UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN KIMIA

ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY LABORATORY
(CHE485)

NAME 1. MIOR MUHAMMAD NORHAMIZAN BIN MIOR MOHD

NORHANIZAN (2022660104)
2. MOHAMMAD FARHAN BIN BORHANUDDIN (2022864276)
3. NUR AIN ASYIQAH BINTI AZIZUL (2022876316)
4. NOREEN SUHANA BINTI MAZALAN (2022824826)
5. PUTRI NUR SYAKILA BINTI ZAKARIA (2022838922)

GROUP CEEH220 3F

EXPERIMENT 6

DATE PERFORMED 3 JANUARY 20233 JANUARY 2023

SEMESTER 3

PROGRAM/CODE DEGREE IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/CEEH220

SUBMIT TO Ir.Dr.Iylia Idris

No. Title Allocated Marks (%) Marks

1 Abstract/Summary 5
2 Introduction 10
3 Aims 5
4 Theory 10
5 Apparatus 5
6 Methodology/Procedure 10
7 Results 10
8 Discussion 20
9 Conclusion 5
10 Recommendations 5
11 Reference / Appendix 5
TOTAL MARKS 100

Remarks:
Checked by: ---------------------------
Date:
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Abstract/Summary…………………………………………………………………….

2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….....

3.0 Aims…………....………..…...…………………………………………………………

4.0 Theory…………………………………………………………………….………….

5.0 Apparatus………………………………………………..………………..…………..

6.0 Methodology/Procedure………………………………………………………….

7.0 Results/Data……………………...…………………………………………………...

8.0 Discussion…………………………………………………………………...……..

9.0 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...…….….

10.0 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………….

11.0 Reference/Appendix……………………………………………………………....
 1.0 ABSTRACT/SUMMARY

In this experiment, we will use UV-Vis and IR Spectroscopy to classify organic compounds. The
goal of this experiment is to put the skills learned in the first two chapters of the Instrumental
Chemistry course into practise. Using UV-Vis and infrared spectroscopy data,As a result, various
types of bonds can be formed with other carbon atoms as well as with other elements such as
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. UV-Vis and IR spectroscopy were used in this experiment to
determine and identify 6 compounds (A, C, D, I, J and K). UV-Vis Spectroscopy, also known as
Spectrophotometry, is a quantitative method for calculating how much light a specific molecule
absorbs, whereas infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is the study of how a molecule responds
to infrared light.The unidentified compounds A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, and K were successfully
identified as Ethanol, Acethyldehyde, Ethanoic Acid, Ethyl Ethanoate, Carbamide, Acetoxy
benzoic Acid, Benzene, Alkyl Benzene, Benzoic Acid, Ethyl Bromide, and Diethyl Ether during
this experiment. The experiment was a success because all of the compounds had already been
identified.
 2.0 INTRODUCTION

Spectrophotometry, also known as UV-Vis Spectroscopy, is a quantitative method for

calculating how much light a specific molecule absorbs. Regardless, spectrophotometry is used
to quantify how a substance absorbs, transmits, or reflects light as a function of wavelength.
This is accomplished by comparing the intensity of light passing through a sample to that of a
reference sample or a blank. It is also an analytical method because of its adaptability and ability
to recognise almost all molecules.

The method allows for the measurement and recording of a sample's light
transmittance as the light travels through it. One of the most well-liked analytical methods is
ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy since it can identify almost all molecules and is
very adaptable. With UVVis spectroscopy, a sample is exposed to UV-Vis light, and the
amount of light transmitted through the sample is then measured [3]. The absorbance can be
determined using the transmittance (T), using the formula A = -log (T). It is possible to
obtain an absorbance spectrum that displays a compound's absorption at various wavelengths.
The chemical structure of the molecule determines how much absorption there is at any given
wavelength. By comparing the absorbance spectra of two compounds, UV-Vis can be used to
verify the identity of a chemical compound or to identify functional groups in a qualitative
way.

