University of Hawaii

ICS141:
Discrete Mathematics for
Computer Science I
Dept. Information & Computer Sci., University of Hawaii

Jan Stelovsky
based on slides by Dr. Baek and Dr. Still
Originals by Dr. M. P. Frank and Dr. J.L. Gross
Provided by McGraw-Hill

ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-1

 University of Hawaii

Lecture 20
Chapter 4. Induction and Recursion
4.1 Mathematical Induction
4.2 Strong Induction

ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-2

 Mathematical Induction
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n A powerful, rigorous technique for proving

that a statement P(n) is true for every positive
integers n, no matter how large.
n Essentially a “domino effect” principle.
n Based on a predicate-logic inference rule:

P(1)
“The First Principle
∀k≥1 [P(k)→P(k+1)] of Mathematical
Induction”
∴∀n≥1 P(n)

ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-3

 The “Domino Effect”
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n Premise #1: Domino #1 falls.

n Premise #2: For every k∈Z+, if domino #k falls, then
so does domino #k+1.
n Conclusion: All of the dominoes fall down!

1 k k+1

1 2 3 4 5
Note: this works even if there are infinitely many dominoes!
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-4
 Mathematical Induction Recap.
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n PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION:

To prove that a statement P(n) is true for all
positive integers n, we complete two steps:

n BASIS STEP: Verify that P(1) is true

n INDUCTIVE STEP: Show that the conditional

statement P(k) → P(k+1) is true for all positive
integers k
Inductive Hypothesis

ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-5

 Validity of Induction
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Proof: that ∀n≥1 P(n) is a valid consequent:

Given any k≥1, the 2nd premise
∀k≥1 (P(k) → P(k+1)) trivially implies that
(P(1)→P(2)) ∧ (P(2)→P(3)) ∧ … ∧ (P(n-1)→P(n)).
Repeatedly applying the hypothetical syllogism rule
to adjacent implications in this list n − 1 times then
gives us P(1) → P(n); which together with P(1)
(premise #1) and modus ponens gives us P(n).
Thus ∀n≥1 P(n). ■
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-6
 Outline of an Inductive Proof
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n Let us say we want to prove ∀n∈Z+ P(n).

n Do the base case (or basis step):

Prove P(1).
n Do the inductive step:

Prove ∀k∈Z+ P(k)→P(k+1).

n E.g. you could use a direct proof, as follows:

n Let k∈Z , assume P(k). (inductive hypothesis)

+

n Now, under this assumption, prove P(k+1).

n The inductive inference rule then gives us

∀n∈Z+ P(n).
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-7
 Induction Example
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n Show that, for n ≥ 1

n(n + 1)
1+ 2 ++ n =
2
n Proof by induction
n P(n): the sum of the first n positive integers is

n(n+1)/2, i.e. P(n) is

n Basis step: Let n = 1. The sum of the first

positive integer is 1, i.e. P(1) is true.

1(1 + 1)
1=
2
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-8
 Example (cont.)
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n Inductive step: Prove ∀k≥1: P(k)→P(k+1).

n Inductive Hypothesis, P(k):

k (k + 1)
1+ 2 ++ k =
2
n Let k≥1, assume P(k), and prove P(k+1), i.e.
(k + 1)[(k + 1) + 1]
1 + 2 +  + k + (k + 1) =
This is what 2
you have to
(k + 1)(k + 2)
prove =
2
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011
P(k+1) 13-9
 Example (cont.)
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By inductive
n Inductive step continues… hypothesis P(k)

k (k + 1)
1 + 2 +  + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1)
2
k (k + 1) 2(k + 1)
= +
2 2
k 2 + 3k + 2
=
P(k+1) 2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
2
n Therefore, by the principle of mathematical
induction P(n) is true for all integers n with n≥1
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-10
 Induction Example 2
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n Example 2: Conjecture a formula for the sum of

the first n positive odd integers. Then prove your
conjecture using mathematical induction.

n Practical Method for General Problem Solving.

Special Case: Deriving a Formula

Step 1. Calculate the result for some small cases

Step 2. Guess a formula to match all those cases
Step 3. Verify your guess in the general case

ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-11

 Example 2 (cont.)
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n Step 1: Examine small cases

1 = 1 = 12
1 + 3 = 4 = 22
1 + 3 + 5 = 9 = 32
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16 = 42
n Step 2: It sure looks like 1 + 3 + ··· + (2n–1) = n2
n Step 3: Try to prove this assertion by induction
n
2
∀n ≥ 1, ∑ (2i − 1) = n
i =1
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-12
 Example Continues…
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n Prove that the sum of the first n odd positive

integers is n2. That is, prove:
n
2
∀n ≥ 1, ∑ (2i − 1) = n
i =1

P(n)
n Proof by induction.
n Basis step: Let n = 1. The sum of the first

1 odd positive integer is 1 which equals 12.

i.e. P(1) is true.

ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-13

 Example Continues…
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n Inductive step: Prove ∀k≥1: P(k)→P(k+1).

⎡ k 2 ⎤
n Inductive Hypothesis, P(k): ⎢∑ (2i − 1) = k ⎥
⎣ i =1 ⎦
n Let k≥1, assume P(k), and prove P(k+1).

k +1
⎛ k ⎞
∑ (2i − 1) = ⎜ ∑ (2i − 1) ⎟ + (2(k + 1) − 1)
i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠
2 By inductive
= k + (2k + 1) hypothesis P(k)
2
= (k + 1)
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-14
 Induction Example 3
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n Prove that ∀n ≥ 1, n < 2n. Let P(n) = (n < 2n)

n Basis step: P(1): (1 < 2 ) ≡ (1 < 2): True.
1

n Inductive step: For k ≥1, prove P(k)→P(k+1).

n Assuming k < 2 , prove k + 1 < 2

k k+1.

n Note k + 1 < 2 + 1 (by inductive hypothesis)

k

< 2k + 2k (because 1 < 2k for k ≥1)

= 2⋅2k = 2k+1
n So k + 1 < 2
k+1, i.e. P(k+1) is true

n Therefore, by the principle of mathematical

induction P(n) is true for all integers n with n ≥ 1.
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-15
 Generalizing Induction
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n Rule can also be used to prove ∀n≥c P(n)

for a given constant c∈Z, where maybe c ≠ 1.

n In this circumstance,
the basis step is to prove P(c) rather than P(1),
and the inductive step is to prove
∀k≥c (P(k)→P(k+1)).

ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-16

 Induction Example 4
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n Example 6: Prove that 2n < n! for n ≥ 4 using

mathematical induction.
n P(n): 2n < n!
n Basis step: Show that P(4) is true
n Since 24 = 16 < 4! = 24, P(4) is true
n Inductive step: Show that P(k)→P(k+1) for k ≥ 4
n 2k+1 = 2·2k (by definition of exponent)
P(k+1) < 2·k! (by the inductive hypothesis P(k))
is true < (k + 1)·k! (because 2 < k+1 for k ≥ 4 )
= (k + 1)! (by definition of factorial function)
n Therefore, by the principle of mathematical
induction P(n) is true for all integers n with n ≥ 4.
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-17
 Second Principle of Induction
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a.k.a. “Strong Induction”

n Characterized by another inference rule:
P is true in all previous cases
P(1)
∀k≥1: (P(1) ∧ P(2) ∧ ··· ∧ P(k)) → P(k+1)
∴∀n≥1: P(n)
n The only difference between this and the 1st
principle is that:
n the inductive step here makes use of the

stronger hypothesis that all of P(1), P(2),…,

P(k) are true, not just P(k).
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-18
 Example of Second Principle
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n Show that every integer n >1 can be written as a

product n = p1p2…ps = ∏ pi of some series of s
prime numbers.
n Let P(n) = “n has that property ”
n Basis step: n = 2, let s = 1, p1 = 2. Then n = p1
n Inductive step: Let k≥2. Assume ∀2 ≤ i ≤ k: P(i).
n Consider k + 1. If it’s prime, let s = 1, p1 = k + 1.
n Else k + 1 = ab, where 1 < a ≤ k and 1 < b ≤ k.
Then a = p1p2…pt and b = q1q2…qu.
(by Inductive Hypothesis)
Then we have that k + 1 = p1p2…pt q1q2…qu,
a product of s = t + u primes.
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-19
 Generalizing Strong Induction
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n Handle cases where the inductive step is valid

only for integers greater than a particular integer
n P(n) is true for ∀n ≥ b (b: fixed integer)

n BASIS STEP: Verify that P(b), P(b+1),…, P(b+j)

are true (j: a fixed positive integer)

n INDUCTIVE STEP: Show that the conditional

statement [P(b) ∧ P(b+1 ) ∧ ··· ∧ P(k)] → P(k+1)
is true for all positive integers k ≥ b + j

ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-20

 Another 2nd Principle Example
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n Prove that every amount of postage of 12 cents or

more can be formed using just 4-cent and 5-cent
stamps.
n P(n) = “postage of n cents can be formed using

4-cent and 5-cent stamps” for n ≥ 12.

n Basis step:

n 12 = 3⋅4

n 13 = 2⋅4 + 1⋅5

n 14 = 1⋅4 + 2⋅5

n 15 = 3⋅5

n So ∀12 ≤ i ≤ 15, P(i).

ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-21

 Example (cont.)
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n Inductive step:
n Let k ≥15, assume ∀12 ≤ i ≤ k, P(i).

n Note 12 ≤ k - 3 ≤ k, so P(k - 3).

(by inductive hypothesis)

This means we can form postage of k – 3 cents
using just 4-cent and 5-cent stamps.
n Add a 4-cent stamp to get postage for k + 1,

i.e. P(k + 1) is true (postage of k + 1 cents

can be formed using 4-cent and 5-cent stamps).
n Therefore, by the 2nd principle of mathematical
induction P(n) is true for all integers n with n ≥ 12.
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-22
 Another 2nd Principle Example
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n Prove by the 1st Principle.

n P(n) = “postage of n cents can be formed using
4-cent and 5-cent stamps”, n ≥ 12.
n Basis step: P(12): 12 = 3⋅4.
n Inductive step: P(k) → P(k+1)
n Case 1: At least one 4-cent stamp was used

for P(k)
n k + 1 = k – 4 + 5 (i.e. replace the 4-cent

stamp with a 5-cent stamp to form a

postage of k + 1 cents)

ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-23

 Example Continues…
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n Inductive step: P(k) → P(k+1)

n Case 2: No 4-cent stamps were used for P(k)

n Since k ≥12, at least three 5-cent stamps are

needed to form postage of k cents

n k + 1 = k – 3⋅5 + 4⋅4 (i.e. replace three 5-cent

stamps with four 4-cent stamps to form a

postage of k + 1 cents)

n Therefore, by the principle of mathematical

induction P(n) is true for all integers n with n ≥ 12.

ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-24

 The Well-Ordering Property
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n Another way to prove the validity of the

inductive inference rule is by using the well-
ordering property, which says that:
n Every non-empty set of non-negative
integers has a minimum (smallest) element.
n ∀∅⊂S⊆N: ∃m∈S such that ∀n∈S, m ≤ n
n This implies that {n|¬P(n)} (if non-empty) has a
minimum element m, but then the assumption
that P(m−1)→P((m−1)+1) would be
contradicted.
ICS 141: Discrete Mathematics I – Fall 2011 13-25