Unit-V

Power transmission and distribution: Concept of power transmission and power distribution.
through block diagrams only.
Electricity bill: Calculation of electricity bill for domestic consumers.
Equipment Safety measures: Working principle of Fuse and Miniature circuit breaker (MCB),
merits and demerits.
Personal safety measures: Electric Shock, Earthing and its types, Safety Precautions to avoid
shock.
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Introduction

Electric power is the product of two quantities, current and voltage. These two quantities can vary
with respect to time (AC power) or be kept at constant levels (DC power). Most refrigerators, air
conditioners, pumps and industrial machinery use AC power, whereas most computers and digital
equipment use DC power. The digital devices you plug into the mains typically have an internal or
external power adapter to convert from AC to DC power). AC
power has the advantage of being easy to transform between voltages and can be generated and
utilized by brushless machinery. DC power remains the only practical choice in Digital
systems can be more economical to transmit over long distances at very high voltages.

The ability to quickly transform the voltage of AC power is essential for two reasons: Firstly,
power can be transmitted over long distances with less loss at higher voltages. So in power systems
where generation is distant from the load, it is desirable to step up (increase) the voltage of power at
the generation point and then step-down (decrease) the voltage near the load. Secondly, it is often
more economical to install turbines that produce higher voltages than would be used by most
appliances, so the ability to easily transform voltages means this mismatch between voltages can
be easily managed Solid state devices, which are products of the semiconductorrevolution, make it
possible to transform DC power to different voltages, build brushless DC machines
and convert between AC and DC power. Nevertheless, devices utilizing solid state technology are
often more expensive than their traditional counterparts, so AC power remains in widespread use.
Figure 5.1 (a) and (b) shows Power Generation and Transmission and Distribution System

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Figure 5.1(a): Generation, Transmission and Distribution System

Figure 5.1 (b): Generation, Transmission and Distribution System

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Figure 5.2 shows the single line diagram of an AC power Transmission System

Figure 5.2 Single Line Diagram of a AC Power Transmission System

Elements of Power systems

Power transformers: Power transformers are used generation and transmission network for
stepping-up the voltage at generating station and stepping-down the voltage for distribution.
Auxiliary transformers supply power to auxiliary equipments at the substations. Current
transformers (CT): The lines in substations carry currents in the order of thousands of amperes.
The measuring instruments are designed for low value of currents. Current transformers

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are connected in lines to supply measuring instruments and protective relays. Potential
transformers (PT): The lines in substations operate at high voltages. The measuring instruments are
designed for low value of voltages. Potential transformers are connected in lines to supply measuring
instruments and protective relays. These transformers make the low voltage instruments suitable for
measurement of high voltages. For example, a 11kV/110V PT is connectedto a power line and the
line voltage is 11kV then the secondary voltage will be 110V. Circuit breaker (CB): Circuit
breakers are used for opening or closing a circuit under normal as well as abnormal (faulty)
conditions. Different types of CBs which are generally used are oil circuit breaker, air-blast circuit
breaker, and vacuum circuit breaker and SF6 circuit breaker. Isolators or Isolating switches:
Isolators are employed in substations to isolate a part of the systemfor general maintenance. Isolator
switches are operated only under no-load conditions. They are provided on each side of every circuit
breaker Bus-bar: When the number of lines operating at the same voltage levels needs to be
connected electrically, bus bars are used. Bus bars are conductors made of copper or aluminum, with
very low impedance and high current carrying capacity.

Different types of bus-bar arrangements

 Single bus bar arrangements
 Single bus-bar with sectionalization
 Double bus-bar arrangements
 Double bus-bar with Sectionalization
 Double main and auxiliary bus-bar arrangement
 Breaker and a half scheme/1.5 Breaker scheme,
 Ring bus-bar scheme

Energy Estimation of Common Household Loads:

The Electrical energy consumed is metered by an energy meter connected to the premises of the
residence, residential complex or Industry. The energy is measured in terms of “Units”. One unit
of energy is the energy consumed when a load of one kilowatt runs for one hour i.e.,1 unit
=1kWh. The domestic consumer is billed for the energy consumed. An industrial consumer is
billed both for the load as well as for the energy consumed. Table 3.1 shows a few common
appliances and calculate the energy they consume.