The study of how a molecule responds to infrared light is known as infrared

spectroscopy. Aside from that, infrared (IR) spectroscopy is one of the most popular and
widely used spectroscopic techniques due to its utility in identifying substances and analysing
their structures. This method is mostly used by inorganic and organic chemists. Absorption,
emission, and reflection measurements can all be used to investigate this. Chemists use it to
identify functional groups in compounds, and the functional groups of molecules can be
identified using IR Spectroscopy measurements of atom vibrations. Heavyer atoms and
stronger bonds will typically vibrate at a higher stretching frequency (wavenumber)
 3.0 AIM

1. To evaluate the functional group present in organic compounds which are A, C, D, I, J

and K by using UV-Vis spectrum graph and IR spectrum graph.

2. To identify 6 organic compound based on functional group present.

 4.0 THEORY

The ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometer is a laboratory device used to evaluate

chemicals in the ultraviolet (UV) and visible (Vis) sections of the electromagnetic spectrum. UV
wavelengths range from 200 to 380 nm, whereas UV-Vis wavelengths range from 200 to 780 nm. It
is well understood that the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy. UV-Vis spectroscopy
works by seeing electron transitions. The wavelength and maximum absorbance of a chemical can
be determined by the electron transitions of that component. Because of the excitation of the outer
electrons, UV or visible light is absorbed. When an atom or molecule absorbs energy, electrons are
promoted from their ground state to an excited state. In a molecule, atoms can spin and vibrate in
relation to one another. The vibrations and rotations have separate energy levels that are piled on
top of each electrical level. The absorption of UV and visible light in organic compounds is limited
to a few functional groups (chromophores) with low excitation energy valence electrons. Because
the superposition of rotational and vibrational transitions results in a mixture of overlapping lines
on the electronic transitions, the spectrum of a molecule containing chromophores is complicated.
This results in a continuous absorption band.
σ- σ* Transitions
A bonding s orbital electron is stimulated to the equivalent antibonding orbital. The amount of
energy required is substantial. Methane, for example, has an absorbance maximum at 125 nm
(because to the fact that it only possesses C-H bonds and can only undergo - * transitions). Typical
UV-Vis spectra do not show absorption maxima owing to - * transitions (200 - 700 nm)

n – σ* Transitions
Saturated compounds having atoms with lone pairs (non-bonding electrons) can undergo n - *
transitions. These transitions need less energy than n - * transitions. They may be started by light
with a wavelength of 150 - 250 nm. There are few organic functional groups with - * peaks in the
UV region.

n - π* and π - π*Transitions
The greatest absorption spectroscopy of organic compounds that has occurred is the transition of n
or p electrons to the p* excited state. This is because the absorption peaks for these transitions are
located in an experimentally useful area of the spectrum (200 - 700 nm). Aside from that, these
transitions require an unsaturated group in the molecule to supply the p electrons.

Beer-Lambert Law is the fundamental concept behind absorbance in this spectroscopy (Equation1).
The symbol of A is the absorbance (it is unitless and commonly perceived as arbitrary units) for a
single wavelength, is the molar absorptivity of the substance or molecule in solution (M-1cm-1), b
is the path length of the cuvette or sample container (1 cm long), and c is the concentration of the
solution (M).
A = εbc

However, UV-Vis spectroscopy can only detect chromophores or the functional group of a
molecule. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) can detect a compound's unique
functional group. The unique chromophores may be identified in the 400 to 600 cm-1 range. This
FT-IR is an infrared spectroscopy method that may be used to detect organic and inorganic
substances, as well as solids, liquids, and gases.
 5.0 APPARATUS

● UV-Vis Spectrometer
● FT-IR Spectrometer
● 6 unknown compounds labelled as A, C, D, I, J and K.
● Dropper
 6.0 METHODOLOGY / PROCEDURE

UV-Vis

To Turn on the Equipment

1. The instrument has been switched on. Warming up took 5 minutes.

2. The Perkin Elmer UV VIS/NIR programme is activated.

3. Clicked New, and subsequently, Method.

4. The type of instrument (high performance UV/VIS/NIR) is selected and Next is clicked,
followed by the wavelength for the instruments.

