COMPUTER NETWORKS

Evolution of Networking: ARPANET, Internet, Interspace Different ways of sending data across
the network with reference to switching techniques (Circuit and Packet switching).
ARPANET: Advanced Research Projects Agency Network,

Internet: A Network comprises of many networks, is called INTERNET

Interspace: It is a client/server software program, allows multiple users to communicate online

with real-time audio, video or text chat.

Circuit Switching: In circuit switching network bandwidth is divided into pieces. The dedicated
path/circuit established between sender and receiver provides a guaranteed data rate. Data can
be transmitted without any delays once the circuit is established. Telephone system network is the
one of example of Circuit switching.

Advantages of Circuit Switching:

The main advantage of circuit switching is that a committed transmission channel is established
between the computers which gives a guaranteed data rate.
In circuit switching there is no delay in data flow because of the dedicated transmission path.

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching:

It takes long time to establish connection.
More bandwidth is required in setting up of dedicated channels.

Packet Switching: Packet switching is a connectionless network switching technique. Here, the
message is divided and grouped into a number of units called packets that are individually routed
from the source to the destination. There is no need to establish a dedicated circuit for
communication.
Advantages of Packet Switching:
Delay in delivery of packets is less, since packets are sent as soon as they are available.
Switching devices don’t require massive storage, since they don’t have to store the entire
messages before forwarding them to the next node.
Data delivery can continue even if some parts of the network faces link failure. Packets can be
routed via other paths.
It allows simultaneous usage of the same channel by multiple users.

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Disdvantages of Packet Switching:
They are unsuitable for applications that cannot afford delays in communication like high quality
voice calls.
Packet switching high installation costs.
They require complex protocols for delivery.
A brief History of INTERNET

 1958: The United States government creates the Advanced Research Projects Agency,
which is later responsible for ARPANet and the Internet.
 1969: ARPANet is formed out of the need for redundancy in communications to defend
against nuclear attack. It provides a means to connect different networks to each other,
primarily those owned by military and educational institutions.
 1971: The first network computer virus, Creeper, infects ARPANet. Written by a BBN
programmer named Robert Thomas, it was intended as an experiment in self-replicating
software.
 1974. The word “Internet” first appeared in print—in a DARPA-published Request for
Comments document on TCP/IP, a new set of communications and networking protocols
for managing data transmissions on the new system. TCP/IP is still integral to the present-
day Internet. In the meantime, Arpanet was growing fast as more universities, science
centers, and army installations got connected.
 1976. Queen Elizabeth of England became the first head of state to send an email. Jimmy
Carter followed suit and used email several times while campaigning.
 1981: The Computer Science Network, or CSNET, is created by University of Wisconsin-
Madison computer science professor Lawrence Landweber. CSNET succeeds in
connecting many universities as well as international computer science networks to each
other as well as bringing nationwide attention to the benefits of networking. It also makes
the TCP/IP protocol mainstream within the networking community.
 1983. The Domain Name System (DNS) was invented. Whereas site’s names had been
obtuse sequences of letters and numbers, they would now be easy-to-remember names
with endings such as .gov, .edu, or .mil.
 1985. The National Science Foundation (NSF) funded construction of Arpanet’s biggest
upgrade yet: the NSFNET, a command hub of five supercomputers to serve as highways
for all data traffic. NSFNET could transmit data at 56 kilobits per second—slower than some
present-day modems.
 1986: The National Science Foundation Network, or NSFNET, goes online. This enabled
multiple university supercomputer centers to connect, and it later evolved into a major route
for data moving through the Internet, an Internet backbone.
 1989: Tim Berners-Lee invents the World Wide Web using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) and the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). It becomes the primary medium of
global Internet-based communications years later.

o 1990. Tim Berners-Lee invented HTML and a text browser, as well as a hypertext graphical
user interface (GUI) browser. Then he established the first successful communication
between a Hypertext Transfer Protocol client and a server via the Internet. These inventions,
put together, were the makings of Web pages as we know them today. Lee also made up
the term “World Wide Web.” The synonym Information Superhighway would follow in a few
more years.

 1991. The NSF allowed commercial enterprises to use the Internet for the first time.

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(Data Communication terminologies: Concept of Channel, Bandwidth (Hz, KHz, MHz) and Data
transfer rate (bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps, Tbps). )

Channel:
A channel is a communication medium, the path that data takes from source to destination. A channel
can be comprised of so many different things: wires, free space, and entire networks. Signals can be
routed from one type of network to another network with completely different characteristics. In the
Internet, a packet may be sent over a wireless WiFi network to an ethernet lan, to a DSL modem, to
a fiber-optic backbone etc.

Bandwidth:
Bandwidth is measured as the amount of data that can be transferred from one point to another within
a network in a specific amount of time. Typically, bandwidth is expressed as a bitrate and measured
in bits per second (bps).

Bandwidth is also a key concept in several other technological fields. In signal processing, for
example, it is used to describe the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a
transmission such as a radio signal and is typically measured in hertz (Hz).

Data Transfer Rate:

Time taken by the data to move from source to destination is called DTR. Its measured in bps, Kbps,
Mbps, Gbps, Tbps.
MBps MegaByte_Per_Second and
Mbps MegaBits_Per_Second
B -> Byte
b -> bits (megaByte 8 times the size of a megabit)

( Transmission media: Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, optical fiber, infrared, radio link,
microwave link and satellite link.)
Transmission media: Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information
from the sender to the receiver. Transmission channel can be wired (Guided ) or non-wired
(Unguided).
Guided Transmission media: There are following types of wired media. Twisted pair cable, coaxial
cable, optical fiber.
i. Twisted Pair: It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound
about each other. Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a
protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media.

ii. Coaxial Cable: It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel

conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. Coaxial cable
transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate
ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial
cables.
iii. Optical Fibre Cable– It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core
made up of glass or plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or
plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for transmission of large
volumes of data.

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Unguided Transmission media: There are following unguided or wave based communication
media infrared, radio link, microwave link and satellite link.

i. Radiowaves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The
sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency
Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use
Radiowaves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

ii. Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need
to be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.

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 iii. Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems.
Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless
mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

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