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Sl. No. Name of The Range of No. of Total No. of Total

Appliance Power Appliances Power = Hour Energy=
(Watts) (W x No. s (Total Power
of X No. of
Appliance Hours) in Wh
) in W
1 Incandescent 15 - 100
Lamp

2 Tube Light 30 - 50

3 CFL 3 30

4 Ceiling Fan 30 - 70

5 AC(Room) 1000 -
1500

6 AC(Central) 2000 -
5000

7 CD Player 15 - 20

8 TV 60 - 300

9 Laptop 50 -75

10 Desktop 80 - 250

11 Washing 500 -1000

Machine

12 Refrigerator 50 - 300

13 Geyser 1000-3000

14 Iron Box 270-350

Table 3.1 Common Household Appliances & their ratings

Example 1: Estimate Total Daily Energy Requirement for the following loads.

Name of the Power Rating Avg. Daily No. of

Appliance Usage Hrs. Appliances
(W)
CFL 12 6 3

Fan 50 8 2

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150 2 1
TV(21”)
Computer 250 3 1

Take electricity cost to be Rs.6 per unit.

Solution:

Name of the Power Rating Avg. Daily No. of Daily Energy

Appliance Usage Hrs. Appliances Required (Wh)
(W)
CFL 12 6 3 216

Fan 50 8 2 800

150 2 1 300
TV (21”)
Computer 250 3 1 750

Total Energy 2066 Wh

Hence Monthly Energy Requirement = Daily Energy Required X Days per Month

= 2066 X 30
= 61980 Wh
= 61.98 kWh or 61.98 Units

Therefore, the monthly electricity bill is, Monthly Bill = 61.98 units X Rs.6/- per unit
= Rs.371.88 /-
Exercise 1: Repeat example 1 if the billing tariff is

Rs.6/- per unit for the first 20 units, Rs.4/- per unit for the next 30 units and Rs.2/- per unit for
the next 50 units.

Example 2: A geyser is rated at 3kW, 230V, 50Hz. If it is switched ON for one hour daily, what
would be the energy cost saving, at the rate of Rs. 2.50 per unit if it is replaced by a solar water
heater?

Solution:
Solar water heaters use energy from the Sun. Though their initial investment is high, the running
cost is very low and are environmentally friendly. A 3kW geyser running for 1 hour daily would
consume 3 units daily. The energy consumed per month is 3 units X 30 days = 90 units per month.
The cost of energy per month is 90 units per month X Rs. 2.50 per unit = Rs. 225.This would be
the saving in electricity bill if solar water heater replaces the electric geyser.

Exercise 2: Find out the wattage of the appliances in your house, their average use per month
and estimate the electricity bill of your house based on the BESCOM tariff.

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Elementary Ideas of Fuses

Fuse
The electrical equipment is designed to carry a particular rated value of current under normal
circumstances. Under abnormal conditions such as short circuit, overload or any fault the
current raises above this value, damaging the equipment and sometimes resulting in fire hazard.
Fuses are pressed into operation under such situations.

Fuse is a safety device used in any electrical installation, which forms the weakest link between
the supply and the load. It is a short length of wire made of lead / tin /alloy of lead and tin/ zinc
having a low melting point and low ohmic losses. Under normal operating conditions it is
designed to carry the full load current. If the current increases beyond this designed value due
any of the reasons mentioned above, the fuse melts (said to be blown) isolating the power supply
from the load as shown in the following figures 5.3 and 5.4.

Figure 5.3: Under Normal Conditions

Figure 5.4: Under Abnormal Conditions

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Terms Related with Fuses

Rated current: It is the maximum current, which a fuse can carry without undue heating or
melting. It depends on the following factors:
 Permissible temperature rise of the contacts of the fuse holder
 Fuse material
 Degree of deterioration due to oxidation

Fusing current: The minimum current at which the fuse melts is known as the fusing current. It
depends on the material characteristics, length, diameter, cross- sectional area of the fuse element
and the type of enclosure used.

Fusing Factor: It is the ratio of the minimum fusing current to the rated current. It is always
greater than unity.