5. Clicked Next and the method type is selected.

6. Afterwards, clicked Scan and clicked Next twice.

7. The method is saved, named, and then clicked ok.

To Create Method

1. Went to the data collection.

2. The wavelength is chosen based on the manual in the lab and ranges from 300 nm to 500 nm.

3. Ordinate mode and the Absorbance parameter is chosen.

4. Accessed sample info, the quantity of sample was inserted, ENTER was pressed.

5. First sample was labelled blank

6. The sample IDs were edited as A, C, D, I, J and K.

7. The wavelength was set for the experiment.

8. Clicked the start button, and Ok.

9. The sample container is filled with both a blank sample and an ethanol-containing sample.

10. Repeat steps 8 and 9 by replacing one of the ethanol samples with samples A, C, D, I, J and K.

11. The sample of solid I is diluted first before being put in the sample holder.
FTIR spectroscopy

1. 5 sample solutions and 1 solid sample are prepared.

2. The computer has been switched on. selected software, spectrum.

3. Clicked at the background and ‘Ready for scan sample’ notice appeared.

4. Clicked at instrument, scan. The box appeared where the information needed to be keyed in.

5. Scan was clicked, and the range to run the sample is entered.

6. Apply was clicked and the sample was scanned when it was ready.

7. Acetone was used to clean the top plate.

8. Liquid samples were dropped into the top plate's hole.

9. Solid samples were placed into the hole and purged.

10. Sample A was scanned first.

11. The sample was scanned.

12. The top plate was cleaned with acetone after the first sample.

13. Step 4 to 12 was repeated using other samples.

14. Every result was copied into Microsoft Excel.

 7.0 RESULT/ DATA

Result UV-VIS

1. Compound A

Figure 7.1: UV-VIS result for compound A

2. Compound C

Figure 7.2: UV-VIS result for compound C

3. Compound D

Figure 7.3: UV-VIS result for compound D

4. Compound I

Figure 7.4: UV-VIS result for compound I

 5. Compound J

Figure 7.5: UV-VIS result for compound J

6. Compound K

APPENDIX 1

Figure 7.6: UV-VIS result for compound K

UV-VIS ANALYSIS

Compound Band (IR) Descriptions Name of Compound and functional

(𝑐𝑚 )
−1 group

A 2942.79 Alkyl C-H stretch ● Compound: Ethanol

2832.05 Alkyl C-H stretch ● Presence of alcohol group.
3321.09 Alcohol O-H stretch

C 1757.01 Carboxylic Acid ● Compound : Ethanoic Acid

C=O Stretch (𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻)
2629.96 Carboxylic Acid ● Presence of carboxylic acid
O-H Stretch group.
3038.96

O-H

D 1736.53 Ester C=O stretch ● Compound: Ethyl Ethanoate

2984.53 Alkyl C-H stretch (𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻𝐶𝐻2𝐶𝐻3)
1043.60 C-O stretch ● Present of ester group

I 1770.48 Carboxylic Acid ● Compound: Benzoic Acid

C=O Stretch (𝐶6𝐻5𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻)

2976.76 Carboxylic Acid ● Presence of Aromatic ring

O-H stretch and carboxylic acid group.
2871.70 Aromatic C-H
stretch
J 2927.50 C-H stretch ● Compound: Ethyl Bromide
2945.25 C-H stretch ● Presence of alkyl halide
2990.31 C-H stretch group.
558.78 C-Br stretch

K 2868.34 Alkyl C-H stretch ● Compound : Diethyl Ether

2977.22 Alkyl C-H stretch ● Presence of ether group
±1100.00 C-O-C stretch
RESULT OF FTIR

1. Compound A

Figure 7.7: FTIR result for compound A

2. Compound C

Figure 7.8: FTIR result for compound C

3. Compound D

Figure 7.9: FTIR result for compound D

4. Compound I

Figure 7.10: FTIR result for compound I

5. Compound J

Figure 7.11: FTIR result for compound J

6. Compound K

Figure 7.12: FTIR result for compound K

FTIR ANALYSIS

Compound Band (IR) Descriptions Name of Compound and functional

−1
(𝑐𝑚 ) group

A 2887.15 Alkyl C-H stretch ● Compound: Methanol

3309.28 Alcohol O-H stretch ● Presence of alcohol group.

C 1704.55 Aldehyde C=O ● Compound : Ethanal

stretch (𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝐻𝑂)

● Presence of aldehydes group.

