird predation
Red admiral Secretes chemicals to deter predators (James, 2017)
Chemically protected by the
Milkweed tussock (James, 2017)
milkweed toxins the larvae ingest
Chemical defenses make not
Banded tussock moth (James, 2017)
palatable to predators
Survive freezing temperatures in
Banded woolly bear winter due to the presence of (James, 2017)
“antifreeze” chemicals
Larvae may be protected from bird
Polka-dot wasp moth (James, 2017)
predation by toxic chemicals
Ornate bella moth Pyrrolizidine alkaloids help to (James, 2017)
protect against predators at all stages
 of development
Chemical makes them unpalatable to
Ramie moth (James, 2017)
vertebrate predators

 Safety in numbers:

A behavioral technique to reduce the possibility of any individual being assaulted. Prior to the
development of any additional defense systems, it is primarily used on early instars. Early instars
of some lepidopteran insects collectively repose as such that it resembles many heads, reducing
the likelihood that any one individual's actual heads will be attacked by a predator (James, 2017).

Figure: Lepidopteran insects’ early instars resembles many heads (James, 2017)

 Ant bodyguards:

Many caterpillars specially of Lycaenidae butterfly family, have evolved a defense tactic that
recruits ants as bodyguard that ward off threats from parasitoids and other predators. A functional
"honeydew" gland is present in most lycaenid larvae, which produce sugars and amino acids that
attracts ants to consume. Ants swarming over the substrate and caterpillars efficiently deter
parasitoids like wasp and predators like spider from attacking the caterpillars due to their
physical presence and activity (James, 2017).

 Frass defense:
The majority of caterpillar-killing invertebrates locate their prey via scent. Caterpillar feces,
often known as frass, is a potentially important source of this scent. Some caterpillar species,
including web-building species, significantly contaminate their nests with it, as a result these
insects may be able to mask or neutralize their foul stench, which would enable them to protect
themselves from predators.

 Sonar-Jamming strategy:

Moths and bats are nocturnal organisms. Bats are the main predator of moths. A bat starts its
attack with intermittent sounds. Then the frequency rises up to 200 cries per second. Bats use the
interval between making the cry and its audible return to estimate how far away the moth is. It
helps to identify where the moth is. At this point, the moth begins to click up to 4,500 times per
second. The moths' ferocious clicking caused the bats' pattern to change as the frequency of their
sonar dropped. This is how the bat misses the intended moth. Scientists first noticed it in the
species of tiger moth (Peeples, 2009).

Reference

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