Characteristics of Fuse Material

The material used for fuse wires must have the following characteristics:
 Low melting point
 Low ohmic losses
 High conductivity
 Lower rate of deterioration

Fuse Characteristics

Figure 5.5: Time-Current Characteristics of a Fuse

This time-current characteristic chart (figure 5.5) shows how fast the fuse responds to different

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levels of overcurrent condition. The fuse does not open if the current is within the limits (i.e.
less than the fuse rating). The current at which the fuse starts melting is called the fusing current.
All fuses have an inverse time/current characteristic. As overcurrent increases, time-to-open the
fuse decreases. Put more simply, the fuse will open faster when the overcurrent problem is
severe.

Advantages of Fuses
 Fast acting
 Highly reliable
 Relatively cheaper in comparison to other high current interrupting device

Disadvantages of Fuses:
 Requires replacement
 The associated high temperature rise will affect the performance of other devices.

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

Nowadays we use more commonly miniature circuit breaker or MCB in low voltage electrical
network instead of fuse.

Working Principle Miniature Circuit Breaker

There are two arrangements of operation of miniature circuit breaker. One due to thermal effect
of over current and other due to electromagnetic effect of over current. The thermal operation
of miniature circuit breaker is achieved with a bimetallic strip.Whenever continuous over
current flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by bending. This
deflection of bimetallic strip releases mechanical latch. As this mechanical latch is attached with
operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit breaker contacts. But during short
circuit condition, sudden rising of current, causes electromechanical displacement of plunger
associated with tripping coil or solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes the trip lever causing
immediate release of latch mechanism consequently open the circuit breaker contacts. A simple
explanation of miniature circuit breaker working principle is shown in figure 5.6 and figure 5.7.

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Figure 5.6: MCB Operation

Figure 5.7: Cross-sectional view of an MCB

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The MCB has some advantages compared to fuse.

 It automatically switches off the electrical circuit during abnormal condition of the
network means in over load condition as well as faulty condition. The fuse does not
sense but miniature circuit breaker does it in more reliable way. MCB is much more
sensitive to over current than fuse.
 Another advantage is, as the switch operating knob comes at its off position during
tripping, the faulty zone of the electrical circuit can easily be identified. But in case of
fuse, fuse wire should be checked by opening fuse grip or cutout from fuse base, for
confirming the blow of fuse wire.
 Quick restoration of supply cannot be possible in case of fuse as because fuses have
to be rewirable or replaced for restoring the supply. But in the case of MCB, quick
restoration is possible by just switching on operation.
 Handling MCB is more electrically safe than fuse.

Because of the many advantages of MCB over fuse units, in modern low voltage electrical
network, miniature circuit breaker is mostly used instead of backdated fuse unit. Only one
disadvantage of MCB over fuse is that this system is more costlier than fuse unit system.

Electric Shock and Precautions:

Electrical Shock & Its Effects

Electric shock occurs when the body becomes part of an electrical circuit. Shocks can happen
in three ways.
A person may come in contact with both conductors in a circuit.
A person may provide a path between an ungrounded conductor and the ground.
A person may provide a path between the ground and a conducting material that is in
contact with an ungrounded conductor.

The severity of the shock received when a person becomes a part of an electric circuit is affected
by three primary factors:
The amount of current flowing through the body
The path of the current through the body
The length of time the body is in the circuit.

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Table 3.5 shows the effect of electrical current on human body

Table 3.5 shows the effect of electrical current on human body

Precautions against Electric Shock

 Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any
electrical equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electric
current.
 Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken plugs.
 If you are working on any receptacle at your home then always turn off the mains. It is also
a good idea to put up a sign on the service panel so that nobody turns the main switchON
by accident.
 Always use insulated tools while working.
 Electrical hazards include exposed energized parts and unguarded electrical equipment,
which may become energized unexpectedly. Such equipment always carries warning signs
like “Shock Risks”. Always be observant of such signs and follow the safety rules
established by the electrical code followed by the country you are in.
 Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while working on any branch
circuit or any other electrical circuit.
 Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-energized first by
using a tester. When an electric tester touches a live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester
lights up showing that an electrical current is flowing through the respective wire. Check
all the wires, the outer metallic covering of the service panel and any other hanging wires
with an electrical tester before proceeding with your work.
 Never use an aluminum or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in