D 1736.47 Ester C=O stretch ● Compound: Ethyl Ethanoate

2989.94 Alkyl C-H stretch (𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻𝐶𝐻2𝐶𝐻3)
1043.57 C-O stretch ● Present of ester group

I 1633.36 Carboxylic Acid ● Compound: Benzoic Acid

C=O Stretch (𝐶6𝐻5𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻)

2363.16 Carboxylic Acid ● Presence of Aromatic ring

O-H stretch and carboxylic acid group.
3308.32 Aromatic C-H
stretch
J 2869.76 Alkyl C-H stretch ● Compound: Ethyl Bromide
2978.72 Alkyl C-H stretch ● Presence of alkyl halide
845.17 C-Br stretch group.

K 2870.43 Alkyl C-H stretch ● Compound : Diethyl Ether

2979.20 Alkyl C-H stretch ● Presence of ether group
±1142.37 C-O-C stretch
 8.0 DISCUSSION

In these experiments two graphs are used to identify the functional group of 6 unknown
organic compounds which are A, C, D, I, J and K. The maximum value of characteristic absorption
(cm-1) from UV-Vis spectrum graphs as well as IR spectrum graphs will be compared to
Appendices 1 and 2 to determine the functional group for each compound.

For compound A, the UV-Vis spectrum graph shows that the main characteristic adsorption
are found to be 2942.79 cm-1 and 2832.05 cm-1 where it is lead to an alkyl C-H stretch since both
value fell in the range of 2950 - 2850 cm-1 region(from appendix 1). Additionally, the peak at
3321.09 cm-1 indicates that compound A is an alcohol O-H stretch since the range fell between
3550 - 3200 cm-1 (from appendixes 1). As the result perceived IR functional groups, compound A
was predicted to be ethanol. This is due to alcohol exhibiting distinct infrared absorptions
associated with both the O-H and C-O stretching vibrations. However, by using an IR spectrum
graph, compound A is found to be an alcohol group but it is a methanol. This is because the band is
2887.15 cm-1 where it falls in range for alkyl C-H stretch and 3309.28 cm-1 where it is an alcohol
O-H stretch. Therefore by using an IR spectrum graph, compound A still falls in an alcohol group
but the compound is methanol. However, compound A is expected to be methanol since FTIR
result is more accurate compared to UV-Vis result because there might be slightly human error
while running UV-Vis experiment such as not cleaning the cuvette with distilled water before put
into spectrophotometer compared to FTIR which the data obtained from software. Therefore,
compound A is alcohol which is methanol.

For compound C, the UV-Vis spectrum graph shows that the absorption peak is 1757.01
-1
cm where it is a carboxylic acid C=O stretch since it fell in the range between 1780 - 1710
cm-1(from appendix 1). Carboxylic acid O-H stretch also could be found on the compound C since
the adsorption peaks are found to be 2629.96 cm-1 and 3038.96 cm-1 where it falls in the range
3000 - 2500 cm-1(from appendix 1). Compound C was figured as carboxylic acid as in the
following result above. These compounds C can be claimed as carboxylic acid even more because
carboxylic acid can be produced through oxidation reaction of aldehyde with presence of CrO3 and
H3SO4. Therefore, compound C is found to be ethanoic acid by using UV-Vis graph. However, by
using an IR spectrum graph, the adsorption peak of compound C is 1704.55 cm-1 where it is an
Aldehyde C=O stretch. Therefore, by using IR spectrum graph compound C is found to be ethanal.
Since both graphs gives different functional group for compound C, we should consider compound
C as carbonyl group which is ethanal since FTIR result is more accurate compared to UV-Vis result
because there might be slightly human error while running UV-Vis experiment such as not cleaning
the cuvette with distilled water before put into spectrophotometer compared to FTIR which the data
obtained from software. Therefore, compound C is ethanal.

Compound D is found to be ethyl ethanoate. This is because by using UV-Vis spectrum

graph the absorption peak is at 1736.53 cm-1 which is between range 1750 cm-1 - 1735 cm-1(from
appendix 1) and this showed C=O stretch for ester was present in compound D. Other than that, the
peak also is at 1043.60 cm-1 where it is in range of 1210 cm-1 - 1160 cm-1(from appendix 1) which
means there is C-O stretch for ester in the IR spectrum graph for compound D. Besides, C-H
stretching vibrations also occurred at peak 2984.53 cm-1. The absence of other specific functional
group bands signifies that a specific functional group is missing from isomeric carboxylic acids by
the absence of the broad O-H bands. Thus out of 6 compounds, compound D is found to be ethyl
ethanoate by using UV-Vis spectrum graph of compound D. This is more secure when the reaction
information, where compound A (ethanol) reacts with compound C (ethanoic acid) and undergoes
esterification process with presence of HCl to produce ester. By using the IR spectrum graph for
compound D, it gives the peak of 1736.47 which is an ester C=O stretch. It also gives a band of
29889.94 where it falls in range of alkyl C-H stretch. Besides, the peak also is at 1043.57 where it
is in the range of 1210 cm-1 - 1160 cm-1(from appendix 1) which means there is C-O stretch for
ester. Therefore compound D is found to be an ester which is ethyl ethanoate since both UV-Vis
spectrum graph and IR spectrum graph give the same functional group for compound D.

Moving on, conversion reaction of compound H, when reacts to KMnO𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 for

compound I we recognize it as Benzoic Acid, (𝐶6𝐻5𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 )by using UV-VIS spectrum and also
IR test. Firstly, the compound’s infrared spectrum indicates the main absorption are found at
−1
2976.76, 2871.70 and 1770.48 𝑐𝑚 for sample I. These lead to the stretches of O-H stretch,
aromatic C-H stretch and C=O stretch which are already shown on the table above. Based on the
result of UV-Vis, 1770.48 mm shows that the function group is carboxylic acid C=O stretch. Then,
−1
for the absorption peak of O-H stretch was 2976.76 𝑐𝑚 since the value fell in between the range
−1
of 3000 to 2500 𝑐𝑚 frequency range. Furthermore, since the range of aromatic C-H stretch is on
−1
~3300 and based on the result the close value of the range is on 2871.70 𝑐𝑚 . Moving on, based
−1
on result of IR which the value of 1633.36 𝑐𝑚 which indicates the value of carboxylic Acid
−1
C=O Stretch and as well as for aromatic C-H stretch the peak is at 3308.32 𝑐𝑚 ,based on the
appendix 1 this clearly shows the value is not in the range because of the error while running the
test.

As for compound J, by using UV-Vis spectrum graph the C-H stretch appears on peaks of
2927.50 cm-1, 2945 cm-1 and 2990.31 cm-1 where all 3 peaks fall in range between 2990.31 cm-1 -
2889.58 cm-1(from appendix 1) that represent the C-H stretch. Furthermore, the 558.78 cm-1 band
indicates the presence of a halogen compound which is C-Br since the absorption range for C-Br
stretch is 670 cm-1 - 515 cm-1(from appendix 1). Therefore, the functional group for compound J by
using UV-Vis spectrum graph is an alkyl halide group which is ethyl bromide. By using IR
spectrum graph, the functional group of compound J is still the same as the UV-Vis spectrum graph
which is ethyl bromide since the peak is 2869.76 cm-1 and 2978.72 cm-1 which is an alkyl C-H
stretch range. The absorption peak also falls in 845.17 cm-1 where it is in the range for C-Br stretch.
Therefore compound J is ethyl bromide since both UV-Vis spectrum graph and IR spectrum graph
of compound J give the same functional group for compound J.

Based on the UV-Vis spectrum graph of compound K, there is presence of C-H stretch for
this compound where the peak is at 2868.34 cm-1 and 2977.22 cm-1. Compound K also has the
presence of C-O-C stretch where the peak is ±1100.00 cm-1. As a result, by using the UV-Vis
spectrum graph, compound K is diethyl ether. The reaction information is used to strengthen this
claim where compound A which is ethanol reacts with compound J which is bromoethane to
undergo oxidation reaction with the presence of NaH and THF to synthesise an ester group which
is diethyl ether. Besides, by using an IR spectrum graph, there is a presence of alkyl C-H stretch
where the peaks fall on 2870.43 cm-1 and 2979.20 cm-1. There is also a presence of C-O-C stretch
in compound K by using IR spectrum graph since the peak is fall on ±1142.37 cm-1. Therefore, it is
confirmed that compound K is diethyl ether since both graphs show the same functional group.
 9.0 CONCLUSION

UV-Vis and IR spectroscopy were used to categorise organic compounds in this

experiment. As a result, several sorts of bonds may form with other carbon atoms as well as
with other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Two graphs are applied in these
experiments to determine the functional group of six unknown chemical compounds: A, C, D,
I, J, and K. As shown above, the greatest value of characteristic absorption (cm-1) from
UV-Vis spectrum graphs and IR spectrum graphs are compared to identify the functional
group for each compound. The peaks on the IR and UV-Vis spectra were applied to analyse
the data. The presence or absence of functional groups in all of the substances could be
determined using IR spectroscopy. The functional group may be identified by looking at the
spectra's peaks. The UV-Vis spectroscopy only examined compounds with at least one double
bond. The spectra produced in IR spectroscopy are the result of light absorption when the
radiant energy matches the energy of a given molecular vibration. While the UV-Vis spectra
represent the absorption that happens during an electron's transition from the ground state to
one of the various vibrational and rotational energy levels. Since each of the compounds had
already been identified, the experiment was a success.
 10.0 RECOMMENDATION

Several recommendations may be taken from this experiment to enhance the results.
We have six undiscovered chemical substances in this experiment. As all the compounds are
colourless, it is important to identify the sample bottles to avoid associating incorrect
chemical information with the acquired results.

The cuvettes should be handled with care when performing the UV-Vis analysis. The
cuvette should be held on the line sides to ensure that there are no fingerprints on the clear
and smooth sides, which would most likely impact the resultant peak. The outside of the
cuvettes must also be lightly wiped with a tissue to eliminate any remains of spillage and to
avoid dirt on the clear and smooth surface. Furthermore, the result must be recorded
immediately after the reaction has occurred since some chemical compounds might corrode
the surface of the cuvette and affect the results.

Furthermore, when working with volatile substances, it is advisable to dilute them

with a solvent in a sample bottle with a stoppered to prevent the sample from vaporizing.

It is important to wipe the sample plate with acetone before doing the IR analysis.
Since the plate is highly sensitive, it should be cleansed carefully with tissue to prevent
immediate damage. Dropping the samples onto the plate must be done quickly because if
done too slowly, the volatile sample would evaporate and the result will be inaccurate.
 11.0 REFERENCE / APPENDIX

Table 1: Infrared Correlations

Functional Group Characteristic Notes

Absorption(s)
−1
(𝑐𝑚 )

Alkyl C-H Stretch 2950 - 2850 (m or s) Alkane C-H bonds are fairly ubiquitous

1425 - 1475 (m) and therefore usually less useful in

determining structure.

Alkenyl C-H Stretch 3100 - 3010 (m)

Alkenyl C=C Stretch 1680 - 1620 (v) Absorption peaks above 3000 cm-1 are
Alkenyl C-H 995 - 985 (s) frequently diagnostic of unsaturation
Bend 940 - 900 (s)

Alkynyl C-H ~3300 (s)

Stretch

Alkynyl C=C
Stretch 2260 - 2100 (v)

Aromatic C-H Stretch ~3030 (v)

Aromatic C-H 860 - 680 (s)

Bending

Aromatic C=C 1700 - 1500 (m,m)

Bending

Alcohol/Phenol O-H 3550 - 3200 (broad, s)

Stretch

Carboxylic Acid O-H 3000 - 2500 (broad, v)

 Stretch

Amine N-H Stretch 3500 - 3300 (m) Primary amines produce two N-H stretch
absorptions, secondary amides only one,
and tertiary none.

Nitrile C=N Stretch 2260 - 2220 (m)

Aldehyde C=O Stretch 1740-1690(s)

The carbonyl stretching absorption is
Ketone C=O Stretch 1750-1680(s) one of the strongest IR absorptions, and
is very useful in structure determination
Ester C=O Stretch 1750-1735(s) as one can determine both the number of
carbonyl groups (assuming peaks do not
Carboxylic Acid
1780-1710(s) overlap) but also an estimation of which
C=O Stretch
types.
Amide C=O Stretch 1690-1630(s)

Amide N-H Stretch 3700 - 3500 (m)

C-O-CH3 Stretch 2850 - 2810 (m)

1050 - 1000 (s)

=C-O-CH3 650 - 600 (s)

C-Cl 850 - 550 (s)

APPENDIX 2

Table 2 : UV Absorption maxima

Name Chromophore Wavelength (nm) Molar Extinction,ε

Acetylide -C=C 175-180 6000

Aldehyde -CHO 210 1500

Alkynyl -C=C- 160-170 8000

Amine -NH2 195 2800

Amide -CONHR 201-207 8000

Aromatic Benzene 274 2000

Aromatic-Alcohol -OH 210 6200

Aromatic-Amine -NH 290 1100

Azo -N=N- 285-400 3-25

Bromide -Br 208 300

Carboxyl -COOH 200-210 50-70

Disulphide -S-S- 194 5500

Ester -COOR 205 50

Ether -O- 185 1000

Ketone >C=O 195 1000

Nitrate -ONO2 270 12

Nitrile -C=N 160 -

Nitrite -ONO 220-230 1000-2000

Nitro -NO2 210 Strong

Table 1: Infrared Correlations

Functional Group Characteristic Notes

Absorption(s)
 −1
(𝑐𝑚 )

Alkyl C-H Stretch 2950 - 2850 (m or s) Alkane C-H bonds are fairly ubiquitous

1425 - 1475 (m) and therefore usually less useful in

determining structure.

Alkenyl C-H Stretch 3100 - 3010 (m)

Alkenyl C=C Stretch 1680 - 1620 (v) Absorption peaks above 3000 cm-1 are
Alkenyl C-H 995 - 985 (s) frequently diagnostic of unsaturation
Bend 940 - 900 (s)

Alkynyl C-H ~3300 (s)

Stretch

Alkynyl C=C
Stretch 2260 - 2100 (v)

Aromatic C-H Stretch ~3030 (v)

Aromatic C-H 860 - 680 (s)

Bending

Aromatic C=C 1700 - 1500 (m,m)

Bending

Alcohol/Phenol O-H 3550 - 3200 (broad, s)

Stretch

Carboxylic Acid O-H 3000 - 2500 (broad, v)

Stretch

Amine N-H Stretch 3500 - 3300 (m) Primary amines produce two N-H stretch
absorptions, secondary amides only one,
and tertiary none.
 Nitrile C=N Stretch 2260 - 2220 (m)

Aldehyde C=O Stretch 1740-1690(s)

The carbonyl stretching absorption is
Ketone C=O Stretch 1750-1680(s) one of the strongest IR absorptions, and
is very useful in structure determination
Ester C=O Stretch 1750-1735(s) as one can determine both the number of
carbonyl groups (assuming peaks do not
Carboxylic Acid
1780-1710(s) overlap) but also an estimation of which
C=O Stretch
types.
Amide C=O Stretch 1690-1630(s)

Amide N-H Stretch 3700 - 3500 (m)

C-O-CH3 Stretch 2850 - 2810 (m)

1050 - 1000 (s)

=C-O-CH3 650 - 600 (s)

C-Cl 850 - 550 (s)

APPENDIX 2

Table 2 : UV Absorption maxima

Name Chromophore Wavelength (nm) Molar Extinction,ε

Acetylide -C=C 175-180 6000

Aldehyde -CHO 210 1500

Alkynyl -C=C- 160-170 8000

Amine -NH2 195 2800

Amide -CONHR 201-207 8000

Aromatic Benzene 274 2000

Aromatic-Alcohol -OH 210 6200

Aromatic-Amine -NH 290 1100

Azo -N=N- 285-400 3-25

Bromide -Br 208 300

Carboxyl -COOH 200-210 50-70

Disulphide -S-S- 194 5500

Ester -COOR 205 50

Ether -O- 185 1000

Ketone >C=O 195 1000

Nitrate -ONO2 270 12

Nitrile -C=N 160 -

Nitrite -ONO 220-230 1000-2000

Nitro -NO2 210 Strong

 Figure 11.1: samples of unknown solutions, A,C,D,I,J,K.

Figure 11.2: using dropper to have the solutions inserted into the top plate.
 Figure 11.3: handling the top plate.

Figure 11.4: analysing the UV-VIS data.

 Figure 11.5: samples of unknown solutions A,C,D,I,J,K.

Figure 11.6: inserting the unknown solution into the UV-VIS spectrophotometer.