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your home. An electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric current will pass
through your body. Use a bamboo, wooden or a fiberglass ladder instead.
 Know the wire code of your country.
 Always check all your GFCIs once a month. A GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) is
an RCD (Residual Current Device). They have become very common in modern homes,
especially damp areas like the bathroom and kitchen, as they help avoid electrical shock
hazards. It is designed to disconnect quickly enough to avoid any injury caused by over
current or short circuit faults.
 Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the appropriate current rating. Circuit breakers
and fuses are protection devices that automatically disconnect the live wire when a
condition of short circuit or over current occurs. The selection of the appropriate fuse or
circuit breaker is essential. Normally for protection against short circuits, a fuse rated of
150% of the normal circuit current is selected. In the case of a circuit with 10 amperes of
current, a 15A fuse will protect against direct short circuits whereas a 9.5A fuse will blow
out.
 Working outside with underground cabling can be dangerous. The damp soil around the
cable is a good conductor of electricity and ground faults are quite common in the case of
underground cabling. Using a spade to dig at the cable can damage the wiring easily so it
is better to dig at the cable by hand while wearing insulated gloves.
 Always put a cap on the hot/live wire while working on an electric board or service panel
as you could end up short-circuiting the bare ends of the live wire with the neutral. The cap
insulates the copper ends of the cable thus preventing any kind of shock even if touched
mistakenly.
 Take care while removing a capacitor from a circuit. A capacitor stores energy and if it is
not properly discharged when removed, it can easily cause an electric shock. An easy way
to discharge low voltage capacitor is that after removal from the circuit is to put the tip of
two insulated screwdrivers on the capacitor terminals. This will discharge it. For high
voltage ones a 12 Volts light bulb can be used. Connecting the bulb with the capacitor will
light up the bulb using up the last of the stored energy.
 Always take care while soldering your circuit boards. Wear goggles and keep yourself
away from the fumes. Keep the solder iron in its stand when not in use; it can get extremely
hot and can easily cause burns.

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Necessity and Types of Earthing

Introduction to Earthing:
Earthing is to connect any electrical equipment to earth with a very low resistance wire,

to the earth by means of a wire of negligible resistance to safely discharge electric energy, which
may be due to failure of the insulation, line coming in contact with the casing etc. Earthing
brings the potential of the body of the equipment to ZERO i.e. to

The body of the electrical equipment is not connected to the supply neutral because due to long
transmission lines and intermediate substations, the same neutral wire of the generator will not
be available at the load end. Even if the same neutral wire is running it will have a self-resistance,
which is higher than the human body resistance. Hence, the body of the electrical equipment is
connected to earth only.

Necessity of Earthing:
To protect the operating personnel from danger of shock in case they come in contact with
the charged frame due to defective insulation.
To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load condition.
Protection of the equipments Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from
overhead lines against lightning.

Methods of Earthing:
The earth resistance for copper wire is 1 ohm and that of Galvanized Iron (G I) wire less than
3 ohms. The earth resistance should be kept as low as possible so that the neutral of any
electrical system, which is earthed, is maintained almost at the earth potential. The typical value
of the earth resistance at powerhouse is 0. 5 ohm and that at substation is 1 ohm.

 Plate earthing
 Pipe earthing

Plate Earthing
In this method, a copper plate of 60cm x 60cm x 0.32cm or a GI plate of the size 60cm x 60cmx
6.35cm is used for earthing. The plate is placed vertically down inside the ground at a depth of
3m and is embedded in alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15 cm. In addition,
water is poured for keeping the earth electrode resistance value well below a maximum of 5
ohms. The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate. A cement masonry chamber is built
with a cast iron cover for easy regular maintenance. Figure 5.8 shows the detailed diagram.

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Figure 5.8: Plate Earthing

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Pipe Earthing

Figure 5.9: Pipe Earthing

Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized) iron pipe of 38mm in diameter and length of 2m
(depending on the current) with 12mm holes on the surface is placed upright at a depth of 4.75m
in a permanently wet ground. To keep the value of the earth resistance at the desired level, the
area (15cm) surrounding the GI pipe is filled with a mixture of salt and coal.. The efficiency of
the earthing system is improved by pouring water through the funnel periodically. The GI earth
wires of sufficient cross- sectional area are run through a 12.7mm diameter pipe (at 60cms
below) from the 19mm diameter pipe and secured tightly at the top as shown in the figure 5.9

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Note: When compared to the plate earth system the pipe earth system can carry larger leakage
currents as a much larger surface area is in contact with the soil for a given electrode size. The
system also enables easy maintenance as the earth wire connection is housed at the ground
level